Classical Physics Lab

Constructor University

Diffraction
LAB REPORT (RIII)

Experiment Carried Out On: November 9th, 2023

Group #3:
Huda Farhat and Zhaniya Yesnazarova

Instructors:
Dr. Patrice Donfack and Dr. Faezeh Mohaghegh

Statement Of Authorship:
We (Huda Farhat and Zhaniya Yesnazarova) hereby declare that we are the sole authors
of this lab report. This lab report has due acknowledgment made.
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

1. Abstract
In this experiment, the diffraction pattern through a single slit diffraction object, from a hair-thin
strand diffraction object, and through a grating plate by red laser light was examined for two
distances between the screen and the object. The slit widths were obtained as 𝑎 = ( 1.0248 ±
−4 −4
0.0064 )·10 m and 𝑎 = ( 1.0027 ± 0.0086 )· 10 m which were in agreement with the
marked literature value of 0.1μm. The diameters of the hair-thin strand were derived to be
−4 −4
𝑎 = ( 1.081 ± 0.016 )· 10 m and 𝑎 = ( 0.9600 ± 0.0037 )·10 m; approximately identical values,
indicating the accuracy of the procedure. The grating constants were deduced as
−6 −6
G = (1.69600± 0.00034)·10 m and G = (1.6770± 0.0086)·10 m, and their average was 𝐺𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
−6
(1.6860 ± 0.0096)·10 m. Additionally, the wavelength of green laser light was determined from two
−9 −9
distances as λ = (536±0.028) · 10 m and λ = (536±0.028) · 10 m, with the literature value
ranging between 520 nm and 532 nm. Lastly, the atomic spectra of argon gas and hydrogen gas
are observed and comparisons are made. For hydrogen gas, wavelengths of the visible colors red,
−9 −9
green, and purple were computed to be (647 ± 4.5)·10 m, (462 ± 3.7)·10 m, and (429 ±
−9
3.6 )·10 m, while their literature values are 650 nm, 550 nm, and 400 nm, respectively. These
7 −1 7 −1
are used and Rydberg’s constant for each color is calculated as 1.129·10 𝑚 , 1.156·10 𝑚 ,
7 −1
and 1.110·10 𝑚 . It was concluded that the diffraction patterns and atomic spectra depend on
the wavelength of the light source and the geometry of the object.

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

2. Introduction

Diffraction is the deviation of a wave from linear propagation. This deviation cannot be reduced
to reflection or refraction, but rather by the curvature of the path of rays due to a change in the
refractive index of the medium. Diffraction consists of the fact that the wave bends around the
edge of the obstacle and enters the region of the geometric shadow. It is crucial to note that the
wave-like nature of light is used to describe diffraction effects. In short, a light wave is an
electromagnetic wave with a wavelength, and frequency that are related by the speed of light.

When a narrow aperture, such as a thin slit or a hair, allows monochromatic light of a specific
wavelength λ to pass through, the resulting image on a screen behind the object is a diffraction
pattern - pattern with alternating intensity minima (dark areas) and maxima (light areas). This
phenomenon occurs due to light's wave-like behavior and the interaction of elementary wavelets
originating from various points along the light wave within the aperture. As the wave penetrates
the opening, each segment can be likened to a miniature wavelet, spreading outward in all
directions.

Young’s Interference or Double Slit Experiment

To grasp the concept of diffraction, the interference of light waves originating from two sources
is examined. It is crucial to mention that these two light waves are coherent, meaning they are
synchronized and possess a clear phase relationship enabling them to interfere. It is done by
splitting light coming from the same light source into two beams. There are constructive and
destructive interferences. First interference occurs when two wave amplitudes at the screen add
up, resulting in a maximum(high-intensity light spot / bright area) and destructive interference
appears when two wave amplitudes compensate each other, resulting in a minimum (a
low-intensity light spot / dark area).

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Light Wave Propagation Through Single Slit

Similarly, waves passing through a single slit, unlike the common notion of a simple single
bright stripe behind the slit on the screen, form an intensity distribution around a central
maximum with minima and maxima. This is due to the fact that every elementary wavelet in the
aperture is interfering with the surrounding wavelets. Since this distribution is continuous,
calculations are made with the location of minima rather than the complex location of maxima.

Formula 2.1 describes the locations of minima for a single slit by relating the λ wavelength of the
light beam, the angle θk of identical order k relative to the central axis, and the slit width a.

(2.1)
In the laboratory work, the value of D is significantly larger than the half of distance d between
minima of identical order, it is valid that 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ. Therefore, formula 2.1 can be rearranged
to formula 2.2.
𝑑

𝑠𝑖𝑛θ ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ= 2
𝐷

𝑑 𝑘*λ
2*𝐷
= 𝑎

2*𝐷*𝑘*λ
𝑎= 𝑑
(2.2)

Babinet’s Theorem and The Relation of Single Slit with Single Strand
Babinet’s Theorem further describes a phenomenon that the diffraction pattern created by a
single aperture is mimicked by that of a single opaque body of similar size and shape, thus can
be dealt with in the same way. In this experiment, this opaque body is a hair-thin strand.

Singular Diffracting Objects and Multiple Diffracting Objects

It is worth noting that the diffraction pattern of the mentioned singular objects fades at the
extremes farther from the central maximum. However, the diffraction pattern of a periodic
structure of parallel diffracting objects is rather concentrations of combined diffraction intensities
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

in certain spots. The structure utilized to illustrate this is a grating plate.

Formula 2.3 describes the locations of maxima by relating the λ wavelength of the light beam,
the angle θk of identical order k relative to the central axis, and the grating constant G which is
the distance between two consecutive parallel diffracting objects on the grating plate.

