INTRODUCTION COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

A computer program is a sequence or set of instructions that a computer follows to perform a

specific task or accomplish a particular goal. These instructions are written in a programming
language that humans and computers understand.

Programming is the process of creating and designing computer programs. It involves writing a
set of instructions or code in a programming language that a computer can understand and execute
to perform specific tasks or solve particular problems.

Computer Programming is the process of writing, testing, troubleshooting, debugging and

maintaining a computer program.

Key Aspects in Computer Programming

• Problem Solving: Programming is fundamentally about solving problems. Programmers
analyse problems, break them into smaller, manageable parts, and then write code to address
each.
• Algorithms and Logic: Programmers use algorithms, which are step-by-step procedures for
solving problems. They also employ logical thinking to make decisions and create efficient
solutions.
• Programming Languages: Numerous programming languages are available, each with its
syntax and rules. Popular programming languages include Java, C++, Python, PHP,
JavaScript, and many others. In this course, we will be using the Java programming language.
• Writing Code: Programmers write lines of code using a programming language. This code
serves as a blueprint for telling the computer what to do. Codes are written using a code editor
or integrated development environment (IDE). Examples of code editors are Notepad, Visual
Studio Code, Sublime, Atom, etc. Examples of IDEs are NetBeans, IntelliJ, Eclipse, etc. You can
use any IDEs in this class, but examples will be shown in IntelliJ.
• Syntax and Semantics: Programming languages have specific syntax (grammar) and
semantics (meaning) that must be followed precisely to write functional code.
• Testing and Debugging: After writing code, programmers test it to identify and fix errors or
"bugs." Debugging involves tracing and correcting issues in the code.
• Optimisation: Programmers often optimise their code to make it run more efficiently, use
fewer resources, and execute tasks faster.

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• Documentation: Good programming includes documenting the code to make it
understandable to other programmers and future maintainers.
• Collaboration: Many software development projects involve teams of programmers who
collaborate on designing, coding, and maintaining complex software systems.

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

There are two main types of computer programming languages:
• Low-level language
• High-level language.

Low-level language is closer to the machine than the human natural language. The two major
examples are Machine and Assembly language.
• Machine Language: This is the only language a computer understands. The computer
directly executes a program written in machine language. Such programs are coded using
strings of 0’s and 1’s. It doesn’t need a translator.

• Assembly Language: uses mnemonics (symbols) to represent data and instructions. Such
a program eliminates problems associated with machine language. A computer cannot
execute directly a program written in assembly language. It requires a translator called
an assembler. Assembler is a special program designed to translate program content in
assembly language to a machine language equivalent.

High-Level Language: is a problem-orientated programming language, whereas a low-level

language is machine-oriented. The source programs are written in human-readable languages like
English instead of symbols. In other words, a high-level language is a convenient and simple means
of describing the information structures and sequences of actions required to perform a particular
task. Examples of High-level Languages are FORTRAN, COBOL, Visual Basic, Java, C, C++, Python,
C#, etc.

For computers to read and run a program written in a High-Level Language, the source code must
be converted into machine language using an interpreter or a compiler. Compiling is the process of
converting source code into machine language. It is directly converted into machine code that the
processor can execute. By this, it tends to be faster and more efficient to execute than the

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interpreted languages. Programming languages that are compiled are C, C++, Haskell, Go, etc.

Other programming languages that do not compile will use Interpreter to read and execute the
code. Interpreters run through programs line by line and execute each command. Interpreters are
significantly slower than compilers, but the development of just-in-time compilation (it compiles to
native code during execution to improve performance) tends to reduce the gap. Such languages
are JavaScript, PHP, Perl, Ruby, etc.

