HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE III

School of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology

MODULE 04
2ND Term, 2024-2025

ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTH ASIA

I. BACKGROUND
A. INTRODUCTION
- The architecture of India includes present day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
- These countries later got separated by political boundaries, but still share common cultural
heritage
- The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture
- Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building
type, form s and technologies from west, central Asia, and Europe
- Indian architecture has influenced the surrounding regions of the world, especially the
eastern Asia, due to the spread of ideas with Buddhism
- Early Indian architecture is the story of how powerful and popular religions celebrated their
beliefs through m onum ental design

B. INFLUENCES
1. GEOGRAPHY
- The rivers Indus and Ganges
- The Him alayas
- The Everest Mountain
- Surrounded by seas and Indian ocean
- Many cities were founded on the banks of rivers
2. GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
- Tim ber was available in plenty in Indus and Ganges valleys
- In som e parts of India white m arble and rock-cut tem ples are available
- Bricks are standard building m aterial
3. CLIMATE
- Warm , dom inated by m onsoon winds; size difference in location, elevation and
relation to the oceans result in local variations in tem perature and rainfall
- More than half of the country lies in Tropic Cancer
- Buildings are built to adapt to the clim ate
- In north flat roofs were com mon, but steep pitched roof were used in West coast due
to heavy rain
4. RELIGION
a. HINDUISM
- Evolve form a com bination of the faiths of the indigenous Dravidian and Aryan
invaders
- Essentially an individual act of worshipping, except on certain specified occasions
for com m unal worship
b. BUDDHISM
- SIDDHARTA (GAUTAMA), the first buddha
- The religion teaches against anim al sacrifices to observe oneness, hum anity, the
deliverance from sorrow and all trouble and from ignorance through enlightenment
to the ultim ate Nirvana.
- Becam e concentrated in m onasteries and in shrines where relics of those who had
achieved salvation (Nirvana) were deposited

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c. JAINISM
- The goal of salvation is through successive rebirths, the ideal being rigid asceticism
and the avoidance of injury to every living creature

C. HISTORICAL EVENTS
1. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
a. THE INDUS CIVILIZATION
- Ranks with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, as one of the three
earliest civilizations, displaying planned cities, agriculture, writing, architecture, etc.
the Indus civilization was by far the m ost geographically extensive of the three.
- Characterized by a variety of house types, m any of which had private baths
connected to public drainage system s.

CHARACTERISTICS
- Modular size of baked bricks for houses and public buildings
- Settlem ent layouts
- Lack royal burials, great funerary statues, m onumental art, and other sym bols of
prestige and authority
- No wealthy class as shown by the absence of larger, m ore ornate and exotic luxury
goods
- Well planned cities and houses where religion did not seem to play an active role
- Drainage systems and public baths showed advanced standards of hygiene and
sanitation and ingenious planning.

● HARAPPA, 6000 – 2600 BC

- Independent city; has no religion and social classes; 2 sections include the
raised platform or citadel and houses (with toilets indoor, canals, public drain,
water system, stairs, granary (foor food upper part of citadel) and great bath)
- A raised citadel which is com posed of 6 m etropolitan centers, 20 towns and
m ore than 200 villages with uniform architecture and urban form
- GRANARIES can be found in the m etropolitan centers, of uniform size, m ade of
tim ber resting on brick podium
- HOUSES were flat tim bered roofs and with bathroom s
- Intricate sewerage and water supply system
● MOHENJO –DARO, 2500 – 1700 BC
- Ritual and cerem onial buildings, extensive granaries, sacred tanks, assembly
halls
- Fortified citadel on artificial platform of m ud and m ud brick, 20-50 feet high
- Town was laid out on a grid plan on rectilinear streets
- Sewerage system
- HOUSES varied in size but all of them had rooms arranged around a courtyard,
flat roofed single and two-storey houses with brick staircase; with private well;
fireplaces; bathrooms and latrine (tiled, system atically drained) into a covered
drain underneath the street surface
- Only m onum ental buildings were the GRANNARIES and the GREAT BATH
2. ARYAN INVASION - houses were subdivided in rough fashion and streets were encroached
upon
3. DRAVIDIAN - was an architectural idiom that em erged in the Southern part of the Indian
subcontinent or South India. It consists prim arily of tem ples with pyram id shaped towers
and are constructed of sandstone, soapstone or granite.

