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Mastering Linux Shell Scripting
Second Edition

A practical guide to Linux command-line, Bash scripting, and Shell

programming

Mokhtar Ebrahim
Andrew Mallett
BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Mastering Linux Shell
Scripting Second Edition
Copyright © 2018 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief
quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information
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Neither the authors, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors, will be held liable for any damages
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mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the
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First published: December 2015

Second edition: April 2018

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ISBN 978-1-78899-055-4

www.packtpub.com
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Contributors
About the authors
Mokhtar Ebrahim started working as a Linux system administrator
in 2010. He is responsible for maintaining, securing, and
troubleshooting Linux servers for multiple clients around the world.
He loves writing shell and Python scripts to automate his work. He
writes technical articles on the Like Geeks website about Linux,
Python, web development, and server administration. He is a father
to a beautiful girl and a husband to a faithful wife.
I would like to thank my wife for helping me with all her efforts to finish this book. Thank you, Doaa, for being
a part of that. Also, I would like to thank everyone at Packt for working with me to make sure the book is
released. Last but not least, I'd like to thank Brian Fox, the author of the bash shell, for creating such an
awesome piece of software; without it, such a book would not exist.

Andrew Mallett is the owner of The Urban Penguin, and he is a

comprehensive provider of professional Linux software development,
training, and services. Having always been a command-line fan, he
feels that so much time can be saved through knowing command-
line shortcuts and scripting. TheUrbanPenguin YouTube channel,
maintained by Andrew, has well over 800 videos to support this, and
he has authored four other Packt titles.
About the reviewer
Sebastiaan Tammer is a Linux enthusiast from The Netherlands.
After attaining his BSc in Information Sciences, he graduated with
MSc in Business Informatics, both from Utrecht University. His
professional career started in Java development before he pivoted
into Linux.

He has worked on number of technologies, such as Puppet, Chef,

Docker, and Kubernetes. He spends a lot of time in and around his
terminal of choice: bash. Whether it is creating complex scripting
solutions or just automating simple tasks, there is hardly anything he
hasn't done with bash!
I would like to thank my girlfriend, Sanne, for all the help and support she has given me throughout the years.
She has had to endure the late nights studying, me fixing stuff (which I had inevitably broken only hours
earlier), and my endless storytelling about all those exciting new technologies. Thanks for the enormous
amount of patience and love, I could not have done it without you!
Packt is searching for authors
like you
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Table of Contents
Title Page

Copyright and Credits

Mastering Linux Shell Scripting Second Edition

Packt Upsell

Why subscribe?

PacktPub.com

Contributors

About the authors

About the reviewer

Packt is searching for authors like you

Preface

Who this book is for

What this book covers

To get the most out of this book

Download the example code files

Download the color images

Conventions used

Get in touch

Reviews

1. The What and Why of Scripting with Bash

Technical requirements

Types of Linux shells

What is bash scripting?

The bash command hierarchy

Command type

Command PATH

Preparing text editors for scripting

Configuring vim

Configuring nano

Configuring gedit

Creating and executing scripts

 Hello World!

Executing the script

Checking the exit status

Ensuring a unique name

Hello Dolly!

Running the script with arguments

The importance of correct quotes

Printing the script name

Declaring variables

User-defined variables

Environment variables

Variable scope

Command substitution

Debugging your scripts

Summary

Questions

Further reading

2. Creating Interactive Scripts

Technical requirements

Using echo with options

Basic script using read

Script comments

Enhancing scripts with read prompts

Limiting the number of entered characters

Controlling the visibility of the entered text

Passing options

Passing parameters with options

Read options values

Try to be standard
Enhancing learning with simple scripts

Backing-up with scripts

Connecting to a server

Version 1 – ping

Version 2 – SSH

Version 3 – MySQL/MariaDB

Reading files
 Summary
Questions

Further reading
3. Conditions Attached

Technical requirements
Simple decision paths using command-line lists

Verifying user input with lists

Using the test shell built-in

Testing strings
Testing integers

Testing file types

Creating conditional statements using if

Extending if with else

Test command with the if command

Checking strings
Checking files and directories

Checking numbers
Combining tests

More conditions with elif

Creating the backup2.sh using elif

Using case statements

Recipe – building a frontend with grep

Summary
Questions

Further reading
4. Creating Code Snippets

Technical requirements
Abbreviations

Using code snippets

Bringing color to the Terminal

Creating snippets using VS Code

Summary

Questions
Further reading

5. Alternative Syntax
Technical requirement
 Recapping the test command
Testing files

Adding logic
Square brackets as not seen before

Providing parameter defaults

Variables
Special parameters

Setting defaults
When in doubt – quote!
Advanced tests using [[
White space

Other advanced features

Pattern matching
Regular expressions
Regular expression script

Arithmetic operations using ((

Simple math
Parameter manipulation
Standard arithmetic tests

Summary
Questions
Further reading
6. Iterating with Loops

Technical requirement
for loops
Advanced for loops
The IFS

Counting directories and files

C-style for loops 
Nested loops
Redirecting loop output

Controlling the loop

while loops and until loops
Reading input from files
Creating operator menus

Summary
 Questions
Further reading
7. Creating Building Blocks with Functions

Technical requirements
Introducing functions
Passing parameters to functions

Passing arrays
Variable scope
Returning values from functions
Recursive functions

Using functions in menus

Summary
Questions
Further reading

8. Introducing the Stream Editor

Technical requirements
Using grep to display text
Displaying received data on an interface

Displaying user account data

Listing the number of CPUs in a system
Parsing CSV files
The CSV file

Isolating catalog entries

Understanding the basics of sed
The substitute command
Global replacement

Limiting substitution
Editing the file
Other sed commands
The delete command

The insert and append commands

The change command
The transform command
Multiple sed commands

Summary
Questions
 Further reading
9. Automating Apache Virtual Hosts

Technical requirements
Apache name-based Virtual Hosts
Creating the virtual host template
First steps

Isolating lines
sed script files
Automating virtual host creation
Prompting for data during site creation

Summary
Questions
Further reading
10. AWK Fundamentals

Technical requirements
The history behind AWK
Displaying and filtering content from files
AWK variables

User-defined variables
Conditional statements
The if command
while loops

for loops
Formatting output
Further filtering to display users by UID
AWK control files

