JEREMIAH NYAGAH TECHNICAL INSTITUTE

AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

CROP PRODUCTION COURSE OUTLINE

LEVEL: CRAFT IN GENERAL AGRICULTURE

CLASS: CGA2022S

TERM 1, 2022/2023 ACADEMIC YEAR

TRAINERS: MR. SAGINI & MR. NGUGI

TOPIC SUBTOPIC
1. Crop Ecology  Definition
 Ecological factors
 Agro ecological Zones
 Crops grown in each agrological zones
2. Land preparation  Tools and implements
 Reasons of land preparation
 Methods of land preparation
 Timing of operations
3. Plant propagation  Methods of plant propagation
 Advantages and Disadvantages of various methods
4. Planting  Selection of planting materials
 Importance of planting time, depth, spacing and seed
rate
 Methods of planting
 Manure and fertilizer application
5. Crop management  Manure and fertilizer top dressing
practices  Thinning
 Gapping
 Pruning
 Mulching
 Stalking
 Trellising
 Rationing
6. Crop protection  Weed and weed control
 Pests and their control
  Diseases and their control
 Safety precautions
7. Harvesting, Handling  Harvesting
and processing  Handling
 Processing
 Storage
8. Crop rotation  Definition
 Importance of crop rotation
 Crop rotation process
9. Cropping system  Types of cropping system
 Advantages of a cropping system
PRINCIPLES
OF

CROP
PRODUCTION
(Craft Certificate)

©CGA2022S
 INTRODUCTION

HISTORY AND DEFINITION OF AGRICULTURE

 The early human beings were fruit gatherers and hunters. They also ate the fruits and seeds
of certain plants. However, human beings lived on earth for many years before they began
to practice Agriculture.

 It is believed that human beings began to plant their own crops instead of simply gathering
fruits about 9000 BC. The earliest crops they grew were cereals such as wheat, barley,
sorghum and millet. Over many centuries, both crops and animals became dependent on
human beings for their existence in a process known as domestication.

 Human beings cultivate fields for the purpose of producing crops for their needs. Producing
a crop involves not just cultivation, but planting the crop, caring for it until it is harvested
and storing it is eaten or sold. In order for crops to produce good yields, the farmer requires
good knowledge on how each crop grows and reproduces. It is also necessary for him or her
to know about pests, diseases, soils and agricultural economics.

 Agriculture is therefore defined as the art and science of crop and livestock production. As
an art, agriculture entails; tilling of the land; construction of farm structures; measuring
distances; machine operations; harvesting of crops; and marketing of agricultural produce.

 As a science, agriculture entails; crop pathology; entomology; agricultural engineering; soil

science; and genetics.

ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE ECONOMY

a. Food supply.

 Agriculture supplies adequate food to both the urban and rural communities ensuring a
healthy population which spends more energy in other aspects of economic development
leading to a wealthy nation.

 Fruits and vegetables are good examples of food produced by farmers

Figure 1: Fruits and vegetables

Source of employment.

 Agriculture provides direct employment to over 70% of the people of Kenya, as full time
farmers, farm employees, and those in the agro-based industries. A section of the
population is indirectly employed in the extension services, research stations, transport and
industry.

Figure 2: Farm employees working in farms

b. Provision of foreign exchange.

 Foreign exchange is the currency that is earned when various products are exported. About
7% of exports from Kenya are mainly agricultural products such as coffee, tea, pyrethrum,
horticultural crops etc. when these products are exported; they earn the country foreign
exchange which is used in purchasing raw materials, manufactured goods and servicing
foreign debts.

c. Source of raw materials for industries.

 Efficient agricultural production is necessary so as to provide the required raw materials for
most industries in Kenya. Examples of such industries are the tea factories, maize mills, rice
mills, canning factories, breweries, leather tanning and milk processing industries.

 Maize is a raw material in maize milling companies

Figure 3: Maize milling

d. Provision of market for industrials.