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4. MACEDONIAN INVASION – Buddhism cam e in contact with Macedonian art (Alexander

the Great)
5. MAURYAN EMPIRE4th century
● ASOKA 273-232 BC- the m ost fam ous ruler converted to Buddhism and m ade it the
official religion of the em pire, erected Buddhist shrines and m onum ents
● THE GREAT STUPA, SANCHI
- Derived from the funeral m ounds of earlier tim es and had a sim ilar function – to
hold Buddhist relics
- Made up of a m ound of earth and stone covered with bricks and plaster with sm all
spaces at the center (for relics), niches (for lam ps set indom e) and an enclosing
am bulatory
6. GUPTA EMPIRE 320 – 535 AD
- Hindu tem ples began to take shape
- Buddhism still flourished – m onasteries with libraries
- Most brilliant period in Indian history
The Gupta Dynasty, founded by Chandragupta I (accession c. 320 CE), ruled in North
Central India between the 4th and 6th centuries CE and the period is considered a
golden age of artistic accomplishment. The Guptas were the first architects of purpose-
built Hindu (but som etimes also Buddhist) tem ples which evolved from the earlier
tradition of rock-cut shrines. Adorned with towers and elaborate carvings, these temples
were often dedicated to all the Hindu gods.
● THE CAVES AT AJANTA
- 29 caves dating back to the 2 nd century BC – 8 th century AD
- Cut in a U-shaped hillside above the ravine with chaityas (Buddhist sanctuaries) and
VIharas (m onks’ houses/m onasteries
- Paintings depict Buddha and the life and culture of the tim e in every im aginable
aspect
7. MUGHAL DYNASTY (Islam to India) 1556 – 1707
- The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty who ruled over a m ajority Hindu population. By
1750, they had dom inated m uch of South Asia for several centuries. Muslim s were
already living in India when the Mughals first arrived.
- Building style that flourished in northern and central India under the patronage of the
Mughal em perors from the m id-16th to the late 17th century.
- The Mughal period m arked a striking revival of Islam ic architecture in northern India.
Under the patronage of the Mughal em perors, Persian, Indian, and various provincial
styles were fused to produce works of unusual quality and refinem ent.
• SHAH JAHAN – Fifth Mughal em peror. The use of the double dom e, the recessed
archway inside a rectangular fronton, and parklike surroundings were all favourite
devices of Shah Jahān period builders. Sym m etry and balance between the parts of a
building were always stressed, as was delicate ornam ental detail.
- Marked by a great period of building
● FATEHPUR “victory” SIKHRI – m ade from sandstone and m arble swan into slabs planks,
beam s and colum ns; elaborate stone grills as windows on screens; city of victory
a. DIWAN-I-KHAS – throne room; central platform carried on a stone post, connected
by bridges to a gallery
b. GREAT MOSQUE OF FATEHPUR SIKHRI
c. TOMB OF SALEM CHISTI – external walls of pierced m arble panels set between
m arble posts; wide m arble eaves carried on unique serpentine brackets; SALEM
CHISTI was an spiritual adviser

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HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE III
School of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology
2ND Term, 2024-2025

d. MAUSOLEUM at the TAJ MAHAL, AGRA – m arble tom b raised on a terrace and
reflected in the central canal; 4 m inarets set sym m entrically about the tomb;
slightly bulbous dom e
e. TOMB OF HUMAYUN, DELHI – built by Indian craftsm en under Persian m asters; set
in a form al garden with canals and pathways
8. COLONIAL PERIOD
- The need to erect structures quickly encouraged the development of new construction
techniques such as prefabricated systems with standard plans which where suited to
industrially m anufactured com ponents; m aterials
- European styles
- Tropical clim ate also influenced the design
● SIR EDWIN LUTYENS – British architect who is known for im aginatively adapting
traditional architectural styles to the requirem ent of his era.
- Design the India Gate and the Viceroy’s House
● SIR HERBERT BAKER – British architect who worked with Luyens and went to design
the Secretariat buildings in New Delhi and Parliam ent house
9. 20 TH CENTURY
● INTERNATIONAL STYLE – becam e the dominant style due to the perception of modern
buildings as sym bol of progress
● CHANDIGARH – one of the three capitals commissioned in the 1950’s; m aster plan and
design of governm ent buildings were m ade by LE CORBUSIER
- The m ain body of the city was planned on a grid creating rectangular sectors
containing relatively low-rise dwellings in sort of garden city arrangem ent. It also
incorporated ideas from Paris, Peking and New Delhi
- The capital com plex include:
THE PARLIAMENT
THE HALL OF JUSTICE
THE SECRETARIAT and
THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE

II. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

A. CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL KOREAN ARCHITECTURE
BUILDING COMPONENTS

1. DOORS AND WINDOWS - Were provided with decorated tym panums, reproducing
wooden form s and with gable or ogee arch above
- Entrances to scared areas were provided with toranas
- Blind doors and windows to achieve sym m ertry
- Gable or dorm er windows later becam e horseshoe
arches