Built-in functions
Summary
Questions
Further reading

11. Regular Expressions

Technical requirements
Regular expression engines
Defining BRE patterns

Anchor characters
The dot character
 The character class
Ranges of characters

Special character classes

The asterisk
Defining ERE patterns
The question mark

The plus sign

Curly braces
The pipe character
Expression grouping

Using grep
Summary

Questions

Further reading
12. Summarizing Logs with AWK

Technical requirements

The HTTPD log file format

Displaying data from web logs

Selecting entries by date

Summarizing 404 errors

Summarizing HTTP access codes

Resources hits
Identify image hotlinking

Displaying the highest ranking IP address

Displaying the browser data

Working with email logs

Summary
Questions

Further reading

13. A Better lastlog with AWK

Technical requirements

Using AWK ranges to exclude data

The lastlog command

Horizontally filtering rows with AWK

Counting matched rows

Conditions based on the number of fields
 Manipulating the AWK record separator to report on XML data

Apache Virtual Hosts

XML catalog

Summary

Questions
Further reading

14. Using Python as a Bash Scripting Alternative

Technical requirements

What is Python?

Saying Hello World the Python way

Pythonic arguments

Supplying arguments

Counting arguments
Significant whitespace

Reading user input

Using Python to write to files

String manipulation

Summary
Questions

Further reading

Assessments
Chapter 1

Chapter 2
Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5
Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8
Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11
Chapter 12

Chapter 13
Chapter 14

Other Books You May Enjoy

Leave a review - let other readers know what you think
Preface
First, you'll learn about Linux shells and why we chose the bash
shell. Then, you'll learn how to write a simple bash script and how to
edit your bash script using Linux editors.

Following this, you will learn how to define a variable and the
visibility of a variable. After this, you will learn how to store
command execution output into a variable, which is called command
substitution. Also, you will learn how to debug your code using bash
options and Visual Studio Code. You will learn how to make your
bash script interactive to the user by accepting input from the user
using the read command. Then, you will learn how to read options
and its values if the user passed them to the script. Following this,
you will learn how to write conditional statements such as if
statements and how to use case statements. After this, you will
learn how to create code snippets using vim and Visual Studio Code.
For repetitive tasks, you will see how to write for loops, how to
iterate over simple values, and how to iterate over directory content.
Also, you will learn how to write nested loops. Along with this, you
will write while and until loops. Then, we will move on to functions,
the reusable chunks of code. You will learn how to write functions
and how to use them. After this, you will be introduced to one of the
best tools in Linux, which is Stream Editor. As we are still talking
about text processing, we will introduce AWK, one of the best text
processing tools in Linux that you will ever see.

After this, you will learn how to empower your text processing skills
by writing better regular expressions. Finally, you will be introduced
to Python as an alternative to bash scripting.
Who this book is for
This book targets system administrators and developers who would
like to write a better shell script to automate their work. Some
programming experience is preferable. If you don't have any
background in shell scripting, no problem, the book will discuss
everything from the beginning.
What this book covers
, The What and Why of Scripting with Bash, will introduce
Chapter 1

Linux shells, how to write your first shell script, how to prepare your
editor, how to debug your shell script, and some basic bash
programming, such as declaring variables, variable scope, and
command substitution.

, Creating Interactive Scripts, covers how to read input from

Chapter 2

the user using read command, how to pass options to your script,
how to control the visibility of the entered text, and how to limit the
number of entered characters.

, Conditions Attached, will introduce the

Chapter 3 if statement, the case

statement, and other testing command such as else and elif.

, Creating Code Snippets, covers creating and using code

Chapter 4

snippets using editors, such as vim and Visual Studio Code.

, Alternative Syntax, will discuss advanced testing using

Chapter 5 [[

and how to perform arithmetic operations.

Chapter 6, Iterating with Loops, will teach you how to use for loops,
while loops, and until loops to iterate over simple values and complex

values.

, Creating Building Blocks with Functions, will introduce

Chapter 7

functions and explains how to create a function, list builtin functions,

pass parameters to functions, and writing recursive functions.

, Introducing the Stream Editor, will introduce the basics of

Chapter 8

sed tool to manipulate files, such as adding, replacing deleting, and

transforming text.
 , Automating Apache Virtual Hosts, contains a practical
Chapter 9

example of sed and explains how to create virtual hosts

automatically using sed.

, AWK Fundamentals, will discuss AWK and how to filter file

Chapter 10

content using it. Also, we will discuss some AWK programming

basics.

, Regular Expressions, covers regular expressions, their

Chapter 11

engines, and how to use them with sed and AWK to empower your
script.

Chapter 12, Summarizing Logs with AWK, will show how to process the
httpd.conf Apache log file using AWK and extract useful well-formatted

data.

, A Better lastlog with AWK, will show you how to use AWK
Chapter 13

to output beautiful reports using the lastlog command by filtering

and processing the lastlog output.

, Using Python as a Bash Scripting Alternative, will discuss

Chapter 14

Python programming language basics and explains how to write

some Python scripts as a bash script alternative.
To get the most out of this
book
I assume that you have a little programming background. Even if
you don't have a programming background, the book will start from
the beginning.

You should know some Linux basics such as the basic commands
such as ls, cd, and which.
Download the example code
files
You can download the example code files for this book from your
account at www.packtpub.com. If you purchased this book elsewhere, you
can visit www.packtpub.com/support and register to have the files emailed
directly to you.

You can download the code files by following these steps:

1. Log in or register at www.packtpub.com.

2. Select the SUPPORT tab.
3. Click on Code Downloads & Errata.
4. Enter the name of the book in the Search box and follow the
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Once the file is downloaded, please make sure that you unzip or
extract the folder using the latest version of:

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Zipeg/iZip/UnRarX for Mac
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The code bundle for the book is also hosted on GitHub at https://githu
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there's an update to the code, it will be updated on the existing

GitHub repository.

We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and
videos available at https://github.com/PacktPublishing/. Check them out!
Download the color images
We also provide a PDF file that has color images of the
screenshots/diagrams used in this book. You can download it from ht

tps://www.packtpub.com/sites/default/files/downloads/MasteringLinuxShellScriptingSec

ondEdition_ColorImages.pdf .
Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.

