UNIT-I

WAVE OPTICS
CHAPTER I
INTERFERENCE

Q) State and Explain Principle of superposition of waves.

This principle states that “when two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium,
the resultant displacement at any point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to
individual waves”.

Let y1 is the displacement of the particle of first wave and y 2 is the displacement of the
second wave in the absence of the first wave, Then resultant displacement is, y = y1 + y2 .

 When two waves superpose constructively then, y = y1 + y2.

 When two waves superpose destructively then, y = y1 - y2.
1.Constructive Superposition : If crest of one wave falls on crest of another wave or trough of
one wave falls on trough of another wave (OR) If the phase difference between the two waves is
0 o or 360o then the resultant displacement is given by y=y1+y2

+ =

Constructive superposition
(Waves are in phase)
aa
2. Destructive Superposition : If crest of one wave falls on trough of another wave
or trough of one wave falls on crest of another wave (OR) If the phase difference
between the two waves is 180 o then the resultant displacement is y= y1 - y2 .

+ =
Destructive interference
(Close to  out of phase)

Q) What is interference of light waves and derive the conditions for Constructive and
Destructive interference (Maximum and Minimum Intensity)?
The modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called
interference.
Let a1 & a2 represent the amplitudes of the two waves which are superposing on each other.

1
Let y1 and y2 be the displacements of two waves whose amplitudes are a1 and a2 respectively. Let
φ be the phase difference of two waves.
y1 = a1 sinωt ------------------- (1)
y2 = a2 sin (ωt + φ) --------------- (2)

From Superposition principle, y = y1+y2 = a1 sinωt + a2 sin (ωt + φ)

= a1 sinωt + a2 sinωt cos φ + a2 cosωt sin φ

= sinωt (a1 + a2 cos φ) + a2 cosωt sin φ
Let a1 + a2 cos φ = R cosθ
a2 sin φ = R sinθ
∴ Y= sinωt R cosθ + cosωt R sinθ

Y= Rsin (ωt +θ), where ‘R’ is the amplitude of the resultant wave.
Squaring and adding (Rcosθ)2 + (Rsinθ)2 = (a1 + a2 cos φ)2 + (a2 sin φ )2
R2 =a12+a22+2a1a2cos φ

Hence intensity is given by, I = R2 =a12+a22+2a1a2cos φ

If a1= a2 = a, then I= 2a2 +2a2cos φ
I = 2a2 ( 1+cos φ)= 2a2(2cos2 (φ/2)
Thus I = R2= 4 a2 cos2 (φ/2)
Condition for constructive interference (maximum intensity) :
When the phase difference is whole number multiple of 2π (or) the path difference is Integral
multiples of λ, then the intensity I is maximum.
i.e., when cos2(φ /2) = +1
=> φ = 2nπ, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3 … (or) δ = n λ, for n = 0,1,2,3,……
I max = 4a2
Condition for destructive interference (minimum intensity):
When the phase difference is odd number multiple of π (or) the path difference is odd number
multiple of λ/2 ,Then the intensity I is minimum ,
i.e., when cos2(φ /2) = 0
=> φ = (2n+1) π, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ……(or) δ = (2n +1)λ/2 , for n = 0,1,2,3,……
I min = 0

2
 Q) Give the conditions for producing good interference fringes.
Conditions for interference pattern:
 The two sources should be coherent i.e. they should have same wavelength and have a
constant phase difference.
 The separation between the two sources (2d) should be small.
 The distance (D) between the sources and the screen should be large.
 The back ground should be dark.
 The sources should be monochromatic.
 The Sources must be narrow.
 Amplitudes of the two waves must be nearly equal
Q) What are coherent sources? Give example
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit waves with,
i) Same wavelength
ii) Same amplitude
iii) Constant Phase difference
Coherence is of two types 1) Temporal Coherence. 2) Spatial Coherence.
Eg ; Light waves from two narrow slits in Young’s Double slit Experiment.

Q) Two independent sources of light of same wave length cannot produce interference,
why ?
(OR)
Can two independent sources of light behave like coherent sources .Justify your answer.

The waves emitted from two independent light sources may have same amplitude, time
period, wavelength and frequency but they do not maintain a constant phase difference between
them. Hence two independent light sources are not coherent.

