This is a technique for computer simulation of complex systems, modelled at the atomic

level. Many particles are involved. The position of ith particle is written as
ri (t) = (xi (t), yi (t), zi (t) )
𝑑2 𝑟 (𝑡)
and the force acting upon ith particle at time t is Fi = 𝑚𝑖 where mi is the mass
𝑑𝑡 2

of the ith particle.

The solution of the second order differential equation can be solved.
Numerically, the solution is
𝐹𝑖 (t)
ri (t + ∆𝑡) ≅ 2 𝑟𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑟𝑖 (t − ∆𝑡) + ∆𝑡 2 (10)
𝑚𝑖

Equation 10 gives the position of ith particle as a function of time

 Conservation principles in Physics

Department of Physics, University of Ilorin

The rock climber does work as she ascends the vertical cliff. So does the mover, as he pushes a
heavy chest across the floor. The difference is that if the rock climber lets go, down she goes; the
work she put into the climb comes back as the kinetic energy of her fall, and if the mover lets go
of the chest, though, he and the chest stay right where they are.

FIGURE 1
This contrast highlights a distinction between two types of forces, called conservative and
nonconservative. From that distinction we will develop the conservation of energy. Mechanical
energy, which includes kinetic energy and potential energy, are very important, here.
Potential Energy
Work done against a conservative force is somehow “stored,” in the sense that we can get it back
again in the form of kinetic energy. The climber is acutely aware of that “stored work”; it gives
her the potential for a dangerous fall. Potential is an appropriate word here: We can consider the
“stored work” as potential energy U, in the sense that it can be released as kinetic energy.
We define potential energy formally in terms of the work done by a conservative force.
Specifically:
The change in potential energy ∆𝑈𝐴𝐵 associated with a conservative force is the negative of the
work done by that force as it acts over any path from point A to point B:
𝐵
∆𝑈𝐴𝐵 = − ∫𝐴 𝐹̅ . 𝑑𝑟̅ (potential energy) (1)

If a conservative force does positive work (as does gravity on a falling object), then potential
energy must decrease—and that means ∆𝑈 must be negative. Conversely, if a conservative force
does negative work (as does gravity on a weight being lifted), then energy is stored, and ∆𝑈 must
be positive. The minus sign in Eqn. (1) handles both these cases. We’ll often drop the subscript
AB and write simply ∆𝑈 for potential-energy change. Keeping the subscript is important, though,
when we need to be clear about whether we’re going from A to B or from B to A.

1
Eqn. (1) is a completely general definition of potential energy, applicable in all circumstances.
Often, though, we can consider a path where force and displacement are parallel (or antiparallel).
Then Eqn. (1) simplifies to
𝑥
∆𝑈 = − ∫𝑥 2 𝐹 (𝑥). 𝑑𝑥 (1a)
1

Where 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the starting and ending points on the x-axis, taken to coincide with the path.
When the force is constant, this equation simplifies further to
∆𝑈 = −𝐹 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) (1b)
Eqn. (1b) provides a very simple expression for potential-energy changes, but it applies only when
the force is constant. Eqn. (1b) is a special case of Eqn. (1a) that follows because a constant force
can be taken outside the integral.
Gravitational Potential Energy
Things are frequently moved up and down, causing changes in potential energy. Figure 2 shows
two possible paths for a book lifted from the floor to a shelf of height h. Since the gravitational
force is conservative, we can use either path to calculate the potential-energy change. It’s easiest
to use the path consisting of straight segments. No work or potential-energy change is associated
with the horizontal motion. For the vertical lift, the force of gravity is constant and Eqn. (1b)
becomes ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ where the minus sign in Eqn. (1b) cancels with the minus sign associated
with the downward direction of gravity. This result is quite general: When a mass m undergoes a
vertical displacement ∆𝑦 near Earth’s surface, its gravitational potential energy changes by
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 (gravitational potential energy) (2)
The quantity ∆𝑦 can be positive or negative, depending on whether the object moves up or down;
correspondingly, the potential energy can either increase or decrease. We emphasize that Eqn. (2)
applies near Earth’s surface—that is, for distances small compared with Earth’s radius. That
assumption allows us to treat the gravitational force as constant over the path.
We’ve found the change in the book’s potential energy, but what about the potential energy itself?
That depends on where we define the zero of potential energy. If we choose 𝑈 = 0 at the floor,
then 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ on the shelf. But we could just as well take 𝑈 = 0 at the shelf; then the book’s
potential energy on the floor would be 𝑈 = −𝑚𝑔ℎ. Negative potential energies arise frequently,
and that’s OK because only differences in potential energy really matter. Figure 3 shows a plot of
potential energy versus height with 𝑈 = 0 taken at the floor. The linear increase in potential
energy with height reflects the constant gravitational force.