2. WALL A sacred structure is usually enclosed by a wall or railing

1. BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
- Buddhist tem ples are all designed for congregational use (m onasteries, m eeting halls
“choityas” and stupa are all planned to accom m odate large groups of worshippers
- Buddha him self is not represented in figural form . His presence is suggested by symbols
such as the wheel, footprints, a throne or Bo tree

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2ND Term, 2024-2025

- Prim arily represented by three im portant building types: the Chaitya Hall, Vihara and the
Stupa

BUDDHIST STRUCTURES
1. STUPAS – originated as prehistoric burial m ounds to hold the rem ains of holy m en and
nobles; could be an actual tom b, place over rem ains of the Buddha or holy Buddhist
individuals or could act as a sym bol to com memorate a sacred place; sym bol of Nirvana
(the goal of Buddhism ); solid m ounds of rubble, bricks with stone facing; no interior space;
2. VIHARA – m onasteries consist of a quadrangle surrounded by a veranda on to which open
sim ple square cells.
3. CHAITYA – place of worship; assembly hall, Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at
one end.
4. BO TREE SHRINES – (Buddha was believed to have achieved enlightenment while
m edidating under a bayan or bo tree)
5. PREACHING HALLS
6. TORANAS – gateways usually used on stupas located on cardinal points; yahshi/yaksha –
goddess of fertility that guards the torana
7. STAMBHA or LATH – a m onumental pillar standing free without any structural function,
with circular or octagonal shafts

2. HINDU ARCHITECTURE
- Not basically a congregational religion
- Structural system was essentially trabeated; stone is the basic raw m aterial; construction
was carried out with m inim al or no m ortar
- Decoration was fundam ental to Indian architecture and is seen in the m yriad details of
figured sculpture as well as in architectural elem ents
- An open, sym m etry driven structure with m any variations, on a square grid, depicting
perfect geom etric shapes such as circles and squares.
- The underlying principle in a Hindu tem ple is built around the belief that all things are one,
everything is connected.
- The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars
with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four im portant and necessary
principles of hum an life - the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit
of kam a (desire), the pursuit of dharm a (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit
of m oksha (release, self-knowledge).

THE SITE
The appropriate site, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus
and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where anim als rest without
fear of injury or harm . These harm onious places were recommended in these texts with the
explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.

HINDU STRUCTURES
1. GARBA GRIHA – or the wom b cham ber; form s the central focus housing the deity of the
tem ple and is provided with a passage around; sm all in scale when compared to the whole
tem ple com plex; m ore on sculpture than architecture
a. GOPURAM – gateways decorated with anim als on hum an figures
b. SIKHARA OR YIMAMA – um brella like that covers the garbagriha
- These are the peaks of the towers rising from the core of Hindu tem ples
c. MANDAPA – halled passageway leading to the garbagriha

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School of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology
2ND Term, 2024-2025

3. JAIN ARCHITECTURE
- Rock-cut shrines; later tem ples were traditional stone buildings, crowned with a dome and
spire, with pillared porticoes; highly ornam ented with hum an and anim al form s

4. ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
- Brought by the Moguls in the 10 th century; first m osques were built in Delhi and Ajm er in
the 12t century with arcaded porticoes, m inarets, pointed arches, stucco work, floral
patterns set in geom etrical fram ework
- The arch and dom e began to be used, and the mosque or m asjid began to form part of the
landscape
- Islam prohibited idol worship and therefore a concentrated point of focus such as the garba
griha was unnecessary.

ISLAMIC STRUCTURES
1. MOSQUE
- Muslim center for worship
- Serves as a gathering place for prayer, teaching and also acts as a town hall
- Usually axial and is oriented towards Mecca (Islam ’s m ost holy site)