CodeInText: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder

names, filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user
input, and Twitter handles. Here is an example: "Edit your script so
that it reads like the following complete code block
for $HOME/bin/hello2.sh"

A block of code is set as follows:

if [ $file_compression = "L" ] ; then
tar_opt=$tar_l
elif [ $file_compression = "M" ]; then
tar_opt=$tar_m
else
tar_opt=$tar_h
fi

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

$ type ls
ls is aliased to 'ls --color=auto'

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you

see onscreen. For example, words in menus or dialog boxes appear
in the text like this. Here is an example: "Another very useful feature
is found on the Preferences | Plugins tab"
Warnings or important notes appear like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
overturning it, and without looking directly either on his hands or
rope whilst he sets it. Therefore in his practice of setting a bell, he
may cast his eye about on the other bell-ropes whilst he manageth
his bell, whereby he may accustom himself to manage it as the
ringing of changes requires.
The ringing of changes is performed, partly by the ear, and
partly by the eye; the ear informs when to make a change, the eye
directs the pull in the making of it, but then again the ear guides the
striking of the note true in its place according to time. So that the ear
and eye have each of them its proper object in the ringing of changes,
and therefore ought at the same time to be absolutely free from all
others whatsoever, the notes of the bells being the object of the ear,
and the bell-ropes the object of the eye. Now these two Senses in the
time of ringing do each of them thus perform its office. First, the ear,
as a Sentinel, discovers the near approaching change, and also the
place wherein his note lies, that is, whether before or behind the note
wherewith ’tis to make a change, and gives present information to
the eye, to perform its part accordingly in the making of it; but then
again the eye refers it to the ear, to place the note true in striking. But
questionless (by the bie) the truest ringing of changes is to be
performed only by the ear; but then the Practitioners must be
capable to judg of time, and to beat it true, which must be the only
direction to guide their pull; and then it must be performed at a peal
of bells that may be managed with ease: and being so fitted in all
respects, the changes may doubtless be rung more true, with greater
pleasure to the Practitioners, and much more free from mistakes and
forgets, only by the ear, than by making use of the eye to direct their
pull. But in regard that either the ill going of the bells, or want of fit
accomplishments in the practitioners, may render it unfit for
common practice; therefore the surest way is to ring both by the eye
and ear, as I said before. Now to render the eye and ear rightly useful
in the ringing of changes, five things ought by the young Practitioner
to be well understood. First, he must be able to distinguish the notes
of a peal of bells, and to know one from another in the time of
ringing. Secondly, he must apprehend the places of the notes.
Thirdly, the precedency of notes. Fourthly, the manner of making a
change in ringing. Fifthly, a general prospect of the manner of
putting the four preceding notions into practice.
 Observation 1. The Learner must be able to distinguish the notes
of a peal of bells one from another, and to know them asunder; as the
Treble-note from the Second, the Second from the Third, &c. which,
tis true, may readily be done in round ringing, because each note
may be known by the place wherein it constantly strikes; but in
ringing of changes it is more difficult. For admitting that six bells
should strike in this order, 5.3.6.1.4.2. it might puzzle an unskilful
ear to judg which is the Treble, or which the Second note, especially
whilst any other note strikes betwixt them: and the like difficulty
might happen in distinguishing the rest of the notes, as the 2d from
the 3d, &c. To remove this difficulty, he must endeavour to acquire
some skill in tuning the notes of a peal of bells, with his voice, which
he may do by imitating the notes of the bells when he hears them
ring: or else any person that has skill in singing, will presently direct
him therein, and also how to take the true pitch of any notes with his
voice, which will be the only means to distinguish them asunder.

┌──┬──┐

│ 1│2 │

├─┬┴┬─┤

│3│4│5│

└─┴─┴─┘
 Observ. 2d. The Learner must rightly apprehend the places of
the notes, which I think cannot better be done than by this means.
Considering that the notes of a peal of bells do all strike one after
another at the fore-stroke, and the like at back-stroke; it might be
requisite for him to imagine, that the notes in their striking do lie in
a direct line, that is, in a row at the fore-stroke, and the like again at
back-stroke; for then the places of the notes will much resemble the
places of the figures wherewith the changes are prickt: for as the
figures of every change do all stand in a row; so likewise the notes of
the bells, being imagined to strike in the like row, he may the more
readily apprehend the places of the notes, and consequently of
changing them. For the practick part of this Art, is performed by
means of imaginary, not real notions; which will thus manifestly
appear. This is the platform of a Frame, wherein five bells may be
supposed to hang in a Steeple, the figures therein representing the
places wherein the five bells hang. Now in the sixscore changes on
five bells, we will suppose the Treble to be the whole Hunt, and to
hunt up first over the Second, then over the Third, &c. Now the
Treble cannot really move out of the place wherein it hangs; but by
delaying its striking untill the Second Bell has struck, it may by that
means strike next after it; and again, by delaying its striking until the
Third has struck; it may also strike next after that, this being the true
manner of the changes; by which ’tis evident, that the bells have
neither really such places nor motion as is pretended, but is meerly
imaginary, and was at first feigned only as a Guide to direct the
Practitioner’s apprehension in the ringing of them. So that although
the art of changes is in it self a real thing, yet the notions by which
they are reduced to practice on bells, are not so. For which reason,
the several practitioners of this Art, before they can become expert,
are fain to form in their minds imaginary notions to guide them;
some after one manner, some perhaps after another, according to
their several fancies, yet all tending, to render the methods of
changes practicable on bells; and having once form’d in their minds
such imaginary helps, they become expert in short time: and then no
sooner do they understand the methods of changes prickt with
figures, which they commonly discover at first view; but they are
presently capable of ringing them readily on bells, which experience
daily testifies. And hence it is, that oftentimes the Learners, although
they perfectly understand the methods of changes prickt, and also
can perfectly manage a Bell; yet for want of a right apprehension of
the nature of changing the notes, which of themselves it may be they
cannot soon attain, are therefore much puzzled in their first practice
of ringing changes. Therefore as a guide, the Learner must first form
in his mind a fit representation of the places of the notes; which I
think cannot better be done, than by imagining each note to be a
figure; as the Treble-note to be the figure 1, the second note the
figure 2, the third note the figure 3, and the like of the rest. Then
whensoever he hears a peal of bells ring, let him by strength of
imagination conceit, that each note bears the shape of a figure; that
is, at the same instant of time that the note strikes, he may imagine
that it leaves the impression of the figure behind it, and that with the
eye of his imagination he perfectly sees it: and likewise as the notes
of the bells do all strike after one another at the fore-stroke, so he
may imagine that they lie in a row in the shape of figures; and the
like again at back-stroke. For instance: suppose that five Muskets
were charged with five bullets, and that each bullet bears the shape
of a figure; one Gun to be charged with the figure 1, another with the
figure 2, and the other three Guns with these three figures, 3. 4. 5.
Then supposing a straight line were drawn upon the wall, thus
—————————— and that the five Muskets were by five men
levell’d against the line, which is to be the mark for them to shoot at;
the figure 1 to be first shot off, then the figure 2, and so the rest in
order immediately after one another: now at the same instant of time
that the Guns are heard to go off, the five figures would appear in a