There are programming languages that can both compile as well as interpret. Examples of such
languages are Java, Python, etc.
The programmer will consider the application requirements before deciding on the programming
language to use for development. Some of the programming languages can be used for one kind
of development, while others can be used for more than one kind of development. Some of the
programming languages are:

• Java - used for Desktop software (cross-platform), Game Development, Big data technology,
Embedded Systems, Web Applications, and Mobile development (Android), can equally be
used to create apps for a range of industries, such as banking, electronic trading, e-commerce,
as well as apps for distributed computing.
• Python - can be used to develop different applications and does well in technologies such as
Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Data Analytics, Data Visualization, Game
Development, Back-end web development (with frameworks like Django and Flask), Enterprise
applications and GUIs for applications.
• C – language is used to develop Operating systems and system tools, Game development,
Advanced computation and graphics, Compilers, and Enterprise software.
• C++ is used for Desktop applications and software development, Game engines and games,
system applications, real-time systems, IoT, embedded systems, cloud, containers, etc.
• C# - can be used for game development, Desktop applications (Microsoft, Windows), Web
services and web applications, server-side programming, mobile applications, etc.
• JavaScript - used to develop rich Interactive Web applications (front-end and back-end
development (Node.js)) and Mobile apps with React Native.
• Swift – used for Mobile App Development on iOS. It can be used to create apps for virtually
every Apple device, such as iPhones, iPads, Macs, Watch, and Vision Pro.

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• Perl - is a high-level scripting language used for Network programming, GUI development,
and Web development.
• PHP - is a server-side scripting language for Back-end web development.
• Ruby - is a high-level, multi-purpose programming language for Back-end web
development.
• COBOL – used for business applications development.
• FORTRAN – designed for scientific computation and organising numbers.

Principles of Good Programming

• Readability and Maintainability: Write code that is easy to read and understand. Use
meaningful variable and function names. Add comments and documentation to explain complex
logic, assumptions, and intentions. Follow a consistent coding style and adhere to established
coding conventions in your programming language.

• Modularity and Encapsulation: Break your code into smaller, reusable modules or functions.
Each module should have a specific purpose and well-defined inputs and outputs. Use
encapsulation to hide the internal implementation details of a module or class. Expose only the
necessary interfaces.

• Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY): Avoid duplicating code. Instead, use functions, methods, or
classes to encapsulate common functionality that can be reused throughout your program.

• Keep It Simple, Stupid (KISS): Favour simple, straightforward solutions over complex ones.
Avoid unnecessary complexity and over-engineering.

• Prioritise code clarity and simplicity to reduce the chances of bugs and make maintenance
easier.

• Single Responsibility Principle (SRP): Each function, method, or class should have a single
responsibility or reason to change. This promotes a clear and maintainable codebase.

• Open/Closed Principle (OCP): Code should be open for extension but closed for modification.
You should be able to add new features or functionality without altering existing code.

• Consistency: Be consistent in naming conventions, code structure, and style throughout your
codebase. Use consistent indentation, variable naming, and coding patterns.

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• Testing and Test-Driven Development (TDD): Write unit tests for your code to ensure it
behaves as expected. Consider using a test-driven development approach, where you write
tests before writing the actual code.

• Error Handling: Implement robust error handling and validation to handle unexpected
situations and provide meaningful error messages.

• Performance Optimization: Optimize code for performance when necessary, but prioritise
readability and maintainability unless performance is critical. Use profiling tools to identify
bottlenecks before optimising code.

• Version Control: Use version control systems (e.g., Git) to track changes, collaborate with
others, and maintain a history of your codebase.

• Security: Be aware of common security vulnerabilities and follow best practices for secure
coding. Validate user inputs, avoid hardcoded secrets, and use secure authentication and
authorisation mechanisms.

• Documentation: Document your code, including function/method descriptions, usage examples,

and high-level architecture.

CONCEPTS OF STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

Our program grows as the lines of code continue to multiply during the coding process. Debugging
and modifying the program becomes extremely difficult, and errors are bound to occur. If an error
occurs in a program that consists of thousands of instructions, chances of locating such error will be
difficult throughout the program; however, if the code is in a structured manner, we can easily
detect the error and then go to that location to correct it to save a significant amount of time.
Structured programming encourages the use of subroutines and loops, which encourages efficiency
and clarity. It also helps programmers reduce coding time and organise their code properly. So, we
use structured programming because it makes it easier for programmers to understand the
program.

Elementary structures of structured programs

• Block is a set of commands (declarations and statements) that operate as a unit and execute
sequentially. The sequence has a single entry point (the first line) and exit (the last line).