𝑘*λ
sinθ= 𝐺 (2.3)

This grating is also useful in determining the unknown wavelengths of a light beam.

Atomic Spectral Lines Through Gas Discharge Lamp

The experiment entails a final part involving a gas discharge lamp. The way this works is that the
electrodes (Figure 3.5) excite the electrons of the gas within the tube, causing them to ionize to a
higher energy level (Figure 2.1). Then, these electrons relax back to the n=2 state and release
energy in the form of light. This is now the light source which is diffracted off the grating plate
(diffraction object) onto the ‘screen’ (meter ruler).

Figure 2.1: Energy levels and spectral series in hydrogen atom [1]

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Here, the formed diffraction pattern (light emission pattern) is the splitting of the light from the
source into colors of various wavelengths, like a prism. For a gas with more electrons, the pattern
includes multiple emissions for each color. This pattern is called the Atomic Spectrum of that
specific gas.

To determine the wavelength of spectral lines by a grating with grating constant G, for the
diffraction of the kth order, and the l measured as 2l from left emission to right emission of the
same color and diffraction order, the following relation is used, as deduced from the geometrical
scheme illustrated in Figure 2.2:

(2.4)

Figure 2.2: Atomic Spectrum Setup as a Geometric Scheme [1]

In this experiment, the atomic spectrum for hydrogen is analyzed. As shown in Figure 2.1,
hydrogen atoms in the n=2 state correspond to the Balmer series. The spectral lines in the Balmer
series with m = 3, m = 4, m = 5, m = 6 and m = 7 are called the 𝐻α, 𝐻β, 𝐻γ, 𝐻δ, and 𝐻ϵ lines,

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

respectively. Here, the visible range is only for the colors red (𝐻α), green/blue/cyan (𝐻β), and

violet (𝐻γ).

The mentioned m and n are utilized in formula 2.5 to calculate Rydberg’s constant R. This is a
physical constant that relates to the electromagnetic spectra of an atom.

(2.5)

3. Experimental Methods and Materials

This experiment analyzes the diffraction pattern of a red laser through a single slit (Fig 3.1), by a
hair-thin strand (Fig 3.2), and with a grating plate (Fig 3.3). Using the data, the wavelength of a
green laser with a grating plate is determined (Fig 3.4). Then, a gas discharge lamp is used to
observe atomic spectra (Fig 3.5). Additionally, it is recommended to proceed with this
experiment in a dark room with a small lamp to read measurements for optimum observations.
Note: While performing the experiment, one should always proceed cautiously and NEVER look
directly into any laser.

3.1 Analysing Diffraction Pattern of Red Laser Through a Single Slit

To begin with the experiment, the setup as shown in Figure 3.1 is required. A Helium-Neon
red-light laser, connected to a power source, is secured with a single slit slide mounted on a
holder on an optical bench. This bench is placed perpendicular to a board on the wall being used
as a screen.

This laser emits red light that is monochromatic and highly polarized. In this part of the
procedure, the single slit slide is used as the diffracting object. It should be noted that the laser
beam and the slit should be aligned appropriately so that the reflected laser points back where it
was emitted from.

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Figure 3.1: Set up for Analysing Diffraction Pattern of Red Laser Through a Single Slit [1]

The wavelength of the laser is obtained from the equipment itself and the object is placed at two
certain distances (D1 and D2) from the screen between 0.70m and 1.50m. Now on the screen, the
distance between minima (dk) of identical order is measured for three orders (k). The approach
recommended would be to place a paper where the refracted laser is observed on the screen and
to mark the minima. Then, take away the paper to measure the distance between ‘markings’ of
identical order.

Figure 3.1.1: Sketch of Angle θ Between Central Maximum and Minima [1]
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Using trigonometric ratios of angle θ from Figure 3.1.1, the derived formula 2.2 can be used to
compute a for each d.
3.2 Analysing Diffraction Pattern of Red Laser Through a Hair-Thin Strand

Figure 3.2: Set up for Analysing Diffraction Pattern of Red Laser Through a Hair Thin Strand [1]
For analyzing the diffraction pattern of the red laser through a hair-thin strand, the same
procedure as described previously but with the setup in Figure 3.2 (A Hair-Thin Strand object
replaces a Single Slit object) is followed. The calculated a is the diameter of the hair-thin strand.
3.3 Analysing Diffraction Pattern of Red Laser with a Grating Plate

Figure 3.3: Set up for Analysing Diffraction Pattern of Red Laser With a Grating Plate [1]
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Note: Do not touch the surface of the grating plate.

During this part of the experiment, the diffracting object is a grating plate as displayed in figure
3.3. Similarly, the wavelength of the laser is obtained from the equipment itself and the object is
placed at two certain distances (D1 and D2) from the screen between 0.70m and 1.50m. Now on
the screen, the distance between maxima (sk) of identical order is measured for two orders (k).

Using trigonometric ratios, the formula to calculate angle θ from Figure 3.1.1 is derived (formula
4.3), and formula 4.4 can be used to compute the grating constant G for each s.

3.4 Measuring Wavelength of Green Laser with a Grating Plate

Figure 3.4: Set up for Measuring Wavelength of Green Laser With a Grating Plate [1]
Now, the red laser is switched for a green laser (Figure 3.4). Then, its wavelength is derived
following the same procedure, using the previously determined grating constant, and formula
4.5.

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

3.5 Identifying Atomic Spectra with Gas Discharge Lamp

Figure 3.5: Set Up for Observing Atomic Spectra with Spectral Gas Tube/Gas Discharge Lamp [1]
Note: DO NOT touch the electrodes or the metal electrode holders AT ANY COST!
The final part of the experiment requires the setup illustrated in Figure 3.5. The eyepiece is
where the grating plate is placed at a height of about 50cm and aligned with the light source. The
distance between the ruler and the grating plate is measured as d. The indicated spectral gas tube
is the light source filled with a noble gas operating at high voltages (about 0.7-1.8kV). First
argon gas or neon gas is used to make observations (Figure 3.5.1 and 3.5.2), but no recording is
made. Then, Hydrogen gas is used to collect data.