2
 FIGURE 3
FIGURE 2
Example 1
A 55-kg engineer leaves her office on the 33rd floor of a skyscraper and takes an elevator up to the
59th floor. Later she descends to street level. If the engineer chooses the zero of potential energy
at her office and if the distance from one floor to the next is 3.5 m, what is the engineer’s potential
energy (a) in her office, (b) on the 59th floor, and (c) at street level?
Soln
This is a problem about gravitational potential energy relative to a specified point of zero energy—
namely, the engineer’s office.
Change in gravitational energy associated with a change in vertical position is given by ∆𝑈 =
𝑚𝑔∆𝑦. We’re given positions in floors, not meters, so we need to convert using the given factor
3.5 m per floor.
(a) In her office, the engineer’s potential energy is zero, since she defined it that way.
(b) The 59th floor is 59 - 33 = 26 floors higher, so the potential energy there is
𝑈59 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 = (55 𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(26 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑠)(3.5 𝑚/𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟) = 49𝑘𝐽
Note that we can write 𝑈 rather than ∆𝑈 because we’re calculating the potential-energy change
from the place where 𝑈 = 0.
(c) The street level is 32 floors below the engineer’s office, so
𝑈𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 = (55 𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(−32 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑠)(3.5 𝑚/𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟) = −60𝑘𝐽

Elastic Potential Energy

When you stretch or compress a spring or other elastic objects, you do work against the spring
force, and that work ends up stored as elastic potential energy. For an ideal spring, the force is
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥, where x is the distance the spring is stretched from equilibrium, and the minus sign

3
shows that the force opposes the stretching or compression. Since the force varies with position,
we use Eqn. (1a) to evaluate the potential energy:
𝑥 𝑥 1 1
∆𝑈 = − ∫𝑥 2 𝐹 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑥 2 (−𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥22 − 𝑘𝑥12
1 1 2 2

Where 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the initial and final values of the stretch. If we take 𝑈 = 0 when 𝑥 = 0 —
that is, when the spring is neither stretched nor compressed—then we can use this result to write
the potential energy at an arbitrary stretch (or compression) x as
1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2 (elastic potential energy) (3)
2
1
Comparing Eqn. (3) with workdone, 𝑊 = 𝑘𝑥 2 , shows that this is equal to the work done in
2

stretching the spring. That work gets stored as potential energy.

Example 2
A car’s suspension consists of springs with an overall effective spring constant of 120 k/N m. How
much would you have to compress the springs to store the same amount of energy as in 1 gram of
gasoline if the energy content of gasoline is 44ML/kg?
Soln
This problem is about the energy stored in a spring, as compared with the chemical energy of
1
gasoline. 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2 , gives a spring’s stored energy when it’s been compressed a distance x. Here
2

we want that energy to equal the energy in 1 gram of gasoline.

At 44 MJ/kg, the energy in 1 g of gasoline is 44 kJ. Setting this equal to the spring energy and
solving for x, we get
2𝑈 (2)(44𝑘𝐽)
𝑥=√ =√ = 86 𝑐𝑚
𝑘 120 𝑘𝑁/𝑚

This answer is absurd. A car’s springs couldn’t compress anywhere near that far before the
underside of the car hit the ground. And 1 g is not much gasoline. This example shows that springs,
though useful energy-storage devices, can’t possibly compete with chemical fuels.