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
a. QIBLA – THE WALL IN A MOSQUE IN WHICH THE MIHRAB IS SET, ORIENTED TO MECCA
b. MINARET – visual focal point and is used by a MUEZZIN to call for a faithful prayer
- com es from the Arabic word Minara , in turn, a derivation of another Arabic
word Nur, m eaning Light. Hence Minara in essence m eans Tower of Light. It is a
generic term , referring to any towers, from lighthouses to m osque towers.
- In Islam ic Architecture, it refers to the tower that stands near a m osque where
the Muezzin (The person who calls for prayers) recite the Azan to call the faithful to
prayer.
- Developed from the Christian bell tower
c. DOME – usually located in the center of the façade; a focal point that covers the main
prayer hall
- QUBBA, from the Arabic term m eaning domes. It is a prevalent architectural feature
in Islam ic Architecture, usually decorates the rooftops of m osques. The earliest
exam ple of Islam ic dom e is the Dom e of the Rock, dated around 685 to 691.
d. SAHN – a courtyard with ablution (ablution fountain – where worshippers symbolically
wash before prayer) area
- essentially m eans courtyard. It is a central courtyard usually before the m ain prayer
hall of a m osque or the m ain hall for public buildings.
- Typically, m ost m osques have Sahns and in Central Asia it has a central pool
called Howz for ritual ablution (Wudhu) or for drinking, or for aesthetics. It is
surrounded usually by arcades all around. Som e, especially for private buildings
have gardens.
e. MUQARNAS – stalactite Vaulting (Persian architectural ornam ent) Mocárabe
- m eaning Stalactite Vault in Arabic is the term used for the decoration in the form of
sm all niches in a honeycomb like pattern stacked in tiers set in sm all projections. It
is often set in the void spaces underneath domes, pendentives, cornices, squinches
and the undersides of arches and vaults.
f. MASHRABIYA – projecting window enclosed with carved window lattice

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- is a window that is projecting off a wall usually with carved wood latticework located
on second floor of a building or higher, often lined with stained glass.
- It is built usually facing the streets, but som etimes it is also built overlooking Sahns.
It is a com mon feature in hom es and palaces in Middle Eastern Architecture.
Som etimes it also decorates public buildings such as governm ent buildings,
hospitals and the like.It is also spelled moucharaby.
g. DIKKA – a place where royal m essage is being delivered
h. PRAYING HALL – m ain area where congregation prayer is being done
i. MIMBAR – a pulpit where IMAM deliver KHUTBATT
- the pulpit where the Imam (Religious leader) delivers his sermons orKhutbah. It is
a fundam ental part of a m osque, usually shaped like a sm all tower with stairs
leading up to it. It is also spelled Mim bar.
j. MIHRAB – a sem i-circular or pointed (ogee) niche in the wall of a m osque that indicates
the QIBLA (shows the direction of Mecca which the faithful m ust face when praying
- Prayer Niche. Refers to the niche in a m osque on one wall where it faces
the Qibla (The direction to the Holy City of Makkah) It literally m eans Special Room.
- Originally denotes Prophet Muhammad’s special room for prayers, it is by tim e refers
to the wall that faces the Qibla and subsequently a niche carved on the wall itself.
Parallels in other religions include the Torah Ark in Synagogues and Haikals of the
Coptic Churches.
k. IWAN - Described as “Vaulted halls or space, walled by three sides with one end open.

III. BUILDING EXAMPLES

1. AJANTA-ELLORA CAVES
- Built from the 2nd century B.C. to the 6th century A.D., these caves are the finest
exam ples of rock-cut caves. Honed out of volcanic ballistic form ations while existing in a
linear pattern, there are 34 caves containing the rem nants of Buddhist, Hindu, an d Jain
tem ples.
- These walls are equipped with engravings showing the life of Lord Buddha. The purpose
of these caves was to provide a sanctuary for the m onks to meditate. Ellora, in particular,
is fam ous for the world’s m ost extensive m onolithic excavation leading to the discovery
of the great Kailasa tem ple.

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HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE III
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2. CHAND BAORI
- It is the deepest step-well in the world. Situated in Rajasthan, it was built in the 9th
century as a water source for people in the neighboring villages. The structure is square,
100 feet deep, with 3500 steps and a periphery of 140 m eters. It shows the g eometrical
intelligence of architects and local artisans of that era. This step -well stands as a perfect
exam ple that shows how Vernacular architecture is of, for, and by the people.

3. SANCHI STUPA

- One of the oldest stone structures in India and is considered one of the finest examples
of Buddhist architecture and art, built by the Mauryan em peror Ashoka. The stupa has a

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HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE III
School of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology
2ND Term, 2024-2025

hem ispherical dome that is surrounded by a railing and four gateways, each adorned with
intricate carvings and sculptures depicting stories from the life of Buddha. The Stupa is a
UNESCO World Heritage site and is a m ust-visit for anyone interested in history and
architecture.

4. TAJ MAHAL
- Considered one of the finest exam ples of Mughal architecture, the white m arble building
com prises a square plinth with a central structure topped by a vast dom e and surrounded
by four m inarets at each corner. It is considered one of the world’s seven wonders in the
m odern era.

INDIA-PAKISTAN-BANGLADESH
On 2 June 1947, the last Viceroy of India, Adm iral Lord Louis Mountbatten, announced that Britain had
accepted that the country should be divided into a m ainly Hindu India and a m ainly Muslim Pakistan,
encompassing the geographically separate territories o f West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan
(now Bangladesh).

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