Figure 3.5.1: Argon Atomic Spectrum Observation [1] Figure 3.5.2: Literature Argon Atomic Spectrum [2]
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

As depicted by Figure 3.5.1, the emission light signature of argon gas was observed. The
spectrum mirrors that of the literature pattern in Figure 3.5.2. Since the colors on the leftmost
side (Figure 3.5.2) have a wavelength too low for the human eye to completely visualize, they
only appear as fading (Figure 3.5.1). It is also significant that the emission light signature of
Argon gas appears in clusters of colors. Similarly, descriptions should be made of a chosen noble
gas.

Figure 3.5.3: Literature Hydrogen Atomic Spectrum [2]

Figure 3.5.4: Hydrogen Atomic Spectrum Observation [1]

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Afterward, the noble gas is switched for hydrogen gas and the observation is as in Figure 3.5.3.
Comparisons with the literature spectrum pattern (Figure 3.5.3) are made. It is evident that the
atomic spectrum is mirrored on both sides of the gas tube (magenta light in the middle of Figure
3.5.4). The rightmost line of light blue/cyan (Figure 3.5.4) is a repetition of the pattern and,
therefore is not to be considered in the following part of the experiment.

Figure 3.5.5: Hydrogen Atomic Spectrum Labeled Observation [1]

Figure 3.5.5 is a focused and labeled version of Figure 3.5.4. As marked, the most intense and
visible pattern lines for the colors red, green, and purple are taken for measurements. The
distance between each respective color is measured as 2l, the grating constant G is retrieved from
before, and the order k is assigned for each color. Then, the wavelength of each color is obtained
from formula 2.4. Additionally, Rydberg’s constant is deduced from formula 2.5.

To determine constants n and m, Figure 3.5.6 is utilized. This represents the energy levels and
spectral series in hydrogen atoms. For the purpose of the experiment, only the Balmer series is
taken into consideration. Implicitly, n for all colors is 2. Determining m for each color needs
referral to the explanation provided in the introduction.

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Figure 3.5.6: Energy Levels and Spectral Series in Hydrogen Atom (fig 2.1) [1]

4. Results
Part 1: Single slit diffraction
−9
The wavelength of the laser is λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8 · 10 m.
The error of distance between the screen and diffracting object is Δ D = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m.
Note: the error of distance D is 0.5 mm because the scale for the optical bench is 1mm.
The error of distance between minima of identical order is Δd = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m.
Note: Since the simple ruler with a scale of 1 mm was used to measure the distance between
minima, the error of distances d is 0.5 mm.

For distance D1 ( between screen and diffracting object)

The first distance between the screen and diffracting object is D1 = 0.885 m
The final result of distance D1 is D1 = (0.88500 ± 0.00050) m
For distance D1 three different diffraction orders (k=3,4,5) were used to measure the distances d
between minima of identical order.
Note: Initial k orders are skipped due to the inability to distinguish minimas that are close to the
central maximum.
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Table 1. The distances d between minima of identical order for three diffraction orders for
distance D1 and the calculated value of the slit width.

D1 (m) k d (m) 𝑎 (m)

3 0.033 0.000101841
0.885 4 0.044 0.000101855

5 0.054 0.000103757

After measuring the distances d between minima of identical order, the slit width 𝑎 has to be

calculated. It is done by using formula 2.2.

2·𝐷·𝑘·λ
𝑎= 𝑑

Note: the values of the slit width 𝑎 are calculated using EXCEL and are illustrated in Table 1.

The literature value of slit width is 0.1 mm. After comparing the values of the slit width 𝑎 that
were obtained from experiment to literature one, it is seen that the values of 𝑎 are reasonable.

After checking the reasonability of the values for 𝑎 (slit width), the average, standard deviation
of slit width and error of the mean has to be calculated.
The average of slit width is calculated by using formula 5.1:
3
1
𝑎= 3
· ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 0.00010248 m
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the slit width is calculated by using formula 5.2:
3 2
1
σ𝑎= 3
· ∑ (𝑎𝑖 − 𝑎) = 0.000001102353 m
𝑖=1
The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

σ𝑎
Δ𝑎 = = 0.000000636 m
3
−4
The final result of a slit width is 𝑎 = ( 1.0248 ± 0.0064 )·10 m

The propagated error of 𝑎 is calculated using formula 5.4 and is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The propagated error for a from D and d.

𝑎 (m) ∆𝑎 (m) Final value of slit width (𝑎) (m)

0.000101841 0.000001544 (1.019±0.016)·10

−4

0.000101855 0.000001159 (1.019±0.012)·10

−4

0.000103757 0.000000962 (1.0376±0.0097)·10

−4

For distance D2 ( between screen and diffracting object)

Second distance between screen and diffracting object is D2 = 1 m
The final result of distance D2 is D2 = (1 ± 0.00050) m
For distance D2 three different diffraction orders (k=4,5,6) were used to measure the distances d
between minima of identical order.

Table 3. The distances d between minima of identical order for three diffraction orders for
distance D2 and the calculated value of the slit width.

D2 (m) k d (m) 𝑎 (m)

4 0.044 0.00010185
1 5 0.056 0.00010006

6 0.068 0.00009890

Note: the values of the slit width 𝑎 are calculated using EXCEL and are illustrated in Table 3.

