The document covers fundamental concepts in digital electronics, including number systems, Boolean algebra, logic gates, and their applications. It explains the differences between analog and digital signals, the implementation of Boolean expressions, and simplification techniques using Boolean algebra and Karnaugh maps. Key points highlight the significance of combinational logic circuits and the representation of logic functions through truth tables and Boolean notation.
The document covers fundamental concepts in digital electronics, including number systems, Boolean algebra, logic gates, and their applications. It explains the differences between analog and digital signals, the implementation of Boolean expressions, and simplification techniques using Boolean algebra and Karnaugh maps. Key points highlight the significance of combinational logic circuits and the representation of logic functions through truth tables and Boolean notation.
The document covers fundamental concepts in digital electronics, including number systems, Boolean algebra, logic gates, and their applications. It explains the differences between analog and digital signals, the implementation of Boolean expressions, and simplification techniques using Boolean algebra and Karnaugh maps. Key points highlight the significance of combinational logic circuits and the representation of logic functions through truth tables and Boolean notation.
The document covers fundamental concepts in digital electronics, including number systems, Boolean algebra, logic gates, and their applications. It explains the differences between analog and digital signals, the implementation of Boolean expressions, and simplification techniques using Boolean algebra and Karnaugh maps. Key points highlight the significance of combinational logic circuits and the representation of logic functions through truth tables and Boolean notation.
Boolean algebraic theorems Logic gates Implementation of Boolean expressions using logic gates Basics of Flip-flops and its applications. Introduction 4 types of signals 1—continuous time-continuous amplitude signal
2 -- continuous time-discrete amplitude
signal(digital signal—binary signals)
3--- Discrete time-continuous amplitude signal
4--- Discrete time-Discrete amplitude signal
Difference between analogue and Digital signals Analog signal more prone to noise Analog signal has complete information Digital signal can produce approximate information. Processing tool for digital signal are available. Mathematical operations become simple Number Systems and Binary Arithmetic Most number systems are order dependent Decimal 123410 = (1 103) + (2 102) + (3 101) + (4 100) Binary 11012 = (1 23) + (1 22) + (0 21) + (1 20) Octal 1238 = (1 82) + (2 81) + (3 80) Hexadecimal 12316 = (1 162) + (2 161) + (3 160) here we need 16 characters – 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F Number conversion
conversion Binary to decimal
add up decimal equivalent of individual digits Example – Convert 110102 to decimal 110102 = (1 24) + (1 23) + (0 22) + (1 21) + (0 20) = 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 2610 Decimal to Binary repeatedly divide by the base and remember the remainder Example – Convert 2610 to binary Number Remainder Starting point 26 2 13 0 2 6 1 2 3 0 2 1 1 2 0 1 read number from this end =11010 Binary Quantities and Variables A binary quantity is one that can take only 2 states
S L OPEN OFF
CLOSED ON
S L 0 0 1 1 A simple binary arrangement A truth table A binary arrangement with two switches in series
L = S1 AND S2 A binary arrangement with two switches in parallel
L = S1 OR S2 Three switches in series
L = S1 AND S2 AND S3 Three switches in parallel
L = S1 OR S2 OR S3 A series/parallel arrangement
L = S1 AND (S2 OR S3)
Representing an unknown network Logic Gates The building blocks used to create digital circuits are logic gates There are three elementary logic gates and a range of other simple gates Each gate has its own logic symbol which allows complex functions to be represented by a logic diagram The function of each gate can be represented by a truth table or using Boolean notation The AND gate The OR gate The NOT gate (or inverter) A logic buffer gate The NAND gate The NOR gate The Exclusive OR gate The Exclusive NOR gate Boolean Algebra Boolean Constants these are ‘0’ (false) and ‘1’ (true) Boolean Variables variables that can only take the vales ‘0’ or ‘1’ Boolean Functions each of the logic functions (such as AND, OR and NOT) are represented by symbols as described above Boolean Theorems a set of identities and laws. Boolean identities