 The final products of industries such as agro-chemicals, tools and machinery find their
market in the agricultural sector i.e improved agricultural production requires use of
machinery and agricultural chemicals.

e. Source of money or capital.

 When a farmer sells agricultural products, money is earned and used in purchasing farm
requirements such as pesticides, capital goods such as pangas, jembes and wheelbarrows.
The money obtained is also used to help the farming community in improving their standard
of living.

MAJOR CHALLENGES / PROBLEMS FACING KENYAN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR.

 These facts about Kenyan agriculture sector possess a number of challenges to the sector.
The major challenges can be summarized as follows:

1. Climate change.

 The effects of climate change have been felt mostly by the farmers especially due to
dependence on rain-fed agriculture. The changing and unpredictable raining seasons has
greatly affected their ability to plan their farming activities. Areas which received adequate
rainfall now receive insufficient rainfall reducing the land that can support agriculture.

 High amounts of rainfall (than usual) leading to flooding is also an effect of climate change

Figure 4: destruction of crops by flooding due to high amounts rainfall

 SOLUTION: This brings the need for more exploitation on irrigation farming especially in arid
and semi-arid areas.
2. Poor infrastructure

 Poor rural roads and other key physical infrastructure have led to high transportation costs
for agricultural inputs and products. It also leads to spoilage of perishable commodities
during transportation. This causes high losses to farmers.

Figure 5: poor roads affects transport of farm produce to the market

3. Lack of capital.

 Most farmers cannot get access to credit facilities since most commercial banks require
collaterals such as tittle deeds which most farmers may be lacking thus have limited access
to credit facilities. Also high interest rates imposed on these loans make them unattractive.

4. Pests and diseases

 Pests and diseases have continued to cause a lot of losses to farmers. This is caused by lack
of information by the farmers on how to control these diseases. Maize in the eastern
province have been affected by afflatoxins in the past due to lack of proper treatment and
storage facilities.

 SOLUTION: extension services can be instrumental in helping reducing pre and post- harvest
losses caused by aflatoxins.

5. Agricultural extension services

 The agricultural sector extension services plays a role in disseminating knowledge,

technologies and agricultural information, and in linking farmers with other actors in the
economy. It is one of the critical change agents required in transforming subsistence farming
to a modern and commercial agriculture to promote household food security, improve
 income and reduce poverty. However, there is limited access to extension services in most
parts of the country with the National extension staff: farmer ratio standing at 1 : 1,500. This
situation has hindered most farmers from keeping pace with changing technological
advances.

Figure 6: Extension officer training farmers

 SOLUTION: There is therefore need for recruitment of more extension staff and the
involvement of NGO’s to increase access of extension services to farmers.

6. Use of obsolete technology

 Use of modern science and technology in agricultural production is still limited despite
having a well-developed agricultural research system in Kenya. Inadequate research
extension farmer linkages to facilitate demand-driven research and increased use of
improved technologies continue to constrain efforts to increase agricultural productivity as
farmers continue to use out-of-date and ineffective technologies.

SOLUTION: this brings the need of extension services that can link research and the farmers.

7. Deterioration of soil nutrients.

The ever-rising population has contributed to the subdivision of land to uneconomically small units.
In addition, the reduction of fallow periods and continuous cultivation has led to rapid depletion of
soil nutrients, declining yields and environmental degradation.

SOLUTION: Farmers need information on the proper farming practices such as crop rotation and
intercropping, aimed at restoring the soil nutrient.

8. Socio-cultural factors/negative attitude towards agriculture

People tend to develop poor attitude towards agriculture as an occupation with the assumption that
agriculture is either dirty or it is energy consuming and prefer those pre-occupation that tend to
prepare people for white collar jobs.

9. Poor land tenure system such as land fragmentation and communal land tenure

Poor rainfall and poor government land legislation systems have led to use of land in Kenya difficult,
sometimes preserved as game reserves or national parks on high potential land that can be used in
agricultural investment.