Example 3
Ropes used in rock climbing are “springy” so that they cushion a fall. A particular rope exerts a
force 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2 , where k = 223 N/m, 𝑏 = 4.10 𝑁/𝑚2, and x is the stretch. Find the
potential energy stored in this rope when it’s been stretched 2.62 m, taking 𝑈 = 0 at 𝑥 = 0.
Soln
This one isn’t so easy because the rope isn’t a simple 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 spring for which we already have
a potential-energy formula.

4
Because the rope force varies with stretch, we’ll have to integrate. Since force and displacement
𝑥2
are in the same direction, we can use Eqn. (1a), ∆𝑈 = − ∫𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥). 𝑑𝑥. But that’s not so much a
1

formula as a strategy for deriving one.

Applying Eqn. (1) to this particular rope, we have
𝑥 𝑥 1 1
𝑈 = − ∫𝑥 2 𝐹 (𝑥). 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫0 (−𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 3 |𝑥0
1 2 3
1 1 1 N 1 𝑁
= 𝑘𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 3 = (223 ) (2.62 𝑚)2 − (4.10 ) (2.62 𝑚)3 = 741 𝐽
2 3 2 m 3 𝑚2
1
This result is about 3% less than the potential energy 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2 of an ideal spring with the same
2

spring constant. This shows the effect of the extra term +𝑏𝑥 2 , whose positive sign reduces the
restoring force and thus the work needed to stretch the spring.

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The work-energy theorem shows that the change in a body’s kinetic energy ∆𝐾 is equal to the net
work done on it:
∆𝐾 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
Consider separately the work 𝑊𝑐 done by conservative forces and the work 𝑊𝑛𝑐 done by
nonconservative forces. Then
∆𝐾 = 𝑊𝑐 + 𝑊𝑛𝑐
We’ve defined the change in potential energy ∆𝑈 as the negative of the work done by conservative
forces. So we can write
∆𝐾 = −∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛𝑐
Or ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 𝑊𝑛𝑐 (4)
We define the sum of the kinetic and potential energy as the mechanical energy. Then Eqn. (4)
shows that the change in mechanical energy is equal to the work done by nonconservative forces.
In the absence of nonconservative forces, the mechanical energy is unchanged:
∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 0 (5)
and, equivalently , (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐾0 + 𝑈0 (6)
where 𝐾0 and 𝑈0 are the kinetic and potential energy of a body at some point, and 𝐾 and 𝑈 are
their values when the body is at any other point. Eqns. (5) and (6) express the law of conservation
of mechanical energy. They show that, in the absence of nonconservative forces, the mechanical
energy 𝐾 + 𝑈 remains always the same. The kinetic energy 𝐾 may change, but that change is
always compensated by an equal but opposite change in potential energy.
5
Conservation of mechanical energy is a powerful principle. Throughout physics, from the
subatomic realm through practical problems in engineering and on to astrophysics, the principle
of energy conservation is widely used in solving problems that would be intractable without it.
Example 4
A biologist uses a spring-loaded gun to shoot tranquilizer darts into an elephant. The gun’s spring
has 𝑘 = 5 940 N/m and is compressed a distance 𝑥0 = 25 cm before firing a 38-g dart.
Assuming the gun is pointed horizontally, at what speed does the dart leave the gun?