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• Selection is the branching of control flow based on the outcome of a condition. When the
condition is true, the 'if' block is executed; otherwise, the 'else' block is executed. The 'else'
block is optional and can be left out entirely.
• Iteration is the repetition of a block as long as a certain condition is met. The condition is
evaluated at the beginning or end of the block. The loop is terminated when the condition returns
false, and the execution continues in the next block.
• Nesting: is when a piece or block of code is placed inside another. It is used for multi-selection
and iteration.
• Subroutines are small blocks of codes designed to perform a specific task. It can contain
sequence, selection and iteration constructs.

Major Concepts in Structured Programming

Structured programming uses three major concepts:
1. Top-down Analysis – the problems are broken down into smaller pieces with some
significance in top-down analysis. Each problem is solved individually, and the steps to do so
are clearly stated.
2. Modular Programming – it is based on the understanding of top-down analysis. In modular
programming, code is broken into smaller groups of instructions called modules, or
subprograms or subroutines.
3. Structured Coding – this subdivides modules into smaller units of code in the order of their
execution. Structured coding uses a control structure to organise its instructions in definable
patterns.

Types of Structured Programming

Structured programming can be divided into three categories:
1. Procedural programming is a programming paradigm based on the idea that programs are
sequences of instructions that must be executed. They strongly emphasise dividing programs
into named sets of instructions known as functions. FORTRAN and ALGOL were two of the first
procedural programming languages.
2. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that organises code
around objects, which are instances of classes. OOP focuses on creating modular, reusable,
and maintainable code by encapsulating data and behaviour into objects.
3. Model-Based Programming is an approach to software development that emphasises

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 creating and using abstract models to design, simulate, and generate code for complex
systems. This approach can be applied to various domains, including software development,
control systems, and embedded systems.

Advantages of Structured Programming

• Application programs are easier to read and comprehend.
• Application programs are less likely to contain logic errors.
• Errors are more easily identified.
• It increases productivity during application program development.
• The design of application programs has been improved.
• Application programs are more easily maintained.
• Machine-Independent, mostly.
Disadvantages of Structured Programming
• It is machine-independent so converting it to machine code takes time.
• The program is dependent on variables such as data types. As a result, it must be kept up to
date with the changing needs.
• The converted machine code differs from the assembly language code.
• This approach is language-dependent, so the development usually takes longer. In the case of
assembly language, development takes less time because it is pre-programmed for the
machine.

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INTRODUCTION TO JAVA
What is Java?

Java is a popular general-purpose programming language and computing platform. It is fast,

reliable, and secure. Java is an object-oriented programming language that is concurrent, class-
based, portable and has as few implementation dependencies as possible. Java program can run on
all platforms supporting Java and is intended to let developers “Write Once, Run Anywhere”. It
enables programmers to write computer instructions using English-based commands (high-level
language) instead of writing in numeric codes. It’s known as a high-level language because humans
can read and write easily.

Like English, Java has a set of rules that determine how the instructions are written. These rules are
known as its syntax. Once a program has been written, the high-level instructions are translated
into numeric codes that computers can understand and execute.

History of Java
James Gosling and his team Patrick Naughton, Chris Warth, Ed Frank, and Mike Sheridan at Sun
Microsystems in 1991 initiated the Java language project. The language, initially called ‘Oak’ after
an oak tree that stood outside Gosling's office, also went by the name ‘Green’ and later became
Java, from a list of random words.

The name Java came about in 1995 when Gosling and his team went for a cup of coffee, and the
name Java was suggested, and it struck. Java was developed from the rich experiences of the
professionals who came together to design the programming language. Thus, it is an excellent
programming language. It has a similar syntax to C/C++ programming languages but without its
complexities. Java is an elegant programming language.

