Artificial Intelligence BDA402

Intelli
gent Systems:
In order to design intelligent systems, it is important to categorize them
into four categories (Luger and Stubberfield 1993), (Russell and
Norvig, 2003)
1. Systems that think like humans
2. Systems that think rationally
3. Systems that behave like humans
4. Systems that behave rationally
Human- Rationall y
Like

Cognitive Science Approach Laws of thought Approach

Think:
“Machines that think like humans” “ Machines that think Rationally”

Turing Test Approach Rational Agent Approach

Act:
“Machines that behave like humans” “Machines that behave Rationally”
1. Cognitive Science: Think Human-Like

a. Requires a model for human cognition. Precise

enough models allow simulation by computers.

b. Focus is not just on behavior and I/O, but looks like reasoning process.

c. Goal is not just to produce human-like behavior but to produce a sequence of

steps of the reasoning process, similar to the steps followed by a human in

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solving the same task.

2. Laws of thought: Think Rationally

a. The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models;

that it is, the study of computations that make it possible to perceive reason
and act.

b. Focus is on inference mechanisms that are probably correct and guarantee an optimal
solution.
c. Goal is to formalize the reasoning process as a system of logical rules and
procedures of inference.

d. Develop systems of representation to allow inferences to be like

“Socrates is a man. All men are mortal. Therefore Socrates is mortal”

3. Turing Test: Act Human-Like
a. The art of creating machines that perform functions requiring intelligence when
performed by people; that it is the study of, how to make computers do things
which, at the moment, people do better.

b. Focus is on action, and not intelligent behavior centered around the representation of the
world

c. Example: Turing Test

o 3 rooms contain: a person, a computer and an interrogator.

o The interrogator can communicate with the other 2 by

teletype (to avoid the machine imitate the appearance of
voice of the person)

o The interrogator tries to determine which the person is

and which the machine is.
o The machine tries to fool the interrogator to believe that it is
the human, and the person also tries to convince the
interrogator that it is the human.

o If the machine succeeds in fooling the interrogator, then

conclude that the machine is intelligent.

4. Rational agent: Act Rationally

a. Tries to explain and emulate intelligent behavior in terms of computational

process; that it is concerned with the automation of the intelligence.

b. Focus is on systems that act sufficiently if not optimally in all situations.

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c. Goal is to develop systems that are rational and sufficient

The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

1. Philosophy
• Can formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions?
• How does the mind arise from a physical brain?
• Where does knowledge come from? • How does knowledge lead to action?
i) Dualism
ii) Rationalism
iii) Materialism
iv) Emperism
v) Induction
2 Mathematics
• What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?
• What can be computed?
• How do we reason with uncertain information?
I) Algorithm
ii) Incompleteness
iii) Traceability
3 Economics
• How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff?
• How should we do this when others may not go along?
• How should we do this when the payoff may be far in the future?
1.2.4 Neuroscience
• How do brains process information?
NEUROSCIENCE
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain. Although the exact way in which
brain enables thought is one of the great mysteries of science, the fact that it does enable thought has been
Appreciated for thousands of years because of the evidence that strong blows to the head can lead

4 Psychology
• How do humans and animals think and act?
Cognitive psychology, which views the brain as an information-processing device, COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY an be traced back at least to the works of William James (1842–1910). Helmholtz also
insisted that perception involved a form of unconscious logical inference.

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Artificial Intelligence BDA402

5 Computer engineering
• How can we build an efficient computer?
For artificial intelligence to succeed, we need two things: intelligence and an artefact. The computer has
been The artifact of choice. The modern digital electronic computer was invented independently and almost
simultaneously
By scientists in three countries embattled in world war II.
1.2.7 Control theory and cybernetics
• How can artifacts operate under their own control?
Modern control theory, especially the branch known as stochastic optimal control, has as its goal the
design of
systemsthat maximize an objective function over time.
1.2.8 Linguistics
• How does language relate to thought? In 1957, B. F. Skinner published Verbal Behaviour. This was a
Comprehensive,
Detailed account of the behaviourist approach to language learning, written by the foremost expert in
The field.
Modern linguistics and AI, then, were “born” at about the same time, and grew up together, intersecting
in a
Hybrid field called computational linguistics or natural language COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
process.
The problem of understanding language soon turned out to be considerably more complex than it seemed
in 1957.
1.3 The History of Artificial Intelligence
1.3.1 The gestation of artificial intelligence (1943–1955)
The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts
(1943).
They drew on three sources: knowledge of the basic physiology and function of neurons in the brain; a
formal
Analysis of propositional logic due to Russell and Whitehead; and Turing’s theory of computation. They
Proposed a model of artificial neurons in which each neuron is characterized as being “on” or “off,” with
a
Switch to “on” occurring in response to stimulation by a sufficient number of neighbouring neurons.
1.3.2 The birth of artificial intelligence (1956)
Princeton was home to another influential figure in AI, John McCarthy. After receiving his PhD there in
1951 and
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Working for two years as an instructor, McCarthy moved to Stanford and then to Dartmouth College,
which
Was to become the official birthplace of the field.
1.3.3 Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952–1969)
GPS was probably the first program to embody the “thinking humanly” approach. The success of GPS and
Subsequent programs as models of cognition led Newell and Simon (1976) to formulate the famous
physical
Symbol system hypothesis, which states that “a physical symbol system has the necessary and PHYSICAL
SYMBOL SYSTEM sufficient means for general intelligent action.”