FIGURE 4 Our sketches for Example 4, showing bar charts for the initial and final states.
Soln
In Fig. 4 we’ve sketched the two states, giving the potential and kinetic energy for each. We’ve
also sketched bar graphs showing the relative sizes of the energies. To use the statement of energy
1
conservation, Eqn. (6), we also need expressions for the kinetic energy ( 𝑚𝑣 2 ) and the spring
2
1
potential energy ( 𝑘𝑥 2 ), Eqn. (3)). Incidentally, using Eqn. (3) implicitly sets the zero of elastic
2

potential energy when the spring is in its equilibrium position. We might as well set the zero of
gravitational energy at the height of the gun, since there’s no change in the dart’s vertical position
between our initial and final states.
We know three of the terms in Eqn. (6),
𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝐾0 + 𝑈0 .
The initial kinetic energy 𝐾0 is 0, since the dart is initially at rest. The initial potential energy is
1
that of the compressed spring, 𝑈0 = 𝑘𝑥02 . The final potential energy is 𝑈 = 0 because the spring
2

is now in its equilibrium position and we’ve taken the gravitational potential energy to be zero.
1
What we don’t know is the final kinetic energy, but we do know that it’s given by 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

So Eqn. (6) becomes

1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 + 0 = 0 + 𝑘𝑥02 , which solves to give
2 2

6
 𝑘 940 N/m
𝑣 = √ 𝑥0 = (√
𝑚 0.038 𝑘𝑔
) (0.25 𝑚) = 39 𝑚/𝑠

Example 5
The spring in Fig. 5 has 𝑘 = 140 N/m. A 50-g block is placed against the spring, which is
compressed 11 cm. When the block is released, how high up the slope does it rise? Neglect friction.

FIGURE 5 Our sketches for Example 5.

Soln
Figure 5 shows the initial and final states, along with bar charts for each. We’ve drawn separate
bars for the spring and gravitational potential energies, 𝑈𝑠 and 𝑈𝑔 . Now apply Eqn. (6),
𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝐾0 + 𝑈0
In both states the block is at rest, so kinetic energy is zero. In the initial state we know the potential
1
energy 𝑈0 : It’s the spring energy 𝑘𝑥 2 . We don’t know the final-state potential energy, but we
2

do know that it’s gravitational energy—and with the zero of potential energy at the bottom, it’s
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ. With
1
𝐾 = 𝐾0 = 0, 𝑈0 = 𝑘𝑥 2 , and 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ,
2
1
Eqn. 7 reads 0 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 0 + 𝑘𝑥 2 .
2

We then solve for the unknown h to get

𝑘𝑥 2 (140 N/m)(0.11 𝑚)2
ℎ= = = 1.7 𝑚
2𝑚𝑔 2(0.05 𝑚)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Conservation of Linear Momentum

7
Linear momentum is a useful quantity for cases where we have a few particles (objects) which
interact with each other but not with the rest of the world. Such a system is called an isolated
system.
We often have reason to study systems where a few particles interact with each other very briefly,
with forces that are strong compared to the other forces in the world that they may experience. In
those situations, and for that brief period of time, we can treat the particles as if they were isolated.
We can show that when two particles interact only with each other (i.e. they are isolated) then
their total momentum remains constant:
𝑝1 𝑖 + 𝑝2 𝑗 = 𝑝1 𝑓 + 𝑝2 𝑓 (7)
or, in terms of the masses and velocities,
𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑓 (8)
Or, abbreviating 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 = 𝑃 (total momentum), this is: 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓 . It is important to understand
that Eqn. (7) is a vector equation; it tells us that the total x component of the momentum is
conserved, and the total y component of the momentum is conserved.
Example 6
A 3.00 kg particle has a velocity of (3.0i − 4.0j) m/s. Find its x and y components of momentum
and the magnitude of its total momentum.

Soln
Using the definition of momentum and the given values of m and v we have:
(3.0 𝑘𝑔)(3.0i − 4.0j)m
: 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = = (9.0i − 12.0j) kg. m/s
s

So the particle has momentum components 𝑝𝑥 = +9.0 kg·m/s and 𝑝𝑦 = −12. kg·m/s .
The magnitude of its momentum is
m
𝑝 = √𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 = √(9.0)2 + (−12.0)2 kg · = 15.0kg · m/s
s