Sun released the first public implementation as Java 1.0 in 1995. On 13 November, 2006, Sun
released much of Java as free and open-source software under the terms of the GNU General Public
License (GPL). On 8 May, 2007, Sun finished the process, making all of Java's core code free and
open-source, aside from a small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the copyright. Java was
acquired by Oracle Corporation from Sun Microsystems in 2010.
Java was initially developed for programming intelligent electronic devices such as TVs, cell
phones, pagers, smart cards, etc. Unfortunately, the expectations of the Suns team in this area did
not develop as they envisaged. With the advent of the Internet and the World Wide Web
(WWW), the team changed their focus, and Java was developed for web-based applications. It

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is currently being used to develop a variety of applications. Java revolutionised programming,
changing the way we think about a program's form and function.

The Reasons for Using Java

The Java design team summed up the key considerations or importance that shaped the invention of
Java in the following ways:

• Object Oriented: In Java, everything is an object. Java can be easily extended since it is
based on the object model.
• Platform Independent: When Java is compiled, it is not compiled into a platform-specific
machine code, but rather into platform-independent byte code. This byte code is distributed
over the web and interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) on whichever platform it runs
on.
• Simple: Java has a concise, cohesive set of features that makes it easy to learn and use.
• Secure: Java provides a secure means of creating Internet applications. Authentication
techniques are based on public-key encryption.
• Architecture-neutral: Java is not tied to a specific machine or Operating system architecture.
Its compiler generates an architecture-neutral object file format, which makes the compiled
code executable on many processors, with the presence of a Java runtime system.
• Portable: Java programs can execute in any environment with a Java run time system.
• Robust: Java makes an effort to eliminate error-prone situations by emphasising mainly
compile-time and runtime error checking.
• Multithreaded: With this feature, it is possible to write programs that can perform many tasks
simultaneously. This design feature allows the developers to construct interactive applications
that can run smoothly.
• Interpreted: Java supports cross-platform code through the use of Java bytecode.
• High Performance: Using Just-In-Time compilers, Java enables high performance.
• Distributed: Java is designed for the distributed environment of the internet.
• Dynamic: Java is considered to be more dynamic since it is designed to adapt to an evolving
environment. Java programs can carry an extensive amount of run-time information that can
be used to verify and resolve accesses to objects on run-time.

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Types of Java Programs
The three major Java programs are:
1. Java Stand-Alone Applications – are Java programs developed and executed on a stand-
alone local computer. These applications run directly by the Java interpreter. A standalone
application should be delivered and installed on each computer before it is run. It can have a
Command-Line Interface (CLI) or a Graphical User Interface (GUI). You have already used
many stand-alone applications such as text editors, word processors and games applications.
2. Java Applets: these are the Java applications embedded inside HTML files and can be
downloaded into a Java-capable browser. An applet can perform tasks and interact with
users on their browser's web pages without using resources from the web server after being
downloaded. Using applets, you can do anything ranging from animations to complete games
and utilities that can be executed over the Internet.
3. Java Servlets: are Java programs that run on a web server to generate dynamic web content.
In a web-based application, the client sends a request to a server. The server processes the
request and sends a response back to the client. Servlets are used to process forms. Servlets
can also process databases and perform server-side transactions. Servlets use web servers
for their execution and help generate web pages.

Java Programming Language Platforms

There are different editions of Java targeting different application environments and segmented
many of its Application Programming Interface (API) so that they belong to one platform. They
are:

1. Java Standard Edition (Java SE) is the API for developing desktop-based applications. Java
SE comes bundled with the compiler, a runtime environment, and core API.
2. Java Enterprise Edition (Java EE) – is the API to develop web-based enterprise applications.
The applications are accessed on your browser. This package includes an application server,
web server, J2EE APIs, support for Enterprise JavaBeans, Java Servlets API, and Java Server
Pages (JSP) technology.
3. Java Micro Edition (Java ME) – is the API to develop mobile applications and other consumer
devices. This kit provides tools for compiling, deployment and device configuration, and
specialised APIs for each type of device.
4. Java FX – is a platform for developing desktop applications and rich internet applications
using lightweight user-interface API that can run across various devices. Applications written

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 for the Java FX platform can include links to Java programming language classes and may
be clients of Java EE platform services.
The development kits above include the APIs necessary for whatever type of applications you
develop in the Java programming language. Structurally, the Java language starts with packages.
A package is the Java language's namespace mechanism. Within packages are classes, and within
classes are methods, variables, constants, and more.