Q) What is a thin film? With a ray diagram discuss the phenomenon of interference in thin
films and obtain the conditions for maxima and minima ( constructive and destructive
interference) in case of reflected system.?
(OR)
Explain the interference of light due to thin films.
(OR)
Derive cosine law. Write he conditions for brightness and darkness in the reflected system.

A thin film may be a thin sheet of transparent material whose thickness is of the order of one
wavelength of light. Consider a transparent film of uniform thickness‘t’ and refractive index ‘μ’.

3
 Let XY and X1Y1 be the two surfaces as shown. Let AB be the incident ray. This ray is partly
reflected along BC and refracted along BD. After total internal reflection at D, we obtain the ray DE.
After refraction at E, the ray finally emerges out along EF. Here BC is parallel to EF. To find the
effective path difference between BC and EF draw normal EP on BC and DQ on BE.

From the figure it is clear that the effective path difference is given by

Δ = path (BD+DE) in film – path (BP) in air

Δ = μ(BD+DE) – (BP) --------(1)
From ΔBDQ, cos r = DQ/BD
DQ = BD cos r
BD=DQ/cos r= t/cos r [since DQ = t ]
Similarly From ΔQDE, DE=t/cos r
Therefore from equation (1), Δ= μ(t/cos r + t/cos r) – (BP)
Δ =2 μt/cos r – BP -----------(2)

From ΔBPE, sin i =BP/BE =BP/(BQ+QE) -----------(3)

From ΔBDQ, tan r = BQ/DQ
BQ= DQ tan r = t tan r
Similarly QE= t tan r [since BQ = QE]
Therefore BQ+QE = 2t tan r
Therefore from equation (3) sin i = BP/ 2t tan r
Therefore BP = 2t tan r x sin i --------- (4)
Substituting (4) in (2) we get,
Δ =2 μt/cos r – BP
=2 μt/cos r – 2t tan r × sin i
=2 μt/cos r – 2t sin r/cos r × sin i
=2 μt/cos r – 2t sin r/cos r × μ sin r (from snell’s law, μ = sin i / sinr)
= 2 μt/cos r (1-sin2 r)
= 2 μt/cos r (cos2 r)
= 2 μtcos r
A ray reflected at ‘B’ backed by a denser medium suffers an extra phase change of π
which is equal to a path difference of λ/2.
Therefore effective path difference is, Δ = 2μt cos r + λ/2
 For bright fringe(Maximum Intensity) , Δ = nλ  2μt cos r + λ/2 = nλ
2μt cos r = (2n+ 1) λ/2 , n=0,1,2,3…
 For dark fringe(Minimum Intensity), Δ = (2n+1)λ/2  2μt cos r + λ/2 = (2n+1)λ/2
2μt cos r = n λ , n=0,1,2,3…

Q) Discuss the theory of Newton’s rings with relevant diagram. Derive an expression for the
diameters of the dark and bright rings formed in Newton’s rings arrangement and show
that the radii of Newton’s rings are in the ratio of the square roots of the natural numbers .
When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate,
an air film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two. At the point of contact,
the hickness of the film is zero. If monochromatic light is incident normally and the film is viewed
in reflected light we observe alternate bright and dark rings around the point of contact. These rings
are known as Newton’s rings.
4
 Newton’s ring Setup

Explanation of the formation of Newton’s rings: AB is a monochromatic light ray which falls on
plano-convex lens L. A part is reflected at C which goes out in the form of ray 1 without any phase
reversal. The other part is refracted along CD and at D it gets reflected with a phase change of π and
goes out in the form of ray 2. Now rays 1 & 2 have been derived from the same AB and hence fulfill
the condition of interference and produce Newton’s rings. As the rings are observed in the reflected
light, Δ = 2μt cos r + λ/2

For normal incidence, r = 0 and for air film μ = 1 then Δ = 2t + λ/2

Theory: Let a plano-convex is lens placed on a glass plate AB. It is a part of a sphere with centre at
C. Let R be the radius of curvature and r be the radius of Newton’s ring corresponding to a film of
thickness t.