Conservation of angular momentum

We have already learned about conservation of linear momentum: ∑ 𝑝̅𝑖 = ∑ 𝑝̅𝑓 . Where 𝑝̅𝑖 is the
initial linear momentum and 𝑝̅𝑓 is the final linear momentum.
As you can imagine, the equation for conservation of angular momentum is similar: ∑ 𝐿̅𝑖 = ∑ 𝐿̅𝑓 .
Where 𝐿̅𝑖 is the initial angular momentum and 𝐿̅𝑓 is the final angular momentum.
If I am spinning on a stool holding two masses at arm’s length straight out from my body and then
pull in my arms, what will happen? From general knowledge of sports like figure skating,
gymnastics, dance, and diving, you probably already know that my angular velocity will increase.
It is important to know why. The equation for angular momentum of a rigid object with shape is:

8
𝐿̅ = 𝐼𝜔
̅ . 𝐿 is the angular momentum, 𝐼 is the moment of inertia and 𝜔 is the angular velocity.
Therefore, the equation for conservation of angular momentum in the example of me spinning on
a stool is:
∑ 𝐿̅𝑖 = ∑ 𝐿̅𝑓 → 𝐼𝑖 ̅̅̅
𝜔𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓 ̅̅̅̅
𝜔𝑓
It is important to recognize that the axis of rotation for the angular momenta and rotational inertias
in these equations is the vertical axis through the center of the stool.
The equation for the rotational inertia of a system of particles is:
𝐼𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 m = mass and r = distance from the center of the body
In other words, bringing in my arms decreases the average distance the particles of the system are
from the axis of rotation, which decreases the rotational inertia of the system, therefore, because
angular momentum is conserved, the angular velocity of the system must increase.
𝑟 ↓→ 𝐼 ↓→ 𝜔
̅↑
Now let’s talk about when angular momentum is conserved. As you recall linear momentum is
conserved when the net force on the system equals zero.
∆𝑝̅ ∆𝑝̅
∑ 𝐹̅𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 0 = 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 → 0. ∆𝑡 = [ 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚] ∆𝑡
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

→ 0 = ∆𝑝̅𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝑝̅𝑖 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − ∆𝑝̅𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

→ ∆𝑝̅𝑖 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝑝̅𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Angular momentum is conserved when the net external torque acting on the system equals zero.
∆𝐿̅𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ∆𝐿̅𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∑ 𝜏̅𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 0 = → 0. ∆𝑡 = [ ] ∆𝑡
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

→ 0 = ∆𝐿̅𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝐿̅𝑖 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − ∆𝐿̅𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

→ ∆𝐿̅𝑖 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝐿̅𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Returning back to me sitting on the stool. Notice that, about the vertical axis through the center of
the stool, the net external torque acting on the system of me and the stool is zero, therefore angular
momentum of the system will stay constant. The initial angular velocity of the system is zero,
therefore, I can wave my arms around all I want, but doing so will not change the angular
momentum of the system. However, if I push on something external to the system, I can cause a
net torque on the system, angular momentum is no longer conserved, and I can increase my
angular velocity. Angular momentum is a vector, therefore, when angular momentum is
conserved, its direction is conserved as well. This is why a spinning top will maintain its vertical
position. Its angular momentum will be vertical and therefore, as long as the top continues to spin,
the angular momentum will be conserved and the top will stay vertical. However, a top which is
not spinning, has no angular momentum, and will not stay vertical. We can also apply this concept

9
to a moving bicycle. The wheels of the bike, while the bike is moving, are spinning and have
angular momentum. While you are moving forward, the direction of the angular momentum of
the wheels will be to the left. Conservation of angular momentum will try to maintain the direction
of the angular momentum of the wheels and therefore will help keep the bicycle vertical. If the
bike is not moving, the wheels have no angular momentum and therefore do not help keep the
bicycle vertical. Conservation of angular momentum is why it is easier to balance on a bike while
it is moving.
Example 7
A flywheel rotates without friction at an angular velocity ω0 = 600 rev/min on a frictionless,
vertical shaft of negligible rotational inertia. A second flywheel, which is at rest and has a moment
of inertia three times that of the rotating flywheel, is dropped onto it. Because friction exists
between the surfaces, the flywheels very quickly reach the same rotational velocity, after which
they spin together. (a) Use the law of conservation of angular momentum to determine the angular
velocity ω of the combination. (b) What fraction of the initial kinetic energy is lost in the coupling
of the flywheels?