10. Poor marketing structures

Inefficient transport system makes the farmer incur heavy losses due to spoilage in transit.

11. Poor crop and animal husbandry

There is an increase of poor crop and animal husbandry practices, poor land cultivation and poor
storage facilities.

12. Lack of labour

There is lack of qualified graduates to work in agricultural sector.

13. Price fluctuations- Due to changes in the supply and demand prices of most agricultural
products to change from time to time vigorously.
- For example, the price of maize fluctuates throughout the year

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

1. Technological improvement

 Government has continuously encouraged the adoption of new farm technology which is an
incentive in improving agricultural productivity.

2. Agricultural education

The government has expanded and stressed agriculture education from primary to university
resulting to many agricultural graduates helping farmers to improve in farming techniques.

3. Marketing board

The government has developed effective market e.g boards effective in handling agricultural
produce such as National Cereals and produce Board ( N.C.P.B)
Figure 7: NCPB helps farmers to market their cereals (like maize)

4. Agricultural research

This has led to improved crop and livestock breeding techniques such that waste land has been
rehabilitated in order to increase the area of land that is used for agricultural production. It has also
led to effective control of pests and diseases as well as developing efficient method of storage and
processing in order to minimize farm level.

5. Cooperative societies

The government has encouraged farmers to form cooperative society that can handle marketing of
farmers produce besides provision of farm inputs such as fertilisers, farm tools and short term credit
facilities to farmers.

6. Land tenure systems

Farmers are encouraged to prefer land adjudication and registration so that they can have tittle
deeds to secure loans to improve their farming technology.

7. Transport system

The government has started to improve the transport system especially the road network and
therefore it is easy to collect and dispatch farm produce to the market in time. It saves a lot of losses
for agricultural produce especially those ones that are highly perishable.
 CROP ECOLOGY
 Crop ecology is a sub discipline of ecology which studies the distribution and abundance of
plants, the effects of environmental factors upon the abundance of plants and other
organisms.

 It can also be defined as the study of the relationship existing between crops of different
types and how they relate to their environment.

BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS IN CROP ECOLOGY

(1) Mutualism – this is an interaction between two species that is beneficial to both. E.g plants and
mycorrhizae fungi.

(2) Commensalism – one plant exploits another e.g when mosses which grow on trees.

(3) Herbivory – is the consumption of the plants, algae and some bacteria by the herbivorous
animals.

(4) Competition – is the interaction between organisms in which both require resources, which are
limited in supply.

Ecological Factors

 These are environmental factors consisting of conditions that prevail in an area and
their influence in crop performance in that particular area. They are classified into two
main categories. Namely :-

(i) Biotic factors

(ii) Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

These are factors of biological nature, or are from living things, that will negatively or positively
affect production in agriculture. Those that negatively affect agricultural production include the
following:-

 Pests -These are destructive organisms which affect agriculture by feeding on the whole or
parts of the plant; transmit crop diseases; injure the plant parts which they feed on and as a
result expose the plant to secondary infection; and they increase the cost of producing
crops.

 Parasites - These are invertebrates, which live in or on the plants and animals.

 Pathogens - These are microorganisms, which transmit diseases.

  Predators - A predator is an animal that kills and feeds on another animal. Predators that
feed on pests are beneficial to farmers as they reduce pest population.

- Those that positively affect agricultural production include the following:-

 Decomposers - These are micro-organisms that act on plant and animal materials. They
cause rotting of such materials forming manure. Examples of decomposers are fungi and
bacteria.
 Pollinators - These can be insects or birds which transfer pollen grains from the stamens to
the pistil of the flower, causing cross-pollination.
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria -These are useful micro-organisms in leguminous plants. They
convert nitrogen from the air into nitrates.
 Producers – these are plants that have the ability to make their own food trough
photosynthesis or through other means.
 Consumers - They depend upon producers (occasionally other consumers) for food.

Abiotic factors

 Abiotic factors refer to non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment
that affect living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems.