AND Function OR Function NOT function
00=0 0+0=0 0 1 01=0 0+1=1 1 0 10=0 1+0=1 A A 11=1 1+1=1 A0=0 A+0=A 0A=0 0+A=A A1=A A+1=1 1A=A 1+A=1 AA=A A+A=A A A 0 A A 1 Boolean Algebra 1. x+0=x 2. x1=x 3. x+1=1 4. x0=0 5. x+x=x 6. xx=x 7. x + x’ = 1 8. x x’ = 0 9. (x’)’ = x 10. x+y=y+x 11. xy = yx Commutative 12. x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z 13. x(yz) = (xy)z Associative 14. x(y + z) = xy + xz 15. x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) Distributive 16. (x + y)’ = x’y’ 17. (xy)’ = x’ + y’ DeMorgan’s We can now start doing some simplifications
A(B C) AB AC A B AB A BC ( A B)(A C) AB A B
Associative law Note also
A(BC) (AB)C A AB A B A (B C) (A B) C A(A B) AB DeMorgan’s Theorem ( A B ) A.B A.B A B Combinational Logic Digital systems may be divided into two broad categories: combinational logic where the outputs are determined solely by the current states of the inputs sequential logic where the outputs are determined not only by the current inputs but also by the sequence of inputs that led to the current state Implementing a function from a Boolean expression Example – X A BC Implement the function Implementing a function from a Boolean expression Example – Y AB C D Implement the function Generating a Boolean expression from a logic diagram Example (continued) – work progressively from the inputs to the output adding logic expressions to the output of each gate turn Implementing a logic function from a description Example – The operation of the Exclusive OR gate can be stated as: “The output should be true if either of its inputs are true, but not if both inputs are true.” This can be rephrased as: “The output is true if A OR B is true, AND if A AND B is NOT true.” We can write this in Boolean notation as X (A B) (AB) Example (continued) The logic function X (A B) (AB) can then be implemented as before Implementing a logic function from a truth table Example – Implement the function of the following truth table A B C X – first write down a Boolean 0 0 0 0 expression for the output 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 – then implement as before 0 1 1 0 – in this case 1 0 0 0 X A BC ABC ABC 1 0 1 1 – By looking at when X=1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 Example (continued) The logic function X A BC A BC ABC can then be implemented as before In some cases it is possible to simplify logic expressions using the rules of Boolean algebra Example – X ABC ABC AC AC can be simplified to X BC A hence the following circuits are equivalent Boolean expression simplefication Prove that x+yz=(x+y)(x+z) RHS=(x+y)(x+z) =x.x+x.z+y.x+y.z; using distributive property =x+x.z+x+y.x+y.z; x+x=x =x(1+z)+x(1+y)+y.z; taking common =x+x+y.z; as 1+x=x =x+y.z proved Contd... Prove that x(x’+y)=xy LHS=x(x’+y) =x.x’+x.y =x.y; as x.x’=0. proved Contd... Simplify f(x,y,z)=x’y’z+ x’yz+ xy’ x’y’z+ x’yz+ xy’ =x’z(y’+y)+xy’ =x’z+xy’; As y+y’=1 Answer Contd... Simplify f(x,y,z)=xy+x’z+yz xy+x’z+yz = xy+x’z+yz(x+x’) = xy+x’z+yzx+yzx’ =xy(1+z)+x’z(1+y) =xy+x’z; as 1+z=1 Answer Contd... Prove that (x+y)(x’+z)(y+z)=(x+y)(x’+z) LHS=(x+y)(x’+z)(y+z)=(xx’+xz+yx’+yz)(y+z) =xyz+yx’+yz+xz+x’yz+yz; as xx’=0, xx=x =xyz+yz+xyz+xz+yx’+x’yz+yz; adding xyz =yz(1+x)+xz(1+y)+yx’+yz(1+x’) =yz+xz+yx’+yz; =xx’+yz+xz+yx’; adding xx’=0 & removing extra yz =(x+y)(x’+z) Exercise... Simplify... 1. x’y’+xy+x’y 2. (x+y)(x+y’) 3. x’y+xy’+xy+x’y’ 4. x’+xy+xz’+xy’z’ 5. xy’+y’z’+x’z’ 6. x’yz+xz 7. (x+y)’(x’+y’) Key Points It is common to represent the two states of a binary variable by ‘0’ and ‘1’ Logic circuits are usually implemented using logic gates Circuits in which the output is determined solely by the current inputs are termed combinational logic circuits Logic functions can be described by truth tables or using Boolean algebraic notation Binary digits may be combined to form digital words Digital words can be processed using binary arithmetic Several codes can be used to represent different forms of information Simplification of Boolean Functions: Two Methods The algebraic method by using Identities The graphical method by using Karnaugh Map method The K-map method is easy and straightforward. A K-map for a function of n variables consists of 2n cells, and, in every row and column, two adjacent cells should differ in the value of only one of the logic variables.