Fig. 6
Soln
(a). No external torques act on the system. The force due to friction produces an internal torque,
which does not affect the angular momentum of the system. Therefore conservation of angular
momentum gives
I0ω0 = (I0 + 3I0)ω,
ω = (1/4) ω0 = 150 rev/min
in rad/s, ω = 150 rev/min x 2π = 15.7 rad/s.
(b). Before contact, only one flywheel is rotating. The rotational kinetic energy of this flywheel is
1
the initial rotational kinetic energy of the system, 2 𝐼0 𝜔02 .

The final kinetic energy is

1 1 𝜔 2 1
(4𝐼0 )𝜔2 = (4𝐼0 ) ( 0) = 𝐼0 𝜔0 2 .
2 2 4 8

Therefore, the ratio of the final kinetic energy to the initial kinetic energy is
1
𝐼 𝜔 2 1
8 0 0
1 = .
𝐼 𝜔 2 4
2 0 0

10
Thus, 3/4 of the initial kinetic energy is lost to the coupling of the two flywheels.
Conservation of mass
"In any kind of physical or chemical process, mass is neither created nor destroyed - the mass
before the process equals the mass after the process." - the total mass of the system does not
change, the total mass of the products of a chemical reaction is always the same as the total mass
of the original materials.
Example 8
1. When wood burns, mass seems to disappear because some of the products of reaction are
gases; if the mass of the original wood is added to the mass of the oxygen that combined
with it and if the mass of the resulting ash is added to the mass o the gaseous products, the
two sums will turn out exactly equal.
2. Iron increases in weight on rusting because it combines with gases from the air, and the
increase in weight is exactly equal to the weight of gas consumed. Out of thousands of
reactions that have been tested with accurate chemical balances, no deviation from the law
has ever been found.
Consider a collection of matter located somewhere in space. This quantity of matter with well-
defined boundaries is termed a system. The law of conservation of mass then implies that the mass
of this given system remains constant,
∆𝑚
=0 (Equation of conservation of mass) (9)
∆𝑡

The volume occupied by the matter may be changing and the density of the matter within the
system may be changing, but the mass remains constant.
Considering a differential mass element at position X in the reference configuration and at x in
the current configuration, Eqn. (9) can be rewritten as
𝑑𝑚(X) = 𝑑𝑚 (10)

Conservation of Charge:
The total electric charge of an isolated system never changes.
What is an isolated system? We could start with the universe. In other words, the net electric
charge of the universe never changes. Add up all the positive charges and subtract all the negative
charges and you will always get the same number.
Or we could have a smaller isolated system, like the conductive metal pieces of an electroscope
which are electrically isolated from the rest of the universe by the rubber and glass insulators. In
other words, the net electric charge of the electroscope will remain constant, as long as it remains
isolated.