row upon the wall, thus. So in like manner

when he hears a peal of five bells strike after one another at the fore-
stroke, and again at back-stroke, he may imagine that at the very
instant of their striking their notes appear to his apprehension in the
shape of the five figures, and that they strike in a row, thus, 1 2 3 4 5,
as if each Bell were a Gun, and had shot out its note in the shape of a
figure. There being necessity that the young Practitioner must either
imagine each note to be a real figure, or else a representative: for as
the ear is to be his guide to direct when to make each change; so a
right apprehension of the motion and places of the notes, must be a
means to guide his ear. Now in regard that the changes are first
prickt with figures, from whence the notes of the bells derive their
course, therefore if in ringing he imagine each note to be a real
figure, then the same knowledge that guides the pricking, guides also
as readily the ringing of them, for then the note of his bell is
supposed to have the same course with that of a real figure. But if he
imagines that each note is not a real, but a representative of a figure;
then consequently it must only have the like, and not the same
course: by which means, whilst he is ringing of changes, his mind
must have frequent recourse to his Pocket, that is, to the changes
there prickt; from whence he must continually fetch instructions to
direct the course of his Bell, which is oftentimes the case of the
Learner: his thoughts in the time of ringing being commonly upon
the figures that are prickt, either upon paper, or else upon the
Steeple-wall, whilst it should be wholly intent upon the notes.
Therefore in a word, the Practitioner whilst he is ringing of changes,
must fix his mind fully and wholly upon the notes of the bells, and
not permit it in the least to wander from thence; for the notes are to
be the sole object of the thoughts in the time of ringing.
The notes being imagined to strike in a row as aforesaid, their
places will then soon be understood. The notes do take their places
according to their successive order of striking both at fore-stroke and
back-stroke; each succeeding note taking its place next to that which
preceds it: for whatsoever bell leads either at fore-stroke or at back-
stroke, its note lieth in the first place of the supposed row of notes;
and that which strikes next after the leading note, its note lieth in the
second place of the supposed row of notes, and so the rest in the like
order. As if five bells should strike thus after one another either of
fore-stroke or back-stroke, 5 4 1 2 3. here the 5th lieth in the first
place, because it was first struck; the 4th in the second place, because
it was second struck; the Treble in the third place, because it was
third struck; the 2d in the fourth place, because it was fourth struck;
and the 3d in the last place, because it was last struck; and the like of
the notes in every change.
 Observ. 3. The next thing to be understood by the Learner, is the
precedency of the notes. Now whereas in the ringing of changes, the
notes do all strike after one another at the fore-stroke, and again at
the back-stroke, therefore are they said to lie before or behind each
other, according to their places of striking. As if five men were
standing in a row, as these five figures represent, 1 2 3 4 5, the first
man to stand at the fig. 1, the second man at the figure 2, &c. and
that they stand with their faces all one way, that is, the first man
ready to lead, and the rest to follow him one behind another. Now
the first man stands before the rest, and the fifth man behind the
rest; the second man stands behind the first man, but before the
third; the third man stands behind the second, but before the fourth;
and the fourth stands behind the third, but before the fifth. In which
manner the notes being supposed to strike in the like row, may also
be laid to lie before or behind each other as the men did. For
whatsoever note leads either at fore-stroke or back-stroke, is said to
lie before the rest; and that which strikes last, to strike behind the
rest. The note which lieth in the second place, as on the one hand it
lieth behind the leading note, so on the other hand it lieth before the
note in the third place. As the note in the third place lieth behind the
note in the second place, so it lieth before the note in the fourth
place. And in like manner, every note is said to lie behind those that
strike before it, and before those that strike after it.
Observ. 4. A Change is to be made betwixt two notes, by moving
them into each others places; wherein ’tis to be observed as a general
Rule, That every change must be made betwixt two notes that strike
next to each other. As if five bells were ringing round in this order,
12345, the 1 and 2 may make a change, or 2 and 3, or likewise 3 and
4, or 4 and 5, because each two lie next each other; but the 1 and 3
cannot, because 2 strikes between them, much less may 1 and 4, &c.
The two notes which make every change, moves into each others
places in the making of it; wherein one note is said to move up, and
the other down. The reason why one of them is said to move up, is,
because he that rings that bell, in the making of the change must
hold it up at the Sett a little longer than ordinary, to delay its
striking, whereby ’tis made to follow the other note which before it
preceded; and because ’tis so held up, therefore ’tis said to make an
Up-change, or to move up: and on the contrary, the reason why the
other note is said to move down, is, because he that rings it, pulls
down the bell a little sooner than ordinary, to make it strike before
the note which before it followed; and because ’tis so pulled down,
therefore it is said to make a Down-change, or to move down. I will
here give a short though certain rule to know when an Up-change or
a Down-change is to be made: whensoever any note moves to strike
behind the note wherewith it makes a change, it makes an up-change
in doing it; and whensoever it moves to strike before the note, which
’tis to make a change with, it makes a down-change in doing it: so
that every note which moves fromward the leading-note, makes an
up-change; and when it moves toward the leading-note, it makes a
down-change. I will here shew the manner of making a change:
admitting that a peal of five bells were raised to a sett-pull, which is
the usual compass for ringing of changes; the notes are first
supposed to strike in this order, 12345. Now a change may be made
betwixt any two notes that strike next each other; I will here make it
betwixt the 3d. and 4th. which is to be done by moving them into
each others’ places. Now ’tis observable, that before the making of
the change, the 3d. note lies before the 4th. that is, it strikes next
before the 4th; and the 4th. lies behind the 3d. that is, it strikes
behind it: now in the making of the change, the 3d. must move to
strike behind the 4th: wherein it makes an up-change; and the 4th.
note at the same time must move to strike before the 3d. wherein it
makes a down-change; the change being made, the bells will strike
thus, 12435. All changes whatsoever are made in the aforesaid
manner: for as the 3d note made an up-change in moving to strike
behind the 4th, and the 4th at the same time a down-change in
moving to strike before the 3d; so in like manner the two notes that
make every change, must in the making of it move the one up, and
the other down, as the 3d and 4th here has done. The Learner may
take notice, that in ringing termes ’tis not usual to say, that a bell
makes an up-change, or a down-change; but in short, that it moves
up or down, which implies the former. When a note makes an up-
change, ’tis then said to move over the other note; and when it makes
a down-change, to move under it: as in the next preceding example,
where the 3d note is said to move up over the 4th, and the 4th down
under the 3d, in which manner the terms over and under are given
to the two notes that make every change.
Observ. 5. In the time of ringing changes, two things are by the
Practitioners to be well considered. First, to observe and readily to
know, which two bells are always to make the next succeeding
change: Secondly, if he is concern’d therein, to consider what bell he
is to follow in the making of it. Upon a right knowledge of these two
things, depends the Practick part of this Art. To make him expert
herein, he must before hand perfectly understand, and readily
remember the course and method of the changes prickt with figures,
wherein he ought to be so well skill’d, as to be able to prick them