1.3.4 A dose of reality (1966–1973)

From the beginning, AI researchers were not shy about making predictions of their coming successes.
The
Following statement by Herbert Simon in 1957 is often quoted: Terms such as “visible future” can be
interpreted
In various ways, but Simon also made more concrete predictions: that within 10 years a computer would
be
Chess champion, and a significant mathematical theorem would be proved by machine
1.3.5 Knowledge-based systems: The key to power? (1969–1979)
The picture of problem solving that had arisen during the first decade of AI research was of a general-
purpose
Search mechanism trying to string together elementary reasoning steps to WEAK METHOD find
complete
Solutions. Such approaches have been called weak methods because, although general, they do not scale
up to
Large or difficult problem instances. The alternative to weak methods is to use more powerful, domain-
specific
Knowledge that allows larger reasoning steps and can more easily handle typically occurring cases in
narrow
Areas of expertise.
1.3.6 AI becomes an industry (1980–present)
The first successful commercial expert system, R1, began operation at the Digital Equipment Corporation
(McDermott, 1982). The program helped configure orders for new computer systems; by 1986, it was
saving the
Company an estimated $40 million a year.

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1.3.7 The return of neural networks (1986–present)

BACK-PROPAGATION In the mid-1980s at least four different groups reinvented the back-propagation
Learning algorithm first found in 1969 by Bryson and Ho. The algorithm was applied to many learning
problems
In computer science and psychology, and the widespread dissemination of the results in the collection
Parallel
Distributed Processing (Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986) caused great excitement. CONNECTIONIST
These
So-called connectionist models of intelligent systems were seen by some as direct competitors both to the
Symbolic models promoted by Newell and Simon and to the logicist approach of McCarthy and others.
1.3.8 AI adopts the scientific method (1987–present)
In recent years, approaches based on hidden Markov models (HMMs) have come to dominate the area
1.3.9 The emergence of intelligent agents (1995–present)
Perhaps encouraged by the progress in solving the sub problems of AI, researchers have also started to
look at the
“Whole agent” problem again. The work of Allen Newell, John Laird, and Paul Rosenbloom on SOAR
(Newell,
1990; Laird et al., 1987) is the best-known example of a complete agent architecture.
1.3.10 The availability of very large data sets (2001–present)
Some recent work in AI suggests that for many problems, it makes more sense to worry about the data
and be
Less picky about what algorithm to apply. This is true because of the increasing availability of very large
data
Sources: for example, trillions of words of English and billions of images from the Web.
.

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Artificial Intelligence BDA402

Dept of AI&ML 2023-2024 Lavanya.K

Artificial Intelligence BDA402

Applications of AI:
AI algorithms have attracted close attention of researchers and have also been applied
successfully to solve problems in engineering. Nevertheless, for large and complex
problems, AI algorithms consume considerable computation time due to stochastic
feature of the search approaches

2. Business; financial strategies

3. Engineering: check design, offer suggestions to create new product, expert
systems for all engineering problems
4. Manufacturing: assembly, inspection and maintenance
5. Medicine: monitoring, diagnosing
6. Education: in teaching
7. Fraud detection
8. Object identification
9. Information retrieval
10. Space shuttle scheduling
Building AI Systems:
1) Perception: Intelligent biological systems are physically embodied in the world and experience the
World through their sensors (senses). For an autonomous vehicle, input might be images from a camera
And range information from a rangefinder. For a medical diagnosis
System, perception is the set of symptoms and test results that have been
obtained and input to these system manually.

2) Reasoning
Inference, decision-making, classification from what is sensed and what the internal
"model" is of the world. Might be a neural network, logical deduction system, Hidden
Markov Model induction, heuristic searching a problem space, Bayes Network inference,
genetic algorithms, etc. Includes areas of knowledge representation, problem solving,
decision theory, planning, game theory, machine learning, uncertainty reasoning, etc.
3) Action
Biological systems interact within their environment by actuation, speech, etc. All behavior
is centered on actions in the world. Examples include controlling the steering of a Mars rover
or autonomous vehicle, or suggesting tests and making diagnoses for a medical diagnosis
system. Includes areas of robot actuation, natural language generation, and speech synthesis.

The definitions of AI:

Dept of AI&ML 2023-2024 Lavanya.K
a) "The exciting new effort to make b) "The study of mental faculties
Computers think . . . machines Through the use of computational
 with minds, in the full and literal models" (Charniak and McDermott,

Artificial Intelligence BDA402

Dept of AI&ML 2023-2024 Lavanya.K

Artificial Intelligence BDA402

Dept of AI&ML 2023-2024 Lavanya.K

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Dept of AI&ML 2023-2024 Lavanya.K