For bright ring , Δ = nλ  2t + λ/2 = nλ

2t = (2n-1) λ/2 , n= 1,2,3….
For dark ring , Δ = (2n-1) λ/2  2t + λ/2 = (2n-1) λ/2
2t = nλ , n=0, 1, 2, 3……
From property of circle,
NP x NQ = NO x NO1
r x r = t x (2R – t) (since NO1 = OO1 –NO )
r2 = 2Rt – t2 [since t is very small, t2 can be neglected]
==> r2 = 2Rt
==> t = r2 /2R
Expression for Diameter of Bright rings:
2t = (2n-1) λ/2
=>2 r2 /2R = (2n-1)λ/2
r2 = (2n-1) λR/2 we have r = Dn/2
2
D n/4 = (2n-1) λR/2
D2n = (2n-1)2λR
Dn= √ (2 n−1)(2 λ R)

Dn ∞ √ (2n-1).

Thus diameters of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of odd natural numbers (2n-1)

5
Expression for Diameter of Dark rings:

2t = nλ
==> 2 r2 /2R = nλ ==> r2 = nλR
Since r = Dn/2, ==> D2n/4 = nλR
==> D2n = 4nλR
==> Dn= √ 4 n λ R

==> Dn ∞√n.

Thus diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square roots of natural numbers (n). As the
order of the ring increases, fringes get closer and fringe width decreases.

Q) In Newton’s rings arrangement why do we use a lens of large radius of curvature?

We use a lens of large radius of curvature in order to have a single point of contact for the
wedge shaped film to be formed.
Q) Explain why the centre of the Newton’s rings is dark in the reflected system?
We know the path difference in Newton’s rings Experiment is , Δ = 2t + λ/2

At the point of contact, t = 0 then Δ = λ/2 which is the condition of minimum intensity.

Thus the central spot is dark.

Q) Account for the circular shape of Newton’s rings .

. In Newton’s rings experiment, the air film is formed between Plano-convex lens and glass
plate. Hence locus of points of equal thickness of air film forms a circle with the point of contact
as center and hence fringes are circular.

Q) What is the use of Plano convex lens in Newton’s rings experiment? Mention the
medium used in between the Plano convex lens and the bottom glass plate.
Plano convex lens is used to form a thin air film between Plano convex lens and glass
plate. The medium is air in between them.

Q) Describe the method to determine the refractive index of a material using Newton’s
rings .

1. First the experiment is performed in air film between glass plate and plano-convex lens.
Therefore D2n+p - D2n = 4pλR ---------------- (1)

2. Now the liquid is poured into the container with out disturbing the whole arrangement.
Therefore

¿ ¿ ¿) = 4pλR /μ -------------------- (2)

D 2n+m−D 2n
μ=
From (1) & (2),
D ' 2n+m−D ' 2n

Using this formula μ can be calculated.

CHAPTER II
6
 DIFFRACTION

Q) What is diffraction?
The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of obstacles and
spreading of light waves into the geometrical shadow of an obstacle placed in
the path of light is called Diffraction.

Q) Why diffraction is it not evident in daily life?

Diffraction is not evident in daily life because of extremely shorter wavelength
of light(4000 A0 – 7000 A0) bending is not pronounced and hence light appears
to travel in straight line. Also for diffraction to be more effective, the size of the
obstacle must be comparable with the wavelength.
Q) What are the different types of diffraction? Give the differences.
The different types of diffraction are Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer
Diffraction.
Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction
1. The source and the screen are placed 1. The source and the screen are placed
at finite distances from the obstacle at infinite distances from the obstacle
producing diffraction. producing diffraction.
2. No lenses are used for making the
rays parallel or convergent. 2. Lenses are used for making the rays
3. The incident wave front is either parallel or convergent.
spherical or cylindrical. 3. The incident wave front in plane.

4. Either a point source (or) an 4. Extended source at infinite distance is

illuminated narrow slit is used. used.
5. Examples: Diffraction at a single slit,
5.Examples:Diffraction at a straight
double slit and n slits (grating) etc.,
edge, thin wire, narrow slit, a small
hole etc.,

Q) Write the differences between interference and diffraction.

7
 Interference Diffraction
1. Superposition of light waves 1. Superposition of light waves
coming from two different wave fronts coming from different parts of the
originating from the same source (i.e. same wave front.
coherent sources). 2. Fringe width is never equal.
2. Fringe width remains constant.
i.e; all fringes or bands are equally 3. The intensity of bright fringes
spaced. usually decreases with increase in the
3. All the bright fringes have same order of diffraction.
intensity. 4. Points of minimum intensity are
4. Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark. Hence fringes will
perfectly dark. Hence fringes will not appear with contrast.
appear with contrast.