down divers ways, that is, to make any figure a Hunt at pleasure;
which when he can readily and speedily do, without pausing to
consider of the course, then ’tis presumed that he understands the
methods throughly. But yet he will not be capable to put them in
practice, untill he understands the manner of making a change in
ringing; neither can he understand that, until he understands the
precedency of the notes; nor the precedency, until he understands
the places; nor the places, until he knows the notes one from
another. Therefore the four preceding observations being first
perfectly understood, and also the methods of the changes as before;
the Practitioner may then successfully proceed in the ringing of
changes; and as a further help therein I will here instruct him. There
are three bells concern’d in the making of every single change, except
only when ’tis made behind, and then but two: whensoever the note
of his bell is to make a change with any other note, his ear must then
inform him whether it lies before or behind the other note; if it lies
before, then in making the change it must move up behind it, that is,
to follow it; and consequently, he must draw down his bell next after
that which he makes a change with, which is called an up-change, as
I said before. But if the note of his bell lies behind the other, then in
making of the change it must move down to strike before it, and
consequently he must draw down his bell next after that which the
other before followed, this being a down-change. So that the making
of an up-change is very easie, because he must always follow that bell
which he makes a change with; but a down-change is more difficult,
because he cannot so readily apprehend what bell he is to follow; yet
there is a certain rule for it, which is this: to observe beforehand what
note strikes the next but one before his, which bell he must follow in
the making of the change. Whensoever the two notes, which strike
next before his note, are to make a change; he must consider, that
notwithstanding his note is to lie still in its place, yet he is concern’d
therein, because the bell which he followed before the making of the
change, must in the making of it move away down, and therefore he
must follow the bell that comes into its place.
The changes are to be rung, either by walking them, as the term
is; or else Whole-pulls, or Half-pulls. By walking them, is meant,
that the bells go round four, six, eight times or more in one change;
which way is very proper for young Practitioners, to introduce them
into a more ready way of Practice; for whilst the bells go round divers
times in one change, they have in the mean time leisure to consider
which two bells are to make the next following change, and also what
bell each of them is to follow in the making of it; and so by diligence
in practice they will by degrees acquire a more ready skill to enable
them to ring at whole-pulls. Whole-pulls, is, when the bells go round
at the fore-stroke and back-stroke in a change; and every time they
are pull’d down at Sally, a new change is made. Whole-pulls was the
general practice in former times; and indeed, considering the
manner of the hanging of the bells in those days, they could not well
be rung at half-pulls: but since the improvement of the Art of Bell-
hanging, that is, with round Wheels, trussing them up in the Stock,
and placing the Roll at right Angles with the Sole of the Wheel; the
bells go much better, and are managed with more ease at a Sett-pull
than formerly: therefore the changes are now generally rung at half-
pulls, that is, at the fore-stroke one change, at the back-stroke
another, and so throughout.
In ringing half-pulls, some peals of changes will cut compass,
wherein the whole Hunt comes always to lead at the back-stroke; to
prevent which, make the first change of the peal at the back-stroke.
In plain and single changes on six bells, to hunt (that is, whole Hunt)
the Treble, third, or fifth, down at the beginning of a peal cuts
compass, unless prevented as before. Also to hunt the second, fourth,
or sixth up at the beginning of a peal, cuts compass, unless prevented
as before. Which rules, leaving out the Tenor, serves in like manner
to prevent cutting compass on five bells.
’Tis convenient in ringing, to give notice of the extream changes,
and he that rings the slowest Hunt, may best do it. The manner of it
is, to say Extream, when the leading bell is pulling down, in order to
make the change next before the extream; by which means there will
be one compleat change betwixt the warning and the extream: longer
warning would be too much, and shorter too little.
 The divers kinds of changes on Bells may be comprehended
under two heads, viz. Plain Changes, and Cross Peals, which terms
are comparatively given: for as the first are plain and easie only in
comparison to the methods of the second; so consequently the
second cross and intricate in comparison to the methods of the first.
I will first shew in what respect they differ, and then proceed to the
methods. Plain changes (I mean compleat peals) are such as have
one universal method, wherein all the notes except three have a
direct hunting course, moving gradually under each other in one
plain and uniform order. But the methods of cross peals are various,
each peal having a course differing from all others: and although
most of them have Hunts, yet the Hunts have different kinds of
motions, and some very intricate. Moreover plain changes are also
term’d Single changes, because in the ringing of them there is only a
single change made in the striking of all the notes once round either
at fore-stroke or back-stroke; whereas in cross changes ’tis usual to
make as many changes as the number of notes will permit. For
example, supposing that a peal of 5 bells were raised, and rung at a
Sett-pull; the notes are supposed to strike round in this order, 12345:
now any two of the notes that strike next together may make a
change, therefore either a single or a double change may be made at
pleasure. The single change is made by changing only two notes; the
double change is made by changing four notes, that is, two to make
one change and two another, yet ’tis called one double change, and
not two changes, in regard ’tis made in the striking of the five notes
of the bells once round: as, admit the treble, second, third, and
fourth, should make a change, ’tis thus to be done, 21435, where the
Treble and Second made one change, and 3, 4 another; which we will
imagine to be made at the fore-stroke of the bells, and therefore ’tis
called one double change, and not two changes, because ’tis entirely
made in the striking of the five notes once round. So that this one
double change has effected that which would have required two
single changes to have done the like. For instance, there can but two
notes change their places at once in a single change, therefore the
Treble and Second shall first change their places thus, 21345; then
the third and fourth thus, 21435: so that here the five notes have
gone twice round to effect that, which in the double change was done
in going once round. And this is the nature of the difference between
Plain and Cross changes.
 As the Learner ought to proceed regularly in his practice,
beginning first with the plainest and easiest methods. I will therefore
observe that order, and first shew the course and methods of Plain
changes.
 The Changes on two Bells.
Two bells are capable to make only two changes, which is to be
done by changing the notes twice, as in these figures.——
12
21
12
 The Changes on three Bells.
There are six changes on three bells; which are made by this
rule: the two first and two last notes must be changed by turns.
123
First the two first notes, which are 1 2 thus. 213
The two last, which are 1 3, thus. 231
The two first 321
The two last 312
The two first 132
The two last 123
In these six changes ’tis observable, that the two first notes,
which were 1 2, made the first change of the six; but they may as well
be rung by
123
beginning with the two last notes, which are 2, 3 thus—— 132
Next the two first notes, which are 1 3, thus, 312
The two last 321
The two first 231
The two last 213
The two first 123
The six changes can be rung no more than these two ways here
set down.
The Six changes are sometimes rung by observing a hunt
therein, which is very improper, since every note has a like course.
Yet I confess in demonstrating the methods on twelve, I did there
admit a Hunt into the six changes; but that was only for
demonstration sake.
The compleat peals of plain changes, from three to all greater