49 Examples of K-Maps: Examples: Cell numbers are written in the cells. 2-variable K-map
B A 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 3
50 3-Variable K-Map: 3-variable K-map
BC A 00 01 11 10 0 0 1 3 2 1 4 5 7 6
51 4-variable K-map 4-variable K-map CD AB 00 01 11 10
00 0 1 3 2 01 4 5 7 6 11 12 13 15 14 10 8 9 11 10
52 STORAGE ELEMENTS: Maintain a binary state indefinitely as long as power is delivered to the circuit Latches: Binary state changes with signal levels: Level Triggered Flip-flops: Binary state changes with signal transitions: Edge Triggered S-R Latch •The latch -holds (stores) when S = R = 0 -is set (to 1) by bringing S = 1 with R = 0 -is reset (to 0) or cleared by bringing R = 1 with S = 0 •The condition S = R = 1 must be avoided because it leads to an indeterminate condition, where the output can not be predicted at any one point in time. This can cause a race condition to occur when the inputs change to S = R = 0. Latches: SR Latch with NOR gates
The SR latch is a circuit with two cross-coupled NOR gates or
two cross-coupled NAND gates. It has two inputs labeled S for set and R for reset. SR Latch with NAND Gates Graphic Symbols for Latches A latch is designated by a rectangular block with inputs on the left and outputs on the right. One output designates the normal output, and the other designates the complement output.
NOR Latch: Active High Inputs NAND Latch: Active Low Inputs
57 SR Latch with Control (Enable) Input The operation of the basic SR latch can be modified by providing an additional control input that determines when the state of the latch can be changed. It consists of the basic SR latch and two additional NAND gates. Symbol:
59 D-Latch and Symbol:
60 Flip-Flops The state of a latch or flip-flop is switched by a change in the control input. This momentary change is called a trigger and the transition it cause is said to trigger the flip-flop. The D latch with pulses in its control input is essentially a flip-flop that is triggered every time the pulse goes to the logic 1 level. As long as the pulse input remains in the level, any changes in the data input will change the output and the state of the latch. Clock Response in Latch
In Fig (a) a positive level response in the control input
allows changes, in the output when the D input changes while the clock pulse stays at logic 1. Clock Response in Flip-Flop Latches and Flip Flops Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop The first latch is called the master and the second the slave. The circuit samples the D input and changes its output Q only at the negative-edge of the controlling clock.
CLK 1 0 1 0 1 0 D 110011… Y 110011… Q ? 1 1 0 0 1 …. Graphic Symbol for Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop JK Flip-Flop There are four operations that can be performed with a flip-flop: set it to 1, reset it to 0, no change, complement its output. The JK flip-flop performs all four operations. The circuit diagram of a JK flip-flop constructed with a D flip-flop and gates.
Q=J.Q’+K’.Q Operation... Q=J.Q’+K’.Q JK Flip-Flop The J input sets the flip-flop to 1, the K input resets it to 0, and when both inputs are enabled, the output is complemented. This can be verified by investigating the circuit applied to the D input: D = J Q` + K` Q T (Toggle) Flip-Flop The T flip-flop is a complementing flip-flop and can be obtained from a JK flip- flop when inputs J and K are tied together. T Flip-Flop The T flip-flop can be constructed with a D flip-flop and an exclusive-OR gates as shown in Fig. (b). The expression for the D input is