Q) Describe the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern due to single slit and obtain
the conditions for primary, secondary maxima and minima. Draw the intensity
distribution curve and derive an expression for width of central maximum.
Description: Consider a narrow slit AB of width ‘a’ perpendicular to the plane
of paper. Let a plane wave front WW 1 of monochromatic light incident
normally on to the slit. The diffraction pattern can be focused on a screen which
is placed at the focal plane of the convex lens.

Explanation: According to Huygen’s wave theory every point of ‘AB’ sends

out secondary wavelets in all possible directions. The secondary wavelets
traveling normally to the slit are focused at ‘P 0’ by the lens and secondary
wavelets traveling at an angle θ with the normal are focused at ‘P 1’. Here P0 is a
bright which is central maximum. Depending upon the path difference, P 1 may
be bright or dark band.

Theory: To find out the intensity at P1, draw a perpendicular AC on BR.

Path difference between wavelets from A and B = BC = AB sin θ = a sin θ
2π 2π
Therefore Phase difference = λ (path difference) = λ a sin θ.
8
 Let us divide the width of the slit into ‘n’ equal parts and amplitude of wave
from each part is ‘A1’. The phase difference between any two consecutive
1 2π
waves is d =
n
{( λ ) a sin θ}
Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude is
given by, R = A1 ( sin nd /2 )
sin d /2

πasinθ
sin( )
λ
R=A1{ πasinθ }
sin( )
nλ
πasinθ
Let λ
=α,

sin α
{
R= A 1
sin
α }.
n

As (α/n) is very small, sin (α/n) ≈ (α/n).

sin α sin α
R = (n A1) α = A α , where n A1 = A
sin α
Intensity at P1 is given by , I = R2 = {A α }2
sin α
==> I = I0 { α }2 where I0 = A2
sin α
Principal Maximum: If θ 0, α 0 , Therefore α
1
Therefore , I = I0
This indicates that maximum is formed by those secondary wavelets which travel
normally to the slit. This maximum is known as principal maximum.

Minimum intensity positions:

πasinθ
Intensity I will be minimum when sin α = 0 ==> α = + mπ ==> λ
= + mπ
==> a sinθ = + m λ , m = 1, 2, 3, ----. Thus on either side of the principal
maximum, points of minimum intensity will be obtained.
Secondary maxima: In addition to principal maxima, there will be weak secondary
dI d 2 sin α 2
maxima between minima. The condition is =0==> {A ( ¿¿ } = 0
dα dα α
2 sinα αcosα −sinα
==> A2[ α ¿ [ 2
] = 0 ==> sinα =0 or αcosα −sinα =0 ==>
α
αcosα =sinα ==> α = tanα = y
Intensity distribution curve is shown above.
From graph, α = 0 represents the central maxima.
α = + 3π/2, +5π/2 and so on represents secondary maxima.
α = +π, +2π, +3 π…..represents minima.
9
Determination of width of central maximum:
We know the condition for diffraction minima is,
a sinθ = + m λ
λ
sinθ = θ = a -------(1) ( since θ is very small)
x
From the figure, sinθ = D ---------(2)
λ x
From (1) and (2) a = D
λD
x=
a
2 λD
2 x=
Hence width of central maximum , a

Q) Explain Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit. Draw the intensity

distribution curve.

Description: Consider two parallel slits AB and CD of equal width ‘a’ and
separated by distance 'b’. The distance between the midpoints of the two slits is
(a+b). Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light incident on the two slits
normally. Then the light will be focused on the screen XY placed at the focal
plane of the lens. The diffraction at two slits is the combination of diffraction as
well as interference.

Explanation: When a plane wave front is incident normally on both slits, the
secondary wavelets travelling normally to the slit come to focus at P 0 and the
secondary wavelets traveling at an angle θ with normal come to a focus at P 1.
Theory: For simplicity let us assume the two slits equivalent to two coherent
sin α
sources S1 and S2 each sending a wavelet of amplitude A α in a direction θ.
The resultant amplitude at P1 will be the result of interference between two
sin α
waves of amplitude (A α ) and having phase difference δ between them.
10
To find δ, draw a perpendicular S1Q on S2P1.
Path difference between wavelets from S1 and S2 = S2Q = (a+b) sinθ
2π
Phase difference, δ = λ (a+b) sin θ.