numbers whatsoever, as the Twenty four changes on four, the
Sixscore on five, the Seven hundred and twenty on six, &c. are prickt
and rung by one method; all the notes having a hunting-motion,
except only three in each peal, which three do make the six changes
in the same manner as they are before prickt. So that the Six changes
on three may be term’d the basis or foundation of the compleat peals
on all greater numbers.
Every Hunting note in each peal has a certain number of notes
assigned, through which ’tis always to hunt. The term hunt is given to
a note in respect of the manner of its motion, which I will shew in
this example. First, the notes of four bells are supposed to strike
round in this order, 1234. The Treble shall be the Hunt, and the other
three assigned or appointed for it to hunt through. Now whereas the
Treble-note leads, it must move through its assigned number to
strike behind them: and whereas every change must be made betwixt
two notes that strike next each other, as I have shewed before in the
4th Observation; therefore the hunting-note is confin’d to move
gradually through the rest by making a change with each note that
strikes next to it; and accordingly it must first move into the 2d
place, next into the 3d place, and lastly into the 4th. So that ’tis to
make a change with every note that lies behind it; first with the 2d
note, next with the 3d, and lastly with the 4th.
1234
The first change is thus 2134
The second thus 2314
The third thus 2341
The hunting note has here moved through its assigned number;
for whereas at first it did lead, now it strikes behind them. Wherein
’tis observable, that it made up changes all the way; which of
necessity it must do, because every note with which it was to make a
change, lay behind it: and because it made up changes, therefore ’tis
said to have hunted up. The hunting-note shall now move through its
assigned number again, to lead as at first. Therefore first it must
move into the 3d place, then into the second place, and lastly into the
first place, which is called the Treble’s place; in which motion it must
make a change with each note that strikes next before it: first with
the 4th note, next with the 3d, then with the 2d.
The first change thus 2314
The second thus 2134
The third thus 1234
 ’Tis observable, that here the Treble made down-changes all the
way, which of necessity it must do, because every note with which it
was to make a change, lay before it: and because it made down-
changes, therefore it is said to have hunted down. This is the manner
of the motion of the hunting notes in all peals of plain changes; for
they hunt up and down through their assigned number, as the 1 here
has done. This example is plain and full to instruct the Learner in the
hunting of any bell, therefore he ought to peruse it diligently, that he
may understand the true scope and meaning of it; and as a help he
may apply himself to practice by taking a Treble, and attempt to hunt
it up and down as this Example directs; which he may the more
readily do, if he understand the 5th Observation before set down,
which guides him to make a change in ringing. So that partly by
reading and well considering of what I have here wrote, and partly by
practice, he may in a short time become perfect in the hunting
motion of any note; which when he rightly apprehends, he will then
presently be capable of understanding the following methods; and
therefore I shall be the more brief in my directions to them.
 The Changes on four Bells.
Twenty four changes may be rung upon four bells: but the
Learner may first practice the twelve changes, and the eighteen
changes. In the twelve changes the notes are all to be hunted up after
one another, which may be called the Twelve all over. First the
treble-note must be hunted up, letter (a); then the second note must
likewise hunt up, letter (b); next the third note must hunt up, letter
(c); and lastly the 4th note also, letter (d).
1234
2134
a 2314
2341
3241
b 3421
3412
4312
c 4132
4123
1423
d 1243
1234
The four notes may also hunt down one after another. First, the
4th note must hunt down to lead: then the 3d note likewise, and so
the 2d and Treble one after another, which may be term’d the Twelve
all under.
Courteous Reader, in my directions to the course of each peal, I do
there refer by letters to the examples; which I am forced to do, to
prevent those confused breaks, and unhandsome spaces, which
otherwise would have happen’d both in examples and precepts.
Whatever letter I mention in my directions, refers to the like at
the figures. For instance; in my directions to the twelve changes
next before, I there directed the treble-note to be first hunted up,
letter (a); which letter refers to the like letter at the first three
 changes of the twelve, where the Treble hunted up, as ’tis here
again represented, and the like of the rest.
2134
a 2314
2341
In the Eighteen changes, the Treble is a hunting note, but never
hunts up farther than the 3d place; and when it lies there, the two
first notes must make a change; and every time it leads, the two
hindmost notes. First it hunts up into the 3d place, letter (a); the two
first notes, Which are 2.3, make a change, letter (b); the Treble hunts
down (c). The two hindmost notes make a change (d), the Treble
hunts up (e). The two first notes, which are 3.4, make a change (f) the
Treble hunts down (g); the two last notes, which are 3.2, make a
change (h), which method being continued, will bring the bells round
at the end of eighteen changes. The Eighteen changes may also be
rung by hunting the 4th note down into the 2d place, and then a
change to be made behind: the 4th note to be hunted up again into
its own place, and then a change to be made before, which course
being continued, will produce Eighteen changes.
 1234
2134
a
2314
b 3214
3124
c
1324
d 1342
3142
e
3412
f 4312
4132
g
1432
h 1423
4123
i
4213
k 2413
2143
l
1243
m 1234
The Six changes on three are the ground of the Twenty four
changes on four; for one of the four notes hath a constant hunting
motion through the other three, in the same manner as in the
preceding Example, page 50. and the three notes are to make the six
changes in the same manner as I have before shewed in the changes
on three bells; one of the six changes being always made every time
the hunt lies either before or behind the three bells: therefore if the
Learner do but rightly apprehend the course of the six changes, and
also the manner of the motion of the hunting note, he will presently
understand the method of the twenty four changes. The six changes
in the twenty four, according to the terms of ringing are called
Extream changes, and the three bells which makes them, Extream
bells. So that in the twenty four changes, there is a hunt and three
extream bells. Every time the hunt lies either before or behind the
extream bells, an extream change must then be made. The extream
changes may be made two ways, viz. either betwixt the two farthest
extream bells from the hunt, or else betwixt the two nearest extream
bells to it. In this Example every extream change shall be made
betwixt the two farthest extream bells from the hunt, and the treble
shall be the hunting note, which must first hunt up (a); then the two
farthest notes from the hunt, which are 2.3, must make an extream
change (b). The Treble must hunt down (c). The two farthest notes
from the hunt, which are 2.4, must make an extream change (d). The
treble must hunt up (e); the two farthest notes from the hunt, which
are 3.4, must make an extream change (f). The treble-note must hunt
down (g). The two farthest extream bells from the hunt, which are
3.2, must make an extream change (h). The treble must hunt up (i).
The two farthest notes from the hunt, which are 4.2, must make an
extream change (k). The treble must hunt down (l). The two farthest
extream bells, which are 4.3, must make an extream change (m),
which concludes the peal. Now the Learner for his satisfaction may
take out the extream changes in the same order as they were made,
as first at (b), then (d), and so (f.h.k.m.) and they will stand as they
are here set down; where ’tis evident, that 2.3.4 have made the six
changes according to the method of the first six changes on three
bells, before set down, (page 48.) where the first change of that six
was 213, and this being 324, is the same in course though the figures
differ, and the rest of the changes in this six, are likewise the same in
course and method with those.
 1234
2134
a 2314
2341
b 3241
3214
c 3124
1324
d 1342
3142
e 3412
3421
f 4321
4312
g 4132
1432
h 1423
4123
i 4213
4231
k 2431
2413
l 2143
1243
m 1234