 They include physical conditions and non-living resources that affect living organisms
in terms of growth, maintenance and reproduction.

Examples of abiotic factors include:-

 Rainfall
 Temperature
 Light
 Wind
 Humidity
 Altitude
 pH

1. Water/Rainfall
 It is a precipitation from the sky, which is important for soil conditioning and for plant
growth and development. Water is important in plant life processes such as
photosynthesis, translocation etc.

 Different plants require different amount of water for their survival. Lack of enough
water in plants is indicated by wilting.

Functions of water to plants

a) It used by plants to make their food

 b) It acts as a solvent and transportation medium for plant nutrients.
c) It cools down plants during transpiration.
d) It keeps plant cells turgid. Water content a plant depends on:-
 Species of plants
 Stage of growth
 Part of the plant

The four aspects of rainfall, which affect agricultural production, include-

a) Rainfall Amount
✔ Rainfall amount refers to quantity of rainfall received in a given area for a period
of one year.
✔ Rainfall amount is measured using a rain gauge in millimeters per annum. The
amount of rainfall determines the crops grown in an area.
b) Rainfall distribution
✔ This refers to the spread of rainfall over the year.
c) Rainfall reliability
✔ This refers to the certainty with which a given amount of rain is expected in a
given place in the year.
d) Rainfall Intensity
✔ This refers to the strength with which rain falls; it is therefore measured in terms
of amount per hour.
2. Temperature

✔ Temperature is the coldness or hotness of a place.

✔ Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius using a thermometer.
✔ Each crop has a temperature range within which it can grow referred to as the
cardinal range of temperature.
✔ For crops to grow well and produce high yields, they require a narrow
temperature range within the cardinal range referred to as optimum range of
temperature
Effects of temperature on agriculture
Low temperature
✔ Slow growth rate.
✔ High incidences of disease such as CDB (Coffee Berry Disease) in coffee
✔ Improvement of quality in crops such as tea and pyrethrum

High temperature
✔ High evaporation rate hence wilting in crops
✔ Hasten the rate of maturity due to increased growth rate.
✔ Improvement of quality in crops such as pineapples and oranges
✔ Increase incidences of diseases such as leaf rust in coffee.
✔ Increased incidences of pest infestation such as aphids in vegetables
3. Wind

Wind refers to air in motion.

Below is a list of effects of wind on agricultural production.
✔ Blowing and bringing rain bearing clouds
✔ Destruction of farm structures
✔ Strong wind may course lodging in weak plants.
✔ Increase spread of pests and diseases
✔ Agent of dispersal
✔ Pollination in crops
4. Light
✔ Light is the source of energy which plants require for photosynthesis.
✔ During photosynthesis, plants manufacture food using water and carbon
dioxide in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
Aspects of light that influence agriculture
i) Light intensity.
✔ This is the strength with which light hits the surface of the earth
ii) Light duration
✔ This is the period of time the plants are exposed to light recorded using a
Campbell sunshine recorder
- Photoperiodism
✔ This is the response of plants toward light duration.
- Long day plants
✔ These are plants which require more than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce
fruits or seeds e.g.
some wheat varieties

- Short day plants

✔ These are plants which require less than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce e.g
Maize
- Day neutral plants
✔ These are plants, which produce flowers regardless of the duration of lighting they
have been exposed to e.g Tobacco.
ii) Light wavelength:
✔ This refers to the type or quality of light. A wavelength is the distance between two
corresponding points of a light wave.
✔ Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light, which are not present in artificial light
unless it is ultra violet or infra-red.
NB/ Greenhouses can be used to control the temperature, relative humidity and light duration
and intensity.
5. Altitude
Altitude is the height above sea level
Effects of altitude on agriculture
✔ Kenya is divided into three ecological zones which include;
✔ Low altitude zone o - 1500 meters above sea level
✔ Medium altitude zone 1500 - 2500 meters above sea level
✔ High altitude zone above 2500 meters above sea level Crops perform differently when
grown in each of these ecological zones and therefore each crop has its most suitable
zone for maximum performance.
6. Relative Humidity
✔ This is the amount of water vapour held by air at a given temperature.
✔ At high humidity, the rate of evaporation is low and vice versa.
7. Potential of Hydrogen (pH )
✔ pH is the measure of alkalinity or acidity of crops
✔ pH affects crop growth and development
✔ pH is measured in a range of 0- 14
✔ pH range best for growing most crop is 5.5 to 7.0