Resultant amplitude R2 = a12+a22+2a1a2cosδ

sin α sin α sin α sin α
= {A α }2 + {A α }2+2{A α }{A α } cosδ

sin α
= {A α }2 [1+1+2cosδ]

sin α
= {A α }2 2[1+cosδ]

sin α
= {A α }2 2[2cos2δ/2]

sin α
I = R2 = 4A2{ α }2cos2δ/2.

Intensity distribution: The resultant intensity depends upon two factors

sin α
1. 4A2{ α }2 gives the intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern due
to single slit.
2. cos2 δ/2 gives the interference pattern due to waves starting from two
parallel slits.
Therefore the resultant intensity at any point on the screen is the product of
these two factors.
In the diffraction pattern,
 The central maximum is obtained in the direction θ = 0.
 The minima are obtained in the direction given by asinθ = + m λ
where m = 1, 2, 3, ----.
 The positions of secondary maxima approaches to α = + 3π/2, +5π/2 and
so on.
The interference maxima are obtained in the direction given by
cos2δ/2 =1
==> δ/2 = + nπ
π (a+b) sinθ
==>
λ
= + nπ
=> (a+ b)sinθ = + nλ , n=0,1,2…
The intensity distribution in diffraction pattern, interference pattern and the
resultant pattern are as shown respectively.

11
Q)What is meant by diffraction grating? Explain with necessary theory the
Fraunhofer diffraction due to N-slits. Obtain an equation to find the wavelength
of light using plane diffraction grating.

An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same width

and separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating.

Theory:
Let ‘a’ be the width of each slit and‘ b’ is the width of each opaque part. Hence
(a+b) is the grating element. When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is
incident normally on the grating, the secondary wavelets travelling normally to
the slit come to focus at P0 on the screen which is placed at focal plane of the
convex lens. The point P0 will be the central maximum. The secondary wavelets
travelling at an angle θ with the normal, focused at P1.

CM
In Δ ACM , Sinθ = AC
CM=AC Sinθ =(a+ b)sinθ
The point P1 will be bright when ( a+ b ) sinθ n = n λ. Where n= 0,1,2,3,…. and θ1,
θ2, θ3 etc correspond to the directions of principal maxima.
nλ 1
sinθ
Hence n =
a+b = n N λ where N = ( a+b ) gives the number of lines per unit
width of the grating.
sinθ
∴ λ= nN
Grating spectrum: The position of the principal maxima are given by the
equation ( a+ b ) sinθ n = n λ. Where n=0,1,2,3,….
This relation is called grating equation where (a+b) is the grating element, m is
the order of maxima and λ is the wavelength of the incident light.
12
 The angle of diffraction depends upon the wavelength λ. The corresponding
spectrum is called grating spectrum.

 The principal maximum occurs at θ = 0 and is independent of wavelength λ.

 The principal maxima of all the wavelengths corresponding to n=1 will
form the first order spectrum and n=2 forms second order spectrum and
so on.
 In the spectrum, the violet colour will be in the inner most position and
red colour will be in the outer most position.
 Most of the intensity goes to zero order and the spectra becomes fainter
as we go to higher orders.
Characteristics of grating spectra:
1. Spectra of different orders are situated symmetrically on the both sides of
zeroth order image.
2. Spectral lines are almost straight and quite sharp.
3. Spectral lines are in the order from violet to red.
4. The spectral lines are more and more dispersed as we go to higher orders.
5. Most of the incident intensity goes to zeroth order and rest is distributed
among the other orders.

Maximum number of orders: We know the position of the principal

maxima is given by the equation,
( a+b ) sinθ
( a+ b ) sinθ = n λ => n =
λ
The maximum angle of diffraction is θ = 900
(a +b) 1 1
∴(n)max ≤ ≤ , where N = gives the number of
λ Nλ ( a+b )
grating elements per unit width of the grating.

Q) Calculate the maximum number of orders possible for a plane diffraction

grating.
We know the position of the principal maxima is given by the equation,
( a+b ) sinθ
( a+ b ) sinθ = n λ => n =
λ
The maximum angle of diffraction is θ = 900

13
 (a +b) 1 1
∴(n)max ≤ ≤ , where N = gives the number of
λ Nλ ( a+b )
grating elements per unit width of the grating.

Q) What are the advantages of increasing number of lines in a grating?