3241
1342
4321
1423
2431
1234

In the preceding twenty four changes, every extream change was

made betwixt the two furthest extream bells from the hunt. I will
therefore here set down an example, where they shall be made
between the two nearest bells, to it. First, the treble hunts up (a). The
two next notes to the hunt, which are 3.4, must make an extream
change (b). The Treble must hunt down (c). The two nearest notes to
the hunt, which are 2.4, must make an extream change (d). The
Treble hunts up (e). The two nearest extream bells to the hunt, which
are 2.3, must make an extream change (f). The Treble hunts down
(g). The two next extream bells to the hunt, which are 4.3, must
make a change (h). And the like extream changes being made as at
(k) and (m), concludes the peal.
1234
2134
a 2314
2341
b 2431
2413
c 2143
1243
d 1423
4123
e 4213
4231
f 4321
4312
g 4132
1432
h 1342
3142
i 3412
3421
k 3241
3214
l 3124
1324
m 1234
 The six extream changes, viz. (b.d.f.h.k. and m.) being set down
by themselves, will stand in this order, as here you see; where ’tis
plain, that 2 3 4 have made the six changes, according to the method
of the last six changes on three bells, page 49. where the first change
of that six is made between the last two notes thus, 1 3 2. So in like
manner is the first here thus, 243, which is the same method with
that, though not the same figures.
2431
1423
4321
1342
3241
1234

So that the making of the extream changes two ways in the

twenty four, proceeds from the two ways of making the six changes
on three bells. This last way of making the extream changes, may, for
distinction from the other way, be called mediums; which term is
very proper, in regard that the two middlemost of the four notes do
always make the extream change. The extream changes in one peal
must all be made alike, that is, either betwixt the two farthest notes
from the hunt, or else betwixt the two nearest notes to it; but the
most usual way is to make them between the two farthest.
Any note may be made a hunt at pleasure, and its first motion at
the beginning of the peal may be either up or down. The twenty four
changes may be rung sixteen ways according to the aforesaid
method, yet the changes to each are still one and the same; but by
making each note a hunt, and moving it either up or down at the
beginning, and also by making the extream changes two ways, the
course of the changes will be so altered, that the same changes shall
not come all along together in any two of those sixteen ways. With
the hunting of one note it may be rung four ways; for the note may
move either up or down at the beginning of the peal; then in its
motion either way the extream changes maybe made two ways, as
before: so that to make each note a hunt, and with each hunt to ring
it four ways makes sixteen in the whole. Wherein ’tis observable, that
the treble-note cannot be moved down at first, nor the 4th up;
therefore an extream change must first be made, which is as effectual
as if either note had moved at first. I have here prickt the twenty four
changes three ways, wherein the extream changes are all made
betwixt the two farthest notes from the hunt.
2d. down 3d. up 4th. up