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The average of slit width is calculated by using formula 5.1:

3
1
𝑎= 3
· ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 0.00010027 m
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the slit width is calculated by using formula 5.2:
3 2
1
σ𝑎= 3
· ∑ (𝑎𝑖 − 𝑎) = 0.00000148841 m
𝑖=1
The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

σ𝑎
Δ𝑎 = = 0.000000859 m
3
−4
The final result of a slit width is 𝑎 = ( 1.0027 ± 0.0086 )·10 m.

The propagated error of 𝑎 is calculated using formula 5.4 and is depicted in Table 4.
Table 4. The propagated error for a from D and d.

𝑎 (m) ∆𝑎 (m) Final value of slit width (𝑎) (m)

0.00010185 0.000001309 (1.018± 0.014)·10

−4

0.00010006 0.000001011 (1.000±0.011)·10

−4

0.00009890 0.000000823 (0.9890±0.0083)·10

−4

Part 2: Diameter of a hair by diffraction

−9
The wavelength of the red laser is λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8 * 10 m
The error of distance between screen and hair is Δ D = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Note: the same ruler was used to measure the distance of minima between identical orders.
For distance D1 ( between screen and a hair)
The first distance between screen and hair is D1 = 0.885 m

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The final result of distance between screen and hair is D1 = (0.88500 ± 0.00050) m
For distance D1 three different diffraction orders (k=3,4,5) were used to measure the distances d
between minima of identical order.
Table 5. The distances d between minima of identical order for three diffraction orders for
distance D1. The calculated value of a hair diameter.

D1 (m) k d (m) 𝑎 (m)

3 0.032 0.000105022
0.885 4 0.041 0.000109303

5 0.051 0.000109855

After measuring the distances d between minima of identical order, a hair diameter 𝑎 has to be

calculated. It is done by using formula 2.2.

2·𝐷·𝑘·λ
𝑎=
𝑑

Note: the values of the hair diameter 𝑎 are calculated using EXCEL and are illustrated in Table
5.
The average, standard deviation of a hair diameter, and error of the mean have to be calculated.
The average of a hair diameter is calculated by using formula 5.1:
3
1
𝑎= 3
· ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 0.000108060 m
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the hair diameter is calculated by using formula 5.2:
3 2
1
σ𝑎= 3
· ∑ (𝑎𝑖 − 𝑎) = 0.000002645 m
𝑖=1
The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:
σ𝑎
Δ𝑎 = = 0.000001527 m
3
−4
The final result of a hair diameter is 𝑎 = ( 1.081± 0.016 )· 10 m
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The propagated error of 𝑎 (ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) is calculated using formula 5.4 and is shown in
Table 6.
Table 6. The propagated error for a from D and d.

𝑎 (m) ∆𝑎 (m) Final value of hair diameter (𝑎) (m)

0.000105022 0.000001642 (1.051±0.017)·10

−4

0.000109303 0.000001334 (1.094±0.014)·10

−4

0.000109855 0.000001078 (1.099±0.011)·10

−4

For distance D2 ( between screen and a hair)

The second distance between screen and hair is D2 = 1 m
The final result of the second distance between screen and hair is D2 = (1± 0.00050) m.
For distance D2 three different diffraction orders (k=3,4,5) were used to measure the distances d
between minima of identical order.
Table 7. The distances d between minima of identical order for three diffraction orders for
distance D2. The calculated value of the hair diameter.

D2 (m) k d (m) 𝑎 (m)

4 0.035 0.00009602
1 5 0.047 0.00009536

6 0.058 0.00009661

After measuring the distances d between minima of identical order, the hair diameter 𝑎 has to be

calculated. It is done by using formula 2.2.

Note: the values of the hair diameter 𝑎 are calculated using EXCEL and are illustrated in Table
7.
The average, standard deviation of hair diameter and error of the mean have to be calculated.

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The average of hair diameter is calculated by using formula 5.1:

3
1
𝑎= 3
· ∑ 𝑎𝑖 3= 0.000095996 m
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the hair diameter is calculated by using formula 5.2:
3 2
1
σ𝑎= 3
· ∑ (𝑎𝑖 − 𝑎) = 0.000000626 m
𝑖=1
The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

σ𝑎
Δ𝑎 = = 0.000000361 m
3
−4
The final result of a hair diameter is 𝑎 = ( 0.9600 ± 0.0037 )· 10 m
The propagated error of 𝑎 (ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) is calculated using formula 5.4 and is depicted in
Table 8.
Table 8. The propagated error for a from D and d.

𝑎 (m) ∆𝑎 (m) Final value of hair diameter (𝑎) (m)

0.00009602 0.000001551 (9.7± 0.16) ·10

−5

0.00009536 0.000001147 (9.6± 0.12)·10

−5

0.00009661 0.000000942 (9.7± 0.095)·10

−5

Part 3: Grating constant

−9
The wavelength of the laser is λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8 · 10 m
The error of distance between screen and grating is Δ D = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Note: the error of distance D is 0.5 mm, because the scale for the optical bench is 1mm.
The error of maxima of the diffraction pattern is Δs= 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Note: Since the simple ruler with the scale of 1 mm was used to measure the distance between
maxima, the error of distance s is 0.5 mm.
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The first distance used between screen and grating is D1 = 0.153 m

Using the uncertainty from before, the final value of this is D1 = (0.15300 ± 0.00050) m.
For distance D1 two different diffraction orders (k=1, 2) were used to measure the distance s
between maxima of identical order.
Table 9. The values of D1, k, s, θ and G

D1 (m) k s (m) θ (rad) G (m)

0.153 1 0.123 0.3821956 0.000001697

2 0.343 0.8423473 0.000001696

Firstly, in order to find the value of grating constant, the angle θ between maxima and the central
maximum has to be found. The geometrical visualization of the triangle is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1. The geometrical visualization of the triangle of D1 and s/2.