(OR)
In the diffraction grating, what is effect of total number of lines and width of
grating on the spectrum.

With the increase in the number of lines on grating, the resolving power of the
grating will increase and hence visibility increases.

Q) Define Resolving power. What is Rayleigh’s criterion for resolution?

The ability of an optical instrument to produce distinctly separate images of two
objects very close to each other is called its resolving power.
Rayleigh’s criterion of resolution: According to Rayleigh criterion, two
point sources are said to be resolved by an optical instrument “If the central
maximum of the diffraction pattern of one spectral line coincides with the
first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other and vice versa”.
Let us consider the resolution of two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 by a grating.
Case( i ): The intensity curve of the diffraction patterns of two wavelengths is
as shown.
 There is a distinct point of zero intensity between the two diffraction
patterns . Hence the two wavelengths are said to be well resolved.
Case (ii): In this case the difference in wavelengths is smaller and such that the
central maximum of wavelengths coincides with first minimum as shown. The
resultant curve shows a distinct dip in the middle of the two central maximum.
Thus the wavelengths can be distinguished from one another and they are said
to be just resolved.
Case (iii): In this case the difference in wavelengths is so small that the central
maxima corresponding to two wavelengths come closer. The resultant intensity
curve shows only maximum intensity and it is higher than individual intensities.
Hence the two wavelengths are said to be not resolved.

14
Q) Define Resolving power of a grating and derive the expression for resolving
power of a Grating.
The resolving power of a diffraction grating is its ability to separate spectral
lines which have nearly the same wavelength. This is measured by (λ/dλ) where
dλ is the smallest difference between two wavelengths which are just resolvable
by grating. λ is the wavelength of either of them (or) mean wavelength.

λ λ λ
dλ
= nN ⟹
dλ
αn,
dλ
αN

15
 CHAPTER III
POLARIZATION

Q) Describe an experiment to prove that light waves are transverse in nature

using the phenomenon of polarization

when an ordinary light is passed through a pair of tourmaline crystal plates T 1 and T2
with their planes parallel to each other, the intensity is maximum in this position
which is as shown in Fig (i).

Fig (i)

But when the plane of T2 is rotated through 900 the intensity is minimum as shown in
Fig (ii). Hence this shows that light is a transverse wave motion. Thus the light which
has acquired the property of one-sidedness is called Polarized light and the
phenomenon is known as Polarization.

16
 Fig (ii)

Representation of various types of light:

1. Unpolarized light: The ordinary light is also called as unpolarized light,

consists of a very large number of vibrations in all planes with equal
probability at right angles to the direction of propagation. It is also shown in
figure. For the purpose of easy representation consider vibrations in two
mutually perpendicular directions.

2. Plane polarized light: If the vibrations are confined to a single plane (either
in the direction along the plane of the paper or in the direction perpendicular
to the plane of the paper) then it is called plane polarized or linearly
polarized light. The vibrations along the plane of the paper are represented
by arrows while the vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper are
represented by dots as shown.

17
3. Partially plane polarized light: If the linearly polarized light contains small
additional components of unpolarized light, it becomes partially plane
polarized light. It is represented as shown.

4. Circularly polarized light:

If the electric vector of light rotates along circle i.e. it does not change
magnitude while rotating, it will be circularly polarized. If the vector rotates
in the clock wise direction with respect to the direction of propagation then it
is right circularly polarized light and if it is in anti clock wise direction then
it is left circularly polarized light.

5. Elliptically polarized light: If the electric vector rotates along ellipse i.e. if
there is a change in the magnitude while rotating it is called as elliptically
polarized light.

18
Q) Write the differences between polarized and unpolarized light.

Unpolarized light Polarized light

1. It consists of light vibrations 1. It consists of light vibrations in
equally distributed in all directions. mutually perpendicular directions
confined to a single direction in a given
plane .
2. Symmetrical about the ray 2. Asymmetrical about the ray direction
direction.

3. It is produced by conventional light 3. It is obtained from unpolarized light

sources. with the help of polarizers.

4. Light from a sodium vapour lamp. 4. Light from a Laser source.

Q) Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization.

Plane of polarization and plane of vibration; when ordinary light is passed

through a tourmaline crystal, the light is polarized and the vibrations are confined

only in one direction which is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.