1234 1234 1234

2134 1243 2134
2143 2143 2143
1243 2134 2413
1423 2314 4213
1432 3214 4231
4132 3241 2431
4123 2341 2341
4213 2431 2314
2413 2413 3214
2431 4213 3241
4231 4231 3421
4321 4321 4321
4312 3421 4312
3412 3412 3412
3421 4312 3142
3241 4132 3124
2341 4123 1324
2314 1423 1342
3214 1432 1432
3124 1342 4132
3142 3142 4123
1342 3124 1423
1324 1324 1243
1234 1234 1234
 The Changes on five Bells.
There are sixscore changes to be rung on five bells; but the
Learner may first practice some shorter peals, as the Ten changes,
the twelve, the Fourteen, the Twenty all over, the Twenty with one
hunt, and the Forty eight.
In the Ten changes the treble must first hunt up (a); the 2.3
must make a change (b). The treble must hunt down again (c); the
3.2 must make another change (d). The ten changes may also be rung
by hunting down the 5 to lead; then 3.4 to make a change; the 5 to be
hunted up again, and the 4.3 to make another change.
12345
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23145
a
23415
23451
b 32451
32415
32145
c
31245
13245
d 12345
In the Twelve changes the treble hunts up into the third place,
then the two first notes make a change; the treble hunts down again,
then the two hindmost notes make a change. First the treble hunts
into the 3d place (a); the two first notes 2.3 make a change (b). The
treble hunts down (c); the two last notes make a change (d); the
treble hunts up (e); the two first notes make a change (f); the treble
hunts down (g); the two last notes make another change (h).
 12345
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a
23145
b 32145
31245
c
13245
d 13254
31254
e
32154
f 23154
21354
g
12354
h 12345
In the Fourteen changes, the treble first hunts up behind; then
the 5 hunts down to lead; the treble then hunts down again into its
own place; and the fifth also hunts up into its own place.
The Twenty all over are rung in the same manner as the Twelve
all over upon four bells, to which I refer.
In the Twenty changes with one hunt, the hunting note
continually hunts up and down through the other notes, and every
time it lies either before or behind them, an extream change must be
made betwixt the two farthest notes from it. The treble shall be the
hunt, and first hunteth up (a). An extream change is made (b); the
treble hunts down (c); an extream change is made (d); which course
must be continued to the end. The extream changes may also be
made betwixt the two next notes to the hunt. Any note may be made
a hunt at pleasure, yet still observing to make the extreams as before.
 12345
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a
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b 32451
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c
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d 13254
In the forty eight changes, the 5th and 4th are both hunts, and 1
2 3 do make the six changes; the 5.4 do hunt down by turns, and
when either of them leads, then one of the six changes is made. First
the 5 hunts down (a); one of the six changes is made (b); the 5 hunts
up into its own place (c); the 4 hunts down (d); another of the six
changes is made (e); then the 4 must hunt up, and the 5 down again,
&c. which course must be continued to the end.
12345
12354
12534
a
15234
51234
b 52134
25134
21534
c
21354
21345
21435
d 24135
42135
e 42315
In the Sixscore changes, four of the notes do make the Twenty
four changes, and the fifth note hunts continually through them: so
that the course and method of the Sixscore is in effect the same with
that of the Four and twenty. For as the Four and twenty
comprehended the Six changes on three; so in like manner the
Sixscore comprehend the Four and twenty changes on four, and the
Six changes on three. Therefore in the Sixscore there must be two
hunts and three extream bells; one of the hunts is term’d the whole-
hunt, and the other the half-hunt, The three extream bells do make
the Six changes in the same manner as they were made before in the
Four and twenty changes upon four bells, and are here also call’d
Extream changes: the half-hunt and three extream bells do make the
Four and twenty changes in the same manner as the Four and twenty
changes on four bells were likewise made: and the whole hunt
continually hunts through those four bells, and every time it either
leads or lies behind them, one change must then be made in the
twenty four. 1 shall here be the whole-hunt, 2 the half-hunt, and 345
extream bells: so that 2345 must make the four and twenty changes.
Every extream change shall be made betwixt the two farthest
extream bells from the half-hunt. First, the treble hunts up (a). One
of the twenty four changes must now be made; and therefore 2 which
is the hunt in the twenty four, must begin its motion through the
extream bells (b). The treble hunts down (c); the half-hunt must
proceed in its course (d); the whole-hunt hunts up (e); The half-hunt
proceeds forward (f); the whole-hunt moves down (g). The half-hunt
should now proceed, but having finished its course through the
extream bells, therefore an extream change must now be made
betwixt the two farthest extream bells from it, which are 3.4 (h). The
treble must hunt up (i); the half-hunt must now begin its course
again through the extream bells (k); treble hunts down (l); the half-
hunt proceeds in its course down (m); treble hunts up (n); the half-
hunt proceeds in its course down (o); treble hunts down (p); the half-
hunt having finished its course, therefore an extream change must be
made betwixt the two farthest extream bells from it, which are 3.5
(q). The treble hunts up (r). The half-hunt begins its motion again
through the extream bells, and first it moves up over 4th (s). The
whole hunt moves down (t); the half-hunt must proceed in its course,
and therefore must move over another note (v). And this method
being observed, will produce sixscore changes, and then the bells will
in course come round. Now ’tis observable, that the changes at (b d f
h k m o q s v x and z), being set down by themselves, that is, the 1 to
be excluded, and the changes on 2345 to be set directly under one
another in the same successive order as they were made, it will
thereby appear, that those four figures have made twelve changes of
the twenty four, according to the method of the first twenty four
changes on four bells before set down. And whereas here are just half
the sixscore changes prickt down, so likewise here are just half the
four and twenty changes made therein: and the remaining part of
this sixscore being likewise prickt, the remaining part of this four
and twenty would also appear therein, which part being added to the
former twelve, would make up the twenty four changes compleat;
and the method of them the same in all respects with the first twenty
four changes on four bells, page.
 12345
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23145
a
23415
23451
b 32451
32415
32145
c
31245
13245
d 13425
31425
34125
e
34215
34251
f 34521
34512
34152
g
31452
13452
h 14352
41352
43152
i
43512
43521
k 43251
43215
43125
l
41325
14325
m 14235
41235
42135
n
42315
42351
 o 24351
24315
24135
p
21435
12435
q 12453
21453
24153
r
24513
24531
s 42531
42513
42153
t
41253
14253
v 14523
41523
45123
w
45213
45231
x 45321
45312
45132
y
41532
14532
z 15432
Any note may be made a whole hunt at pleasure, and its first
motion at the beginning of the peal may either be up or down. Any
note may also be made a half-hunt, and its first motion likewise up or
down at pleasure; yet still observing that the half-hunt and three
extream bells must make the twenty four changes, as in this last
example. So that in the sixscore changes the Learner may observe,
that the three extream bells are always assigned for the half-hunt to
hunt through; and the half-hunt and three extream bells are also
assigned for the whole-hunt to hunt through: so that the whole-hunt
always hunts through four notes, and the half-hunt through three.
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