Figure 8: pH meter
AGRO- ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Definition: Agro ecological zone is a land resource mapping defined by climate, and soils
with specific potential and constraints for land use.

1. Tropical Alphine
 Found at the pick of high mountains e.g. Mt Kenya my Elgon etc.
 Found at an altitude of 3000 meters above sea level.
 Temperatures are low or below 10 ◦C
 Has moorland vegetation i.e. short grass and no trees
 Limited growth crop growth
2. Upper High Land Zones (UH)
 Altitude between 2,200 – 3,000 meters above sea level
 Temperature range is between 10 – 17 ◦C
 Frost is experience
 Subdivided into four major sub-zones
 Barley, Pyrethrum grows well in this zone
3. Lower Highland
 Altitude of 1500 – 1800 meters above sea level
 Tea, Maize, Wheat grows well in this zone
4. Upper Mid-land (UM)
 1300 – 1900 m above sea level
 Temp 13 – 21 ◦C
 Supports coffee livestock keeping
 Coffee, Tea grows well in this zone
5. Lower –mid lands (LM)
 Altitude 800-1300 meters above sea level
 Average temp 24 ◦C e.g. Western Kenya
 Has six sub-zones
 Sugarcane, Cotton grows well in this zone
6. Lowlands (LL)
 Found in coastal areas
 Altitude 0 – 1800 meters above sea level.
 Has seven sub-zones
 Groundnuts, Cotton grows well in this zone
LAND PREPARATION
Tools and implements used in land operation

 Mould board plough

 Harrow
 Jembe
 Machete
 Slashers
 Mowers
 Rakers
 Axes
Land preparation
Land preparation involves all the activities that make land suitable for planting such as
 Ploughing/digging
 Harrowing
 Ridging
 Rolling etc
A piece of land that has been prepared for planting is called seedbed. In a seedbed,
the planting materials germinate and grow to maturity and are harvested from same
place.

Importance of land preparation

 To kill the weeds
 Encourage water infiltration into the soil
 To aerate the soil
 Incorporate manure and other organic matter into the soil
 To destroy stages of crop pests such as eggs, larvae, pupa or adults burying
them, exposing them to the suns heat or predators and starving them.
 To encourage root penetration into the soil
 To make subsequent operations possible e.g. planting, fertilizer application,
rolling and ridging.
Operations in land preparations
They include;
 Land clearing
 Primary cultivation
 Secondary cultivation
 Tertiary operations
 Land clearing
This is the removal of vegetation cover from the surface before tillage. This is done
to prepare land for cultivation and as method of land reclamation. Land clearing is
necessary under the following conditions.
 When opening up a virgin land.
 Where a stalk growing crop was previously planted such as maize.
 Where land was left fallow for long time.
 Where the interval between primary and secondary cultivation is long such
that the land has reverted to the original virgin state.
Methods of Land Clearing
i. Tree felling - Axes, pangas and power saws are used to cut down trees.
Bulldozers and root rakers are used in felling trees on a large scale. Removal of
stumps and trash later follows.
ii. Burning - The vegetation cover is set ablaze. The method should be discouraged
as it destroys the soil organic matter, soil microorganisms and plant nutrients.
iii. Slashing - This is done to cut small bushes and grasses using slashers, pangas or
tractor drawn mowers.
iv. Use of chemicals - Chemicals used to kill weeds is called herbicides.