Plane of vibration: The plane in which the vibrations of polarized light are
confined is known as plane of vibration. It contains directions of vibrations as
well as direction of propagation of light. It was represented by abcd in the
figure.

19
 Plane of polarization: The plane which is perpendicular to the plane of
vibration and passing through the propagation of light is known as plane of
polarization. It was represented by a1b1c1d1in the figure.

Q)
Discuss the various methods by which Polarized light can be produced.
(OR)
1) What is Brewster’s law? Prove that the angle between reflected and
Refracted beams is 900 .
Polarization by reflection (Brewster’s law): In 1808, a French scientist Malus
found that when unpolarized light was reflected at the surface of transparent medium
such as glass or water, for a particular angle of incidence the reflected light was
completely plane polarized.

“The angle of incidence for which the reflected beam is completely plane
polarized is known as polarizing angle (or) Brewster angle (ip)”. The

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 vibrations of the reflected light are found to be perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. It is as shown.
Here the reflected component is completely plane polarized while the
transmitted component is partially plane polarized.

Brewster observed a relation between polarizing angle (ip) and the refractive index of
the medium (μ). The refractive index of the medium is equal to the tangent of the
angle of polarization. Therefore μ= tan ip

This is called Brewster’s law.

Using this law, we can prove that the angle between reflected and refracted rays
is 900. .
Proof: From the figure, ∠ PON =i and ∠ N 1∨¿ r
sin i
From snell’s law , μ= sin r
sin i
From Brewster’s law , μ = tan i = cos i
sin i sin i
∴ = cos i
sin r

⟹Cos i = sin r

⟹Sin (90-i) =sin r

⟹ 90 - i = r

⟹ i + r = 900

From the figure it is clear that , ∠NOQ + ∠QOR +∠N1OR = 1800

⟹ i + ∠QOR + r = 1800
⟹ ∠QOR + (i+r) = 1800
⟹ ∠ QOR = 1800 - 900 = 900
Therefore then reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.

2) Explain the method of producing polarized light by refraction or

transmission.
(OR)
How polarized light is produced by using pile of plates?

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 When unpolarized light is incident at polarizing angle the transmitted light is
partially plane polarized and contains greater proportion of light vibrating parallel to
the plane of incidence. If this process is repeated using number of plates finally the
transmitted light becomes purely plane polarized. This agreement is known as pile of
plates.
The polarizing angle for glass is 57.50
The pile of plates consists of no. of glass plates fixed in a tube of suitable size inclined
at angle of 32.50. When light enters the tube, each plate filters the vibrations
perpendicular to the plane of incidence by reflection. Hence after traversed about 15
plates, the transmitted light was polarized as shown in figure. Thus pile of plates acts
as a polarizer.

Q) What is an Optic axis and what are uniaxial and biaxial crystals ?
Give examples
A line passing through any one of the blunt corners (A or B) and making equal angles
with the three faces which meet at this corner is called optic axis of the crystal.
Optic axis is a direction and any line parallel to the optic axis also represents the optic
axis.
Crystals having one optic axis are called uniaxial crystals. Ex: Quartz and Calcite.
Crystals having two optic axis are called biaxial crystals. Ex: Mica, Topaz, Borax etc
Principal section: Any plane which contains the optic axis and is perpendicular to the
opposite faces is called a principal section. A principal section cuts the crystal
surfaces in a parallelogram having angles 710 and 1090 as shown.

Q) Explain the phenomenon of double refraction. How can it be used to produce

a plane polarized light.

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Double refraction (Birefringence): When a beam of unpolarized light is passed
through a anisotropic crystal like calcite(Caco3) or quartz(SiO2), it is split up into two
refracted rays as shown.

→ The one which obeys the ordinary laws of refraction and having vibrations
perpendicular to principal section is known as ordinary ray (o – ray).
→ The other one which does not obeys ordinary laws of refraction and having
Vibrations parallel to the principal section is known as extra ordinary ray (e –
ray).
This phenomenon is called double refraction (or) birefringence, discovered by
Erasmus Bartholinus.
In the figure r1, r2 are the angles of refraction of ordinary and extra ordinary rays
sin i
respectively. From Snell’s law, μ= sin r

sin i sin i
∴ μ0= and μ e=
sin r
1 sin r
2

For calcite crystal , r1¿ r2 then μ0 ¿ μe and V0¿ Ve .Therefore the velocity of
light for the ordinary ray inside the crystal will be less compared to the
Velocity of light for the extraordinary ray.