The formula 4.3 is used.

𝑠

tan θ =
2
(4.3)
𝐷
Note: the values of angle are calculated using the EXCEL and are depicted in Table 9.
After the value of angle is obtained, the grating constant can be calculated by using 4.4 (modified

form of formula 2.3).

𝑠
2
sinθ =
2 𝑠 2
𝐷 +( 2 )

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Formula 4.4 is the final formula for calculating grating constant,

𝑘·λ
G= 𝑠 (4.4)
2

2 𝑠 2
𝐷 +( 2 )

Note: the values of grating constant G are found and illustrated in Table 9.
After all calculations are done, it is required to calculate the average, standard deviation of G and
error of the mean.
The average of G is found with the usage of formula 5.1:
2
1
𝐺 = 2
· ∑ 𝐺𝑖 = 0.000001696 m
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the grating constant is calculated by using formula 5.2:
2
1 2
σ𝐺= 2
· ∑ (𝐺𝑖 − 𝐺) = 0.000000000468 m
𝑖=1

The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

σ𝐺
Δ𝐺 = = 0.0000000003306 m
2
−6
The final result of the averaged grating constant is G = (1.69600± 0.00034)·10 m
Estimation of the propagated error of 𝐺 (grating constant) from the uncertainties in D and s is
calculated using formulas 5.5; 5.6; 5.7 and 5.8.

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝐷 )
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 5: 0.0234
= ( 0.153
) +( 0.153
)
2
∆(𝐷 ) = 0.000108187 (m)

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝑠 )
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 6: 2 = ( 𝑠
) +( 𝑠
)
𝑠

22
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

2
Table 10.The propagated error of 𝑠 .

s (m) 2
∆(𝑠 ) (m)

0.123 0.00008697

0.343 0.00024254

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 7: ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) = (∆𝑠 ) + (∆𝐷 )

2 2 2 𝑠 2
Table 11. The error of ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) and 𝐷 +(2)

2 2
∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) (m) 2 𝑠 2
∆ 𝐷 + ( 2 ) (m)

0.000138813 0.000069406

0.000265573 0.000132786

Using formula 5.8 to find the propagated error of grating constant G:

Table 12: The propagated error for G from D and d and the final value of grating
constant.

G (m) ∆G (m) Final result of G (m)

0.000001697 0.000000006934 (1.6970 ±0.0070) · 10

−6

0.000001696 0.000000002659 (1.6960 ±0.0027)· 10

−6

For distance D2:

The second distance between the screen and grating is D2 = 0.2 m
Using the uncertainty previously mentioned, the final value is D2=(0.20000 ± 0.00050)m.

23
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

For distance D2 two different diffraction orders (k=1, 2) were used to measure the distance s
between maxima of identical order.
Table 13. The values of D2, k, s, θ and G

D1 (m) k s (m) θ (rad) G (m)

0.2 1 0.164 0.3890972 0.000001668

2 0.455 0.8496376 0.000001685

Firstly, in order to find the value of grating constant, the angle θ between maxima and the central
maximum has to be found. The geometrical visualization of the triangle is the same as shown in
Figure 4.2. The final formula 4.3 is used.
Note: the values of angle are calculated using the EXCEL and are depicted in Table 13.
Figure 4.2. The geometrical visualization of the triangle of D2 and s/2.

After the value of angle is obtained, the grating constant can be calculated by using 4.4.

Note: the values of grating constant G are found and illustrated in Table 13.
After all calculations are done, it is required to calculate the average, standard deviation of G and
error of the mean.

The average of G is found with the usage of formula 5.1:

2
1
G= 2
· ∑ 𝐺𝑖 = 0.000001677 m
𝑖=0

24
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The standard deviation of the grating constant is calculated by using formula 5.2:
2
1 2
σ𝐺= 2
· ∑ (𝐺𝑖 − 𝐺) = 0.00000001204 m
𝑖=1

The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

σ𝐺
Δ𝐺 = = 0.00000000851 m
2
−6
The final result of averaged grating constant is G = (1.6770± 0.0086) ·10 m
Estimation of the propagated error of 𝐺 (grating constant) from the uncertainties in D and s is
calculated using formulas 5.5; 5.6; 5.7 and 5.8.

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝐷 ) 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 5: 0.04
= ( 0.2
) +( 0.2
) ∆(𝐷 ) = 0.000184865(m)

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝑠 )
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 6: 2 = ( 𝑠
) +( 𝑠
)
𝑠

2
Table 10.The propagated error of 𝑠 .

s (m) 2
∆(𝑠 ) (m)

0.164 0.000115966

0.455 0.000321734

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 7: ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) = (∆𝑠 ) + (∆𝐷 )

25
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

2 2 2 𝑠 2
Table 11. The error of ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) and 𝐷 +(2)

2 2
∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) (m) 2 𝑠 2
∆ 𝐷 + ( 2 ) (m)

0.000218227 0.000109113

0.000371063 0.000185531
Using formula 5.8 to find the propagated error of grating constant G:
Table 12: The propagated error for G from D and d and the final value of grating
constant.

