1) Mid-IR spectroscopy can be used to monitor chemical reactions in-situ through the use of ATR probes, allowing reactions to be monitored without requiring sampling. For example, a study monitored sucrose fermentation over 1800 minutes with changes in reactants and products evident in the spectra.
2) Mid-IR spectroscopy with grazing angle reflection accessories can detect low chemical concentrations on surfaces like metals. This allows validation of cleaning processes without offline swab testing. For example, acetaminophen residues as low as 0.33 g/cm2 were detected on aluminum.
3) The fundamental strengths of mid-IR spectroscopy, like strong absorption coefficients and sampling techniques like ATR and grazing angle reflection, provide advantages over N
1) Mid-IR spectroscopy can be used to monitor chemical reactions in-situ through the use of ATR probes, allowing reactions to be monitored without requiring sampling. For example, a study monitored sucrose fermentation over 1800 minutes with changes in reactants and products evident in the spectra.
2) Mid-IR spectroscopy with grazing angle reflection accessories can detect low chemical concentrations on surfaces like metals. This allows validation of cleaning processes without offline swab testing. For example, acetaminophen residues as low as 0.33 g/cm2 were detected on aluminum.
3) The fundamental strengths of mid-IR spectroscopy, like strong absorption coefficients and sampling techniques like ATR and grazing angle reflection, provide advantages over N
1) Mid-IR spectroscopy can be used to monitor chemical reactions in-situ through the use of ATR probes, allowing reactions to be monitored without requiring sampling. For example, a study monitored sucrose fermentation over 1800 minutes with changes in reactants and products evident in the spectra.
2) Mid-IR spectroscopy with grazing angle reflection accessories can detect low chemical concentrations on surfaces like metals. This allows validation of cleaning processes without offline swab testing. For example, acetaminophen residues as low as 0.33 g/cm2 were detected on aluminum.
3) The fundamental strengths of mid-IR spectroscopy, like strong absorption coefficients and sampling techniques like ATR and grazing angle reflection, provide advantages over N
1) Mid-IR spectroscopy can be used to monitor chemical reactions in-situ through the use of ATR probes, allowing reactions to be monitored without requiring sampling. For example, a study monitored sucrose fermentation over 1800 minutes with changes in reactants and products evident in the spectra.
2) Mid-IR spectroscopy with grazing angle reflection accessories can detect low chemical concentrations on surfaces like metals. This allows validation of cleaning processes without offline swab testing. For example, acetaminophen residues as low as 0.33 g/cm2 were detected on aluminum.
3) The fundamental strengths of mid-IR spectroscopy, like strong absorption coefficients and sampling techniques like ATR and grazing angle reflection, provide advantages over N
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Molecular Spectroscopy Workbench
Applications for Mid-IR Spectroscopy in the Pharmaceutical Process Environment
Mid-IR continues to prove its usefulness as a process analytical technology. Mark A. Druy, Ph.D.
Hello again, fellow analysts. I trust that you all had a jolly holiday season. I assume you all have had a chance to read the Process Analytical Technologies (PAT) Guidance and are eagerly awaiting the final draft. In the meantime, I will continue to highlight the tools of PAT. As promised, I am bringing you a taste of what can be done in PAT with that wonderful standby, midrange infrared spectroscopy. I have always agreed that no analytical lab can do its best work without an infrared spectrometer, but, now, Mark Druy (Director of Analytical Systems Development, Argose, Inc., Waltham, MA) has shown us that the old standby has a place in PAT, too.
Emil W. Ciurczak works as a consultant with Integrated Technical Solutions, 77 Park Road, Goldens Bridge, NY 10526. He can be reached via e-mail at: emil@ciurczak.com.
id-infrared (midIR) spectroscopy is perhaps one of the most widely used vibrational spectroscopic techniques. However, when it comes to being used in a pharmaceutical process environment, it trails near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy in popularity. This installment of Molecular Spectroscopy Workbench examines one of the key differences between NIR and mid-IR spectroscopy and highlights a couple of applications where mid-IR spectroscopy can be employed effectively in the pharmaceutical process environment.