Q) Explain o-ray and e-ray and mention their properties.

Properties of ordinary rays and extraordinary rays :

1. The ordinary ray travels in the crystal with the same velocity in all directions,
whereas the extraordinary ray travels in the crystal with different velocities in
different directions. Hence ordinary ray is represented with the sphere and
extraordinary ray is represented with the ellipsoid.
2. The difference between the refractive indices of ordinary and extraordinary rays
is called birefringence.
3. The ordinary and extraordinary rays travel with same velocity along the
direction of optic axis.
4. In certain crystals like calcite and tourmaline the ellipsoid lies outside the
sphere. This shows the velocity of ordinary ray is less than the velocity of

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 extraordinary ray inside the crystal except along the optic axis. These crystals
are called negative crystals. In negative crystals μo ¿ μe and V0¿ Ve .
5. In certain crystals like ice and quartz the sphere lies outside the ellipsoid. This
shows the velocity of extraordinary is less than the velocity of ordinary ray
inside the crystal except along the optic axis. These crystals are called positive
crystals. In positive crystals μ0 ¿ μe and V0¿Ve .

Q) Describe the construction and working of Nicol prism. Describe how it can be
used as polarizer and analyzer
Principle: Nicol prism is the one of the most important device used to produce plane
polarized light. When an unpolarized light is transmitted through a calcite crystal, it
splits into ordinary and extraordinary rays. In 1828, Nicol eliminated the ordinary
beam by using the phenomenon of total reflection at a thin film of Canada balsam
separating the two pieces of calcite. This device is known as Nicol’s prism and is used
for producing and analyzing a plane polarized light.

Construction: A calcite crystal whose length is 3 times as its width is taken and end
faces are ground in such a way that the angles in the principal section become 68 0 and
1120.The crystal is cut into two pieces by a plane perpendicular to the principal section
and faces PR and QS .The two cut surfaces are ground and polished optically flat and
then cemented together by Canada balsam whose refractive index (1.55) lies between
the refractive indices for ordinary (μ0 =1.65) and extra ordinary (μe =1.48).

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Working: When a beam of light AB enters the faces PR, it is doubly refracted in to
ordinary beam BO and extraordinary beam BE. Here the Canada balsam acts as a rarer
medium for an ordinary ray and as a denser medium for an extraordinary ray. Also if
the angle of incidence of ordinary ray at the calcite –balsam surface is greater than the
critical angle 690, the ordinary ray gets total internally reflected. As extraordinary ray
is travelling from a rarer to denser medium and is transmitted with no loss in intensity.
Hence only extraordinary ray is transmitted which is plane polarized.

Uses: Nicol’s prism can be used both as polarizer and an analyzer. When two Nicol’s
are arranged coaxially then first Nicol , which produces Plane polarized light known
as polarizer and the second Nicol which analyses Plane polarized light is known as
analyzer.

→When two Nicols are placed with their principal sections parallel to each other, the
intensity is maximum.
→If second is slowly rotated, the intensity gradually decreases.
→When both are in crossed position, no light comes from second Nicol and intensity
is zero.
Q) What are quarter and half wave plates? Derive the expression for thickness
of
quarter and half wave plates.
Waveplate : Wave plate is used to introduce specified path difference between o-ray
and e-ray for a particular wavelength of light.
Quarter wave plate: Consider a calcite crystal taken in the form of a plate cut with
optic axis parallel to the surface as shown.

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 When a plane polarized light of wavelength ‘λ’ falls normally on this calcite plate,
the light splits up into ordinary and extraordinary plane polarized lights.
“If the thickness of the plate is such that it introduces a path difference of λ/4,
then it is called a quarter wave plate.”
Let ‘t’ is the thickness of the plate. Hence the optical path difference between
ordinary and extraordinary rays is,
Δ = (μo - μe ) t (∵ μo ¿ μe )
For quarter wave plate, Δ = λ/4
∴ (μo - μe ) t = λ/4
λ
⟹t = 4 (μ0−μ e )
Half wave plate: “If the thickness of the plate is such that it introduces a path
difference of λ/2, then it is called a half wave plate.”
For half wave plate, Δ = λ/2
⟹ ¿μo - μe ) t = λ/2
λ
⟹ t= 2(μ0−μ e )

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