G (m) ∆G (m) Final result of G (m)

0.000001668 0.000000005155 (1.6680 ±0.0052) · 10

−6

0.000001685 0.000000002123 (1.6850 ±0.0022) · 10

−6

Part 4: Determination of the wavelength of a green laser

The average of averages of grating constant is used in this part.
The average grating constant is G = 0.000001686 m
The error of the grating constant is ΔG = 0.0000000095 m
−6
The final value for this average grating constant is G = (1.6860 ± 0.0096)·10 m
The first distance between the screen and the grating is D1= 0.2 m.
The error of D1 is Δ D1 = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Note: the error of distance D1 is 0.5 mm, because the scale for the optical bench is 1mm.
For distance D1 two different diffraction orders (k=1, 2) were used to measure the distance s
between maxima of identical order.
The error of s is Δs = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m.
Note: Since, the simpler ruler with the scale of 1 mm was used to measure the distance between
minima, the error of distance s is 0.5 mm.
26
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Table 13. The values of D1, k, s, θ and λ

D1 (m) k s (m) θ (rad) λ (m)

0.2 1 0.134 0.323249 0.000000536

2 0.329 0.688310 0.000000536

First and foremost, in order to find the value of wavelength, the angle θ between maxima and the
central maximum has to be found. The geometrical visualization of the triangle is the same as
shown in Figure 4.1. The formula 4.3 is used.
Note: the values of angle are calculated using the EXCEL and are depicted in Table 13.
After the value of angle is obtained, the wavelength of the green laser can be calculated by using
formula 4.5.
Formula 4.5 is the final formula to calculate the wavelength.
𝑠
2
·𝐺
2 𝑠 2
𝐷 +( )
λ= 𝑘
2
(4.5)

Note: the values of wavelength of green laser are found and illustrated in Table 13.
After all calculations are done, it is required to calculate the average, standard deviation of
wavelength of green laser and error of the mean.
The average of λ is found with the usage of formula 5.1:

2
1
λ = 2
· ∑ λ𝑖 = 0.000000536 m
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the wavelength of green laser is calculated by using formula 5.2:
2
1 2
σλ= 2
· ∑ (λ𝑖 − λ) = 0.000000000039386 m
𝑖=1
The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

27
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

σλ
Δλ = = 0.00000000002785 m
2
−9
The final result of the wavelength is λ = (536± 0.028) · 10 m

Estimate the propagated error in λ from the uncertainties in D, s, and G. It is done by using
formulas 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 and 5.9.

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝐷 ) 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 5: 0.04
= ( 0.2
) +( 0.2
) ∆(𝐷 ) = 0.000184865 (m)

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝑠 )
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 6: 2 = ( 𝑠
) +( 𝑠
)
𝑠

2
Table 14.The propagated error of 𝑠 .

s (m) 2
∆(𝑠 ) (m)

0.134 0.00009475

0.329 0.00023264

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 7: ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) = (∆𝑠 ) + (∆𝐷 )

2 2 2 𝑠 2
Table 15. The error of ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) and 𝐷 +(2)

2 2
∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) (m) 2 𝑠 2
∆ 𝐷 + ( 2 ) (m)

0.000207733 0.000103866

0.000297145 0.000148573

28
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

Using formula 5.9 to find the propagated error of wavelength of green laser:
Table 16: The propagated error for λ from D and d and the final value of wavelength
of green laser.

λ (m) ∆λ (m) Final result of λ (m)

0.000000536 0.000000003629 −9
(536 ±3.7)·10

0.000000536 0.000000003140 −9
(536 ±3.2)·10

For distance D2.

The second distance between the screen and the grating is D2 = 0.3 m.
The error of D2 is Δ D2 = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m.
Note: the error of distance D2 is 0.5 mm because the scale for the optical bench is 1mm.
For distance D2 two different diffraction orders (k=1, 2) were used to measure the distances s
between maxima of identical order.
The error of s is Δs = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Note: Since the simpler ruler with the scale of 1 mm was used to measure the distance between
minima, the error of distances s is 0.5 mm.
Table 17. The values of D2, k, s,θ and λ

D2 (m) k s (m) θ (rad) λ (m)

0.2 1 0.200 0.321751 0.000000533

2 0.487 0.681814 0.000000531

First and foremost, in order to find the value of wavelength, the angle θ between maxima and the
central maximum has to be found. The geometrical visualization of the triangle is the same as
shown in Figure 4.2. The formula 4.3 is used.
Note: the values of angle are calculated using the EXCEL and are depicted in Table 17.

29
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

After the value of angle is obtained, the wavelength of the green laser can be calculated by using
final formula 4.5.

Note: the values of wavelength of green laser are found and illustrated in Table 17.
After all calculations are done, it is required to calculate the average, standard deviation of
wavelength of green laser and error of the mean.

The average of λ is found with the usage of formula 5.1:

2
1
λ = 2
· ∑ λ𝑖 = 0.000000532 m
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the wavelength of green laser is calculated by using formula 5.2:
2
1 2
σλ= 2
· ∑ (λ𝑖 − λ) = 0.000000001343219 m
𝑖=1
The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

σλ
Δλ = = 0.000000000949799 m
2
−9
The final wavelength is λ = (532± 0.95) · 10 m

Estimate the propagated error in λ from the uncertainties in D, s, and G. It is done by using
formulas 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 and 5.9.

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝐷 ) 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 5: 0.09
= ( 0.3
) +( 0.3
) ∆(𝐷 ) = 0.000212132 (m)

0.0005 2 0.0005 2
2
∆(𝑠 )
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 6: 2 = ( 𝑠
) +( 𝑠
)
𝑠

30
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

2
Table 18.The propagated error of 𝑠 .

s (m) 2
∆(𝑠 ) (m)

0.200 0.00014142

0.487 0.00034436

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 5. 7: ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) = (∆𝑠 ) + (∆𝐷 )

2 2 2 𝑠 2
Table 19. The error of ∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) and 𝐷 +(2)

2 2
∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) (m) 2 𝑠 2
∆ 𝐷 + ( 2 ) (m)

0.000254951 0.000127475

0.000404456 0.000202228

Using formula 5.9 to find the propagated error of wavelength of green laser:
Table 20: The propagated error for λ from D and d and the final value wavelength of
green laser.