Now that we have an overview of the Java language let us begin with the technicalities of the
language.

Components of the Java Platform

Java platform is a collection of programs that help to develop and run programs written in the Java
programming language. Java platform includes an execution engine, a compiler, and a set of
libraries. JAVA is a platform-independent language. It is not specific to any processor or operating
system. The Java platform component includes:
• Java Development Kit (JDK) is a software development environment equipped with tools
like compiler (javac), java debugger, documentation generator, JRE, interpreter/loader, and
other core classes. The compiler helps in converting the Java code into byte code.
• Java Runtime Environment (JRE) – software required to execute Java programs and
applications. JRE consists of a Java Virtual Machine (JVM), libraries and other classes to
execute Java programs successfully.
• Java Virtual Machine (JVM) provides an environment for executing Java programs. It is the
base for the Java platform that allows Java programs to do the same thing on different
computer systems. JVM is an engine that provides a runtime environment to drive the Java
code or applications. It converts Java bytecode into machine language.

How Java Programming Works

As a programming language, all source code is first written in plaintext files and saved as a .java
file (.java extension). Using the Java compiler (javac), the code is converted into an intermediate
code called the bytecode. The output is a .class file (.class file does not contain code native to your
processor). Only the virtual platform is called the Java Virtual Machine understand and can
interpret the bytecode.
This virtual machine resides in the RAM of your operating system. When the Virtual Machine is fed
with the bytecode at runtime, the JVM reads and interprets .class files and executes the program's

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instructions on the native hardware platform for which the JVM was written. Your code can run on
any chipset for which a suitable JVM implementation is available. JVMs are available for major
platforms like Linux and Windows, and subsets of the Java language have been implemented in
JVMs for mobile phones.

Java Program Compilation and Execution Process

Setting Up Your Java Development Environment

To set up and run Java programming language, you need the following:
• Java Development Kit (JDK) - a complete class library of prebuilt utilities that help you
accomplish the most common application development tasks.
• Java Runtime Environment (JRE) - (also known as the Java runtime) includes the JVM, code
libraries, and components necessary for running programs written in the Java language. The
JRE is available for multiple platforms.
• Integrated Development Environment (IDE) - To write your Java programs, you will need an
IDE or a text editor. So many IDEs are available, and you could use anyone. However, the
setup procedure for IntelliJ will be shown below. Examples of IDEs are Eclipse, NetBeans,
IntelliJ IDEA, BlueJ, MyEclipse, XCode, Apache NetBeans, Codota, Codenvy, JDeveloper, JEdit,
etc. Alternatively, to run a single-file Java program, you can use an online platform e.g.
https://www.programiz.com/java-programming/online-compiler. No setup is required to use
the online platform.

IntelliJ is a popular IDE for Java development. It is built on the same platform used for Android
Studio and by the same creator. IntelliJ handles basic tasks, such as code compilation and
debugging, so that you can focus on writing and testing code. In addition, you can use IntelliJ to
organise source code files into projects, compile and test those projects, and store project files in
any source repositories.

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For us to install and use Java programs in this text, we will download the following:
• JDK 8 – Java SE Development Kit
• IntelliJ IDEA IDE

Steps to download and install them:

• Visit https://www.oracle.com/java/technologies/downloads
• Select your operating system and the installer that matches your chip architecture x86 for 32-
bit and x64 for 64-bit.
• Agree to the license terms for the version you want to download.

• You have to create an account/login to access the download page.

• Save the file to your hard drive when prompted.

• When the download is complete, run the install program.

You now have a Java environment on your computer. Next, you'll install the Eclipse IDE.

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Install Eclipse to Develop Java Programs
To download and install IntelliJ, follow these steps:
• Visit https://www.jetbrains.com/idea/download
• Select your operating system and Click on Download to start the down.
• Save the file to your computer
• Double-click on the file to start the installation.

You now have a Java environment on your computer. Next, you'll install the IntelliJ IDE.

Double on the IntelliJ Icon on your desktop to open the IDE, or click on IntelliJ from the Start menu.

Figure 1 – IntelliJ Welcome Page

• Click on New Project to start a new project.
• Enter Project Name and Click on Create to get started.