The differences in the spectral properties of materials in the mid-IR and NIR are related to the fact that the absorption coefficients of the vibrational modes that are observed in the NIR are much weaker than the absorption coefficients associated with mid-IR vibrations. This is because the NIR vibrational modes are composed of overtones of fundamental molecular vibrations. The fundamental vibrations occur in the mid-IR spectral range. The absorption bands that are present in the NIR range (13,0004000 cm-1, or 7502500 nm) are weaker in intensity. In addition, they consist of broad,
overlapping bands that arise from the combinations and overtones of the fundamental vibrations in the mid-IR (4000400 cm-1, or 250025,000 nm). The Beer-Lambert law relates the absorbance of an observed band to the pathlength of the sample that the infrared energy passes through to its concentration and absorption coefficient. It can be expressed as: where A is the absorbance and is the absorption coefficient, c is the concentration, and l is the pathlength (or thickness of the sample). One can look at this relationship in the following manner: as the absorption coefficient decreases, the pathlength of the sample must increase to measure the absorbance of a material. Conversely, if the absorption coefficient is strong, then the pathlength must decrease, otherwise the measured value of absorbance will saturate the detector of an infrared spectrometer. A = cl
Table I. Vendors of Mid-IR Spectrometers and Probes for Process Applications Vendor Product Web Info Axiom Analytical DPR-207, DMD-270 ATR probes www.goaxiom.com Hamilton Sundstrand Analect ChemEye www.hs-ait.com Mettler Autochem ReactIR 4000 www.asirxn.com Midac Illuminator www.midac.com Remspec ReactionView Spotview probes and spectrometers www.remspec.com
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Ultimately, the relationship expressed by the Beer-Lambert law is one of the key reasons for the use of NIR spectroscopy in the process environment in pharmaceutical development. The weak absorption coefficients mean that a long pathlength can be used for samples and the samples dont have to be diluted with infrared transparent materials for suitable analyses to be performed. In other words, in NIR spectroscopy sample preparation is virtually nonexistent and many processes can be monitored on-line. The use of cross-stream transmission cells for the analysis of liquids as well as diffuse reflectance fiber-optic probes for the analysis of powders are common techniques used in NIR. Mid-IR spectroscopy, on the other hand, because of the strength of the absorption coefficients for the fundamental vibrations, is uniquely suited for certain aspects of the pharmaceutical process environment. Two examples that we will cover in this column are the ability to monitor the progress of chemical reactions in situ and the ability to determine the cleanliness of pharmaceutical equipment surfaces without the need for swabbing and off-line analysis of the swab.
Transmission
From IR source
To IR detector Sample, with pathlength l ATR Sample
From IR source Interaction of infrared with sample
To IR detector
Figure 1. Comparison of transmission and attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy.
Figure 2. The ReactionView fiber-optic ATR probe.
Monitoring of Chemical Reactions In Situ
The advent of the attenuated total reflectance (ATR) technique (1) has liberated users of mid-IR spectroscopy from laborious sample preparation techniques for obtaining high-quality spectra suitable for performing quantitative analysis. Before the development of ATR sampling accessories, because of the aforementioned strong absorption coefficients, one would have to dilute the material of interest in another infrared-transparent material, such as KBr or Nujol, before making a transmission measurement. With the
development of the ATR technique and of chemically inert and hard diamond ATR optical elements, one now has the ability to obtain an infrared spectrum on almost any material imaginable. When one combines the ATR technique with fiber optics or optical conduits, the possibility of monitoring chemical reactions in situ is realized, as evidenced by the number vendors offering products for this application (Table I). In particular, chemical reactions that are performed in slurries or other optically scattering media are quite easily monitored with ATR. This is because the optical pathlength through the Circle 54 February 2004
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sample is quite short because the Start infrared beam doesnt pass 0.35 Time = 200 min through the entire sample (as in Time = 1800 min 0.30 the transmission technique), but 0.25 rather interacts with the surface 0.20 and a few micrometers deep into 0.15 the material (Figure 1). An example of the use of mid0.10 IR spectroscopy for in-situ moni1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 toring is following the fermentaWavenumber (cm-1) tion of sucrose. This is an important application because of the Figure 3. Comparison of spectra obtained during development and commercializasucrose fermentation at the start of the experiment, tion of a wide range of biotech200 min, and 1800 min. nology processes (2) and is meant as an example of how mid-IR will become increasingly important in 20 the PAT initiative. The Web sites Sucrose Fructose of the vendors cited in this Glucose 15 column provide similar examples Ethanol to the one discussed below. 