λ (m) ∆λ (m) Final result of λ (m)

0.000000533 0.000000003294 (533 ±3.3)·10

−9

0.000000531 0.000000003055 (531 ±3.1)·10

−9

The literature value of the wavelength of green laser light ranges between 520 nm and
532 nm. [3]
Part 5: Atomic spectra
The average of averages of the grating constant is used in this part.
The average grating constant is G = 0.000001686 m
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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The error of grating constant is ΔG = 0.0000000095 m

−6
The final value for grating constant is G = (1.6860 ± 0.0096)·10 m
The distance between the ruler (screen) and the eyepiece (grating plate) is d = 0.325 m.
The error of d is Δd = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Note: the scale of the measuring tape was 1mm, so the error of d is half of the scale.
The final value for this distance is d = (0.32500 ± 0.00050) m

Table 21. The wavelength of the visible lines of the Balmer series for 3 colors

Color 2l λ (nm) k Rydberg’s constant n m Literature

𝑚
−1 value (nm) λ
[4]

red 0.270 647 1 11129174.78 2 3 656

green 0.185 462 1 11552357.53 2 4 486

purple 0.171 429 1 11098021.94 2 5 410

The values of wavelength are calculated by using formula 2.4 and depicted in Table 21.
𝐺·𝑙
λ= 2 2
𝑘· 𝑑 +𝑙
The propagated error of wavelength is calculated using formula 5.9 and is shown in Table 22.
Table 22. The final value of wavelength with its uncertainty.

λ (m) Δλ (m) The final result of wavelength (m)

647·10
−9 0.0000000044173 (647 ± 4.5)·10
−9

462·10
−9 0.0000000036376 (462 ± 3.7)·10
−9

429·10
−9 0.0000000035316 (429 ± 3.6 )·10
−9

32
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

After the wavelength of the visible lines of the Balmer series in the hydrogen spectrum is
determined, the value of the Rydberg’s constant has to be calculated, using formula 2.5.
The average of R(the Rydberg’s constant) is found with the usage of formula 5.1:
3
1 −1
𝑅= · ∑ 𝑅𝑖 = 11259851.42 𝑚
3
𝑖=0
The standard deviation of the Rydberg’s constant is calculated by using formula 5.2:
3
1 2 −1
σ𝑅= 3
· ∑ (𝑅𝑖 − 𝑅) = 253796 𝑚
𝑖=1
The error of the mean is calculated with the usage of formula 5.3:

σ𝑅 −1
Δ𝑅 = = 146529 𝑚
3
7 −1
Th final value for the average Rydberg’s constant is R=(1.126 ± 0.015 ) ·10 𝑚 .
5. Account Uncertainties and Error Estimation
The formula to find the average/mean value:
𝑛
1
𝑥= 𝑛
· ∑ 𝑥𝑖 (5.1)
𝑖=0
The formula to find the value of standard deviation
𝑛 2
1
σ𝑥= 𝑛
· ∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥) (5.2)
𝑖=1

The formula to find an uncertainty of experimental result is the averaged error of the mean.

The average error of the mean (standard error of the mean) (5.3)

33
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

The propagated error of 𝑎(slit width for task 1 or hair diameter for task 2) is calculated by using
formula 5.4
∂𝑎 2 ∂𝑎 2
∆𝑎 = ( ∂𝐷 · ∆𝐷) + ( ∂𝑑 · ∆𝑑)
∂𝑎 2·𝑘·λ
∂𝐷
= 𝑑

∂𝑎 2·𝑘·λ·𝐷
∂𝑑
= - 2
𝑑

2·𝑘·λ 2 2·𝑘·λ·𝐷 2
∆𝑎 = ( 𝑑
· ∆𝐷) + ( 2 · ∆𝑑) (5.4)
𝑑

The propagated error of grating constant G:

2 𝑠 2
First and foremost, the propagated error of 𝐷 + ( 2 ) has to be found:
2
1) The error of 𝐷 is calculated. Since it is the square of D, 2 relative errors of distance D
add up. It is done by using formula 5.5:

∆𝐷 2 ∆𝐷 2
2
∆(𝐷 )
2 = ( 𝐷
) +( 𝐷
) (5.5)
𝐷

2
2) The error of 𝑠 is calculated. Since it is square of s, the addition of 2 relative errors of
distance s has to be done by using formula 5.6:

∆𝑠 2 ∆𝑠 2
2
∆(𝑠 )
2 = ( 𝑠
) +( 𝑠
) (5.6)
𝑠

2 2
3) After errors of ∆𝐷 and ∆𝑠 are found, the error from their sum has to be demonstrated.
Since it is a sum of squares of distances D and s, the sum of their absolute errors are done
using formula 5.7:

2 2 2 2 2 2
∆( 𝐷 + 𝑠 ) = (∆𝑠 ) + (∆𝐷 ) (5.7)

2 𝑠 2
Lastly, since 𝐷 + ( 2 ) is under square root, then the final error will be the half of error

calculated by using formula 5.7.

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 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

𝑠 2
4) After finding the error of
2
𝐷 +(2) , it is required to find the error of a from
2 𝑠 2
𝐷 +( 2 ) 2 𝑠 2
. The errors of 𝐷 + ( 2 ) and s are known, since s is a ratio of them,
𝑠

2 𝑠 2
the error of grating constant G is a sum of relative errors of 𝐷 + ( 2 ) and s be

calculated using formula 5.8:

2
2 𝑠 2
∆(𝐺) ∆ 𝐷 +( ) ∆𝑠 2
𝐺
= ( 2
) +( 𝑠
) (5.8)
2 𝑠 2
𝐷 +( 2
)

The error of wavelength is a sum of relative errors of sinθ and grating constant G.