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Example 9
Two charged, conducting objects collide and separate. Before colliding, the charges on the two
objects are +3e and -6e. Which of the following are possible values for the final charges on the
two objects? Choose all possible answers. (a) +4e, -7e (b) +2e, -2e (c) -1.5e, -1.5e (d) -3.5e, +2.5e
(e) +e, -4e
Soln
𝑞1𝑖 = +3𝑒; 𝑞2𝑖 = −6𝑒; 𝑞1𝑓 =?; 𝑞2𝑓 =?
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖 = 𝑞1𝑖 + 𝑞2𝑖 = (+3𝑒 + (−6𝑒)) = −3𝑒 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓
a) 𝑞1𝑓 + 𝑞2𝑓 = (+4𝑒 + (−7𝑒)) = −3𝑒 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓
b) 𝑞1𝑓 + 𝑞2𝑓 = (+2𝑒 + (−2𝑒)) = 0 ≠ 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓
c) 𝑞1𝑓 + 𝑞2𝑓 = (−1.5𝑒 + (−1.5𝑒)) = −3𝑒 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓
d) 𝑞1𝑓 + 𝑞2𝑓 = (−3.5𝑒 + 2.5𝑒) = −𝑒 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓
e) 𝑞1𝑓 + 𝑞2𝑓 = (+𝑒 + (−4𝑒)) = −3𝑒 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓
Correct answers are (a) and (e) because those are the only two options which have a total final
charge equal to the total initial charge and are integer multiples of the fundamental charge e.
Example 10
Two identical conducting are held using insulating gloves a distance x apart. Initially the charges
on each sphere are +3.0 pC and +6.0 pC. The two spheres are touched together and returned to the
same distance x apart. You may assume x is the distance between their centers of charge. What is
the final charge on each sphere?
Soln
𝑞1𝑖 = +3.0 𝑝𝐶; 𝑞2𝑖 = +6.0 𝑝𝐶; 𝑟𝑖 = 𝑟𝑓 = 𝑥; 𝑞1𝑓 =?; 𝑞2𝑓 =?
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓 = 𝑞1𝑖 + 𝑞2𝑖 = +3.0 𝑝𝐶 + 6.0 𝑝𝐶 = +9.0 𝑝𝐶
Because the two spheres are identical, after touching, the spheres will have equal charge.
𝑞1𝑓 = 𝑞2𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓 → 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓 = 𝑞1𝑓 + 𝑞2𝑓 = 2𝑞𝑓 = +9.0 𝑝𝐶 → 𝑞𝑓 = +4.5 𝑝𝐶
Both charges end with 4.5 pC of charge. This is 4.5 picocoulombs of charge or 4.5 x 10-9 C which
an object is physically able to have. Because then it will have:
𝑞𝑓 = 𝑛𝑓 𝑒
𝑞𝑓 4.5 x 10−9 𝐶
= = 2.8125 x 1010 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑒 1.6 x 10−19 𝐶 ⁄𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟
≈ 2.8 x 1010 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

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Imagine that. 28 billion more protons than electrons on each sphere. Each sphere will have a lot
more total protons and electrons, however, it has a deficit of 28 billion electrons and therefore has
a net charge of 4.5 pC.

Exercise
1. Find the potential energy of a 70-kg hiker (a) atop a Mountain, 1900 m above sea level, and (b)
in a Valley, 86 m below sea level. Take the zero of potential energy at sea level.
2. You fly from an Airport A, at sea level, to another Airport B, altitude 1.6 km. Taking your mass
as 65 kg and the zero of potential energy at A, what’s your gravitational potential energy (a) at the
plane’s 11-km cruising altitude and (b) in B?
3. A 60-kg hiker ascending 1250-m-high Mountain in Vermont has potential energy 2240 kJ; the
zero of potential energy is taken at the mountaintop. What’s her altitude?
4. How much energy can be stored in a spring with 𝑘 = 320 N/m if the maximum allowed stretch
is 18 cm?
5. How far would you have to stretch a spring with 𝑘 = 1.4 kN/m for it to store 210 J of energy?
6. A 10,000-kg Navy jet lands on an aircraft carrier and snags a cable to slow it down. The cable
is attached to a spring with 𝑘 = 40 kN/m. If the spring stretches 25 m to stop the plane, what was
its landing speed?
7. A 120-g arrow is shot vertically from a bow whose effective spring constant is 430 N/m. If the
bow is drawn 71 cm before shooting, to what height does the arrow rise?
8. In a railroad yard, a 35,000-kg boxcar moving at 7.5 m/s is stopped by a spring-loaded bumper
mounted at the end of the level track. If 𝑘 = 2.8 MN/m, how far does the spring compress in
stopping the boxcar?
9. You work for a toy company, and you’re designing a spring-launched model rocket. The
launching apparatus has room for a spring that can be compressed 14 cm, and the rocket’s mass
is 65 g. If the rocket is to reach an altitude of 35 m, what should you specify for the spring constant?

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