10 In this investigation, a Remspec (Sturbridge, MA) ReactionView 50 fiber-optic probe (Figure 2) and detector module were coupled to 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 a Vector 22 FT-IR spectrometer Time (min) (Bruker; Billerica, MA) to obtain spectra during the fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Figure 4. Time concentration profile (first 160 min) (bakers yeast) using a glucose for the sucrose fermentation experiment. substrate. Figure 3 shows a comparison of the spectra at the start of the experiment, at 200 min, and address the issue of residual acceptable at 1800 min. The changes in the spectra limits (RALS) (4, 5). To meet these guidelines, many are evident, but because of the overlapindustrial organizations adopted a techping nature of the spectra it is not possible to use a direct peak area analy- nique known as swab testing (6). Swab testing is inherently an off-line process sis to develop a quantitative prediction in which the swab that has been used to for the changes in the reactants and the wipe the presumably clean surface must products as the reaction progresses. be taken to an analytical lab for analyIn this example, a partial least sis, typically with high performance squares calibration was developed from liquid chromatography (HPLC). Many more than 2000 spectra. A relationship organizations have used the figure of between the concentration of the prodmerit of 5 mg/cm2 for RALs (7). Very ucts (fructose, glucose, and ethanol) few vibrational spectroscopic techand the reactant (sucrose) was deterniques have this level of sensitivity. mined. Figure 4 shows these results for One such technique combines a midthe first 160 minutes of the reaction. IR spectrometer with a reflection Cleaning Validation in a absorption accessory. Mid-IR spectromPharmaceutical Reactor eters, when used with a grazing angle The pharmaceutical industry has been incidence reflection accessory, have the discussing the problem of cleaning vali- ability to detect low chemical concendation for the past decade (3). In the trations on reflective surfaces such as mid-1990s FDA published guidelines metals (8). To bring this reflection techfor validating cleaning processes that nique and others into the process envi62 Spectroscopy 19(2) February 2004
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Concentration (wt%)
Absorbance
0.04
Absorbance
1.64 0.66 0.33
g/cm 2 g/cm 2 g/cm 2
0.03 0.02 0.01
1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100
Wavenumber (cm-1) Figure 5. Spectra of acetaminophen on aluminum (0.33, 0.66, and 1.64 g/cm2).
True load ( g/cm2)
4 3 2 1 0
mid-IR range namely, the strong absorption coefficients of the fundamental vibrational modes and the availability of sampling interfaces that exploit these strengths. In closing, before making the capital expense that results in the purchase of spectroscopic instrumentation for a process application, end users must have a firm understanding of what they are trying to measure and the limitations/advantages of the proposed measurement technique. The manpower cost resulting from a poor understanding inevitably will outweigh the cost of the capital equipment.
References 1. B.C. Smith, Fundamentals of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1996). 2. Z.A. Mosheky, P.J. Melling, and M.A. Thomson, Spectroscopy 16(6), 15 (2001). 3. R.-C. Hwang, American Pharmaceutical Review, Fall 2002. 4. Food and Drug Administration, Guide to Inspections of Validation of Cleaning Processes Division of Field Investigations, Office of Regional Operations, Office of Regulatory Affairs, pp. 17, July 1993. Code of Federal Regulations, Food and Drugs, Title 21, Part 211.67 (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC). Cleaning Procedures and Protocols in Focus, Gold Sheet, 27 (1983). M.J. Shifflet and M. Shapiro, American Pharmaceutical Review, Summer 2002. P.R. Griffiths and J.A. DeHaseth, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (John Wiley, New York, 1986). R.M. Carangelo, M.A. Druy, Wi.A. Stevenson, and P.J. Glatkowski, Non-Contact Spectroscopy System and Process, U.S. Patent 5,841,546 (United States Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC). P.J. Melling and P. Shelley, Spectroscopic Accessory for Examining Films and Coatings on Solid Surfaces, U.S. Patent 6,310,348 (United States Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC). M.A. Thomson and P. Melling, Calibration of Fiber-Optic FTIR Spectroscopy for Cleaning Validation at Sub-Microgram Loadings, Eastern Analytical Symposium, November 2003.
-1 0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
Predicted ( g/cm2) Figure 6. First derivative calibration for predicting surface contamination.
ronment, several fiber-optic probes have been developed that provide the sensitivity to detect low chemical concentrations on reflective surfaces (9, 10). Figure 5 is an example of spectra obtained with the SpotView grazing angle fiber-optic probe (Remspec). The spectra are clear and recognizable even at concentrations less than 1 mg/cm2. Figure 6 shows a calibration plot of predicted loading versus true loading that was obtained with this probe. These results show that the SpotView probe can quantitatively detect surface loadings below 1 mg/cm2 and compare well with existing industry methods such as swabbing (11).
5.
6. 7. 8.
9.
10.
Summary The above examples illustrate how midIR spectroscopy can be employed in situ to monitor processes in pharmaceutical environments and in line with the PAT initiative. These examples take advantage of an inherent strength of the 11.
Richard A. Nyquist and Ronald O. Kagel (Auth.) - Handbook of Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic Compounds and Organic Salts. Infrared Spectra of Inorganic Compounds-Academic Press (1971)
Richard A. Nyquist and Ronald O. Kagel (Auth.) - Handbook of Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic Compounds and Organic Salts. Infrared Spectra of Inorganic Compounds-Academic Press (1971)