2
2 𝑠 2
∆λ ∆ 𝐷 +( ) ∆𝑠 2 ∆𝐺 2
λ
= ( 2
) +( 𝑠
)+ ( 𝐺
) (5.9)
2 𝑠 2
𝐷 +( 2
)

6. Discussion and Conclusion

First, the diffraction pattern through a single slit diffraction object by a red laser light was
analyzed for two distances (D1 = (0.88500 ± 0.00050) m and D2 = (1.00000 ± 0.00050) m)
between the screen and diffracting object to obtain the width of the slit. The final values for this
−4 −4
were 𝑎 = ( 1.0248 ± 0.0064 )·10 m and 𝑎 = ( 1.0027 ± 0.0086 )· 10 m, while the literature
value of the slit width was marked as 0.1μm. Similarly, the diffraction pattern by a hair-thin
strand diffraction object was examined to derive the diameter of the hair. The resultant values
−4 −4
were 𝑎 = ( 1.081 ± 0.016 )·10 m and 𝑎 = ( 0.9600 ± 0.0037 )· 10 m. These almost identical
values signify that the performed procedure was accurate.

35
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

After having determined all errors (statistical error from repetitive measurements and propagated
error from instruments), the different results of errors must be evaluated and compared. Ideally,
an experimental method should be so precise that the instrumental errors are smaller compared to
the statistical errors from repetitive measurements. After comparing the obtained values for
statistical and propagated error from instruments, it can be seen that their values are close,
however, they differ at some point, and the value for propagated error is bigger than the
statistical one.

It is worth noting that while measuring the distance between minima, the farther identical order
is more convenient to measure the distance since it becomes easier to identify the dark area that
is occurring because of destructive interference. The major error source is the distance between
minima of identical order. It can be said that the propagated error is dependent on k since the

way the distance between minima of identical order is measured depends on k. After analyzing
the values of propagated errors, it is noticeable that the value of that decreases whenever the
identical order k goes higher.

Consequently, for this, it can be concluded that the value of propagated error can be reduced to a
very small value by taking identical orders farther from the central maximum where the minima
are seen precisely. Since the values that would be obtained at bigger identical orders are more
precise, the values of d will be accurate, making the major error source a small value.

Following this, the diffraction pattern through a grating plate by a red laser light was observed
for two distances (D1 = (0.15300 ± 0.00050) m and D2 = (0.20000 ± 0.00050) m ) between the
screen and diffracting object to derive the grating constant of the grating plate. Resultantly, the
−6
grating constant was derived to be G = (1.69600± 0.00034)·10 m and G = (1.6770± 0.0086) ·
−6
10 m.

36
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

−6
Then, the average grating constant was computed to be 𝐺𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (1.6860 ± 0.0096)·10 m. Using

this, the wavelength of green laser light was deduced, from two distances (D1 = (0.20000 ±
0.00050) m and D2 = (0.30000 ± 0.00050) m) between the screen and diffracting object, to be λ
−9 −9
= (536±0.028)·10 m and λ = (536±0.028)·10 m which lie between the literature range of
520 nm and 532 nm.

Afterward, the atomic spectra were identified through a gas discharge lamp. At first, argon gas
was observed to, later, make comparisons with hydrogen gas. It was perceived that since argon is
a gas that has eighteen electrons and hydrogen has only one electron, the visible emission is
present in clusters for argon while in individual lines for hydrogen. This is due to the
significantly more excitable electrons (more light sources) within argon. It can also be noted that
the observed spectra were, more or less, identical to the presented literature patterns.

Lastly, the wavelengths for the colors red, green, and purple (as indicated in figure 3.5.5), for the
−9
observed atomic spectrum of hydrogen gas, are determined to be (647 ± 4.5)·10 m, (462 ±
−9 −9
3.7)·10 m, and (429 ± 3.6 )·10 m, respectively. Analogously, their literature values are 650
nm, 550 nm, and 400 nm. Relatively, the attained wavelengths agree with the literature values.
7
Additionally, these results were used to obtain Rydberg’s constant for each color as 1.129·10
−1 7 −1 7 −1
𝑚 , 1.156·10 𝑚 , and 1.110·10 𝑚 , correspondingly. To compare with the textbook value
7 −1
of 1.097·10 𝑚 for Rydberg’s constant, the average was calculated to be R=(1.126 ± 0.015 ) ·
7 −1
10 𝑚 , which implied a slight deviation of results, possibly due to human errors while reading
the distances between the spectral lines.

On the whole, the single slit diffraction pattern showed a central maximum and several
secondary maxima, whose width and intensity decreased with increasing order. The hair-thin
strand diffraction pattern showed a similar pattern but with less distinct maxima. The grating
plate diffraction pattern showed a series of bright spots, whose angular separation increased with
37
 Diffraction of Visible Light - Lab Report

increasing order. The atomic spectra for argon and hydrogen gas showed discrete emission lines,
whose wavelengths corresponded to the energy transitions of the electrons in the atoms.

In conclusion, the observations illustrated the dependency of diffraction patterns and atomic
spectra on the light source’s wavelength and the object’s geometry.

7. References
[1] Photo taken by Zhaniya Yesnazarova (November 9th, 2023), Edited and Labeled by Huda
Farhat (November 14th, 2023)

[2] Photo taken by Zhaniya Yesnazarova (November 9th, 2023), Literature Value Paper Provided
at Lab

[3]Visible Wavelength Handheld Laser Pointers. (n.d.). Webb.

https://phc.amedd.army.mil/PHC%20Resource%20Library/Laser%20Pointer%20FS_24-031-061
7.pdf

[4]Spectroscopy 101 – How Absorption and Emission Spectra Work. (n.d.). Webb.
https://webbtelescope.org/contents/articles/spectroscopy-101--how-absorption-and-emission-spe
ctra-work#:~:text=In%20the%20visible%20part%20of,to%20a%20specific%20electron%20jum
p

38