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Overview of the IntelliJ IDE:
• User Interface:
• Editor: The central area where you write and edit your code. It provides syntax
highlighting, code completion, and numerous code analysis and navigation features.
• Tool Windows: Surrounding the editor, tool windows provide access to features like
Project Explorer, version control, build tools, database tools, and more.
• Menu Bar: Contains menus for accessing various functions and settings.
• Toolbar: Provides quick access to frequently used actions and commands.
• Status Bar: Displays information about the project, version control status, and other
relevant details.
• Editor - The code editor is where you write and edit your code. IntelliJ IDEA offers features
like code completion, code generation, code inspections, refactoring tools, and smart code
analysis to help you write high-quality code.
• Projects - The Project tool window displays the structure of your project, including directories,
files, and modules. You can navigate through your project's components, create new files, and
manage dependencies from here.
• Run - You can run and debug your applications from within the IDE. IntelliJ IDEA provides run
configurations for different project types, making it easy to launch your code and debug any
issues that arise.

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 Figure 2 – Overview of the IntelliJ IDE

BUILDING YOUR FIRST JAVA PROGRAM

By now, you should have already installed the Java programming environment, such as the Java
Development Kit and the IDE. We will be using IntelliJ IDE. Using the project we created in the
previous step, write the following program in the editor:

/* First Java program, which prints "My First Java Program!" */

// This is the class definition, the name of the class is Main

public class Main {

// This is the main method

public static void main (String args[]) {

// This line will print "My first Java program" to the console

System.out.println("My first Java program!");

}
}

From the above program, the source file is named after the public class it contains, appending the
suffix “.java”, that is “Main.java”. It must first be compiled into bytecode using a Java compiler,
producing a file named Main.class. Only then will it be executed or "launched". When you click the
“Run” on the IntelliJ IDE, the program console produces the following result:

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Brief Explanation of the Program
The first lines /* */ and //start comment statements. Comments are NOT executable and are
ignored by the compiler. But they provide useful explanations and documentation to your readers.
There are two kinds of comments:
Multi-Line Comment: begins with /* and ends with */, and may span more than one line.
Single-Line (Inline) Comment: begins with // and lasts until the end of the current line.

public class Main {

......
}

It starts with the access modifier “public” which tells the Java compiler that the class can be accessed
outside the program file it is declared in. A "Main" class is defined via the keyword "class", which
tells Java that it wants to define a class using the name Main. The braces { } enclose the body of
the class. In Java, the name of the source file must be the same as the name of the class with a
mandatory file extension of ".java". Hence, this file MUST be saved as " Main .java".

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public static void main(String[] args) {
......
}

This is the entry point for program execution. Again, the braces {......} enclose the body of the
method, which contains programming statements. It starts with the access modifier “public” which
shows that the program may be accessed outside the class in which it is declared.

The “static” implies that the method “main()” may be called before an object of the class has been
created. This is necessary since the Java interpreter calls main () before any objects are made.
The “void” tells the compiler that main( ) does not return a value. As you will see, methods may also
return values.

main() starts Java program processing. Any information you need to pass to a method is received
by variables specified within the set of parentheses that follow the name of the method. These
variables are called parameters. If no parameters are required for a given method, you must
include the empty parentheses. In main( ), there is only one parameter, “String[ ] args” which
declares a parameter named “args”. This is an array of objects of the class String. Objects of type
String store character strings. In this case, args receives any command-line arguments present when
the program is executed.
Keep in mind that Java is case-sensitive. Thus, Main is different from main. It is important to
understand that the Java compiler will compile classes that do not contain a main( ) method. But
the Java interpreter has no way to run these classes. So, if you had typed Main instead of main, the
compiler would still compile your program. However, the Java interpreter would report an error
because it would be unable to find the main( ) method.
System.out.println("My First Program!"); will print the string "My First Program!". In
System.out, the system is the predefined class that provide access to the system while the “out” is
the output stream that is connected to the console. The println() (meaning print line) displays the
string which is passed to it. The line ends with a semicolon (;), which shows the line is a statement.
All statements in Java end with semicolon.

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