B. PRIMARY CULTIVATION
 Primary cultivation follows land clearing
 In Small-scale, farmers use jembes or fork jembes during hand digging.
 In Large-scale, ploughing is done using mouldboard or disc plough
 Other farmers use ox ploughs.
 Primary cultivation should be done before the onset of the rains. This ensures that
all other subsequent operations are done in good time.
Importance of Primary Cultivation
 To remove weeds
 To bury organic matter for easy decomposition
 To facilitate water infiltration and aeration
 To destroy soil borne pests by exposing them to predators and the sun
 To make planting easy
Methods of Primary Cultivation
a. Hand digging - this is done by use of jembes, mattocks and fork jembes to
cut and turn the soil slices.
 b. Mechanical cultivation - this is the use of tractor drawn implements such as
mouldboard and disc ploughs. Subsoilers, cultivators and chisel ploughs are
used to break the hard pan.
c. Use of an ox plough - this is the use of ploughs drawn by oxen, donkeys or
camels. The method is faster and more efficient than hand cultivation. It’s
common in areas where land is fairly flat.

Aspects considered when carrying out primary cultivation;

i. Time of Cultivation
Land should be prepared before the onset of the rains so as to;
 Give enough time for the weeds to dry up and decompose into organic
matter.
 To allow CO2 and other gases to diffuse out of the soil while being
replaced by oxygen
 Give enough time for subsequent operations to be done hence giving
way to early planting
ii. Depth of Cultivation
This is determined by;
 Type of crop to be planted - Shallow rooted crops do not deep
cultivation. Deep-rooted crops require deep cultivation.
 Type of the soil - Heavy soils are hard when dry making jembes and
fork-jembes to dig shallowly.
 The implements available - Tractor drawn implements give deeper
depth than hand operated tools.
iii. Choice of the Correct Implements
This is determined by considering;
 Condition of the land - If the land has a lot of stones and stumps, a disc
plough is preferred because it rolls over the obstacles without braking.
 Type of the tilth required - Very fine tilth requires different types of
implements.
 Depth of cultivation - When deep cultivation is required heavy
implements are used. Light implements are used when shallow cultivation
is needed.
 Topography of the land -Tractor drawn implements cannot be used
where the slope is very steep.
 Implements available - A farmer can only use what is locally available.
 Shape of the land - Some land shapes may not allow tractor drawn
implements to be used efficiently e.g. where there are acute corners.
 Size of the land
 C. SECONDARY CULTIVATION

 This follows primary tillage.

 This involves the refinement of the seedbed before planting.

 It is also referred to as harrowing

 Small scale farmers can use pangas, jembes, fork-jembes, and garden
rakes to break the soil clods and pulverize the soil

 Large-scale farmers use factors drawn harrows such as disc harrows,

spike toothed harrows, spring tine harrows.

Importance of Secondary Cultivation

i. To remove any weeds that might have germinated immediately after primary
cultivation.
ii. To break the soil clods into small pieces for easy planting
iii. To level the field so as to obtain the uniform depth of planting
iv. Incorporate organic matter into the soil in order to encourage decomposition
before planting.
Factors determining the number of times secondary cultivation done;
 Size of the planting materials - Small seeds require a fine tilth than large seeds
 Slope of the land - If the land is hilly, less number of secondary cultivations are
preferred to discourage soil erosion.
 Moisture content of the soil - in dry soils less operations are preferred to conserve
the soil moisture.
 Condition of the land after primary cultivation - If after primary cultivation, a lot
of trash is left, more harrowing operations should be carried out so as to incorporate
the trash into the soil.
D. TERTIARY OPERATIONS
These are special operations carried out to suit certain crops. They are normally carried out
after primary and secondary cultivation. They include:-

 Levelling - This is the practice of making the soil surface flat and uniform so as to
facilitate even germination of small seeds.
 Rolling - Heavy rollers used to compact the soil before planting small seeds.
 Ridging - this is a process of digging soil in a continuous line and keeping it. It is
important in growing Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava and groundnuts.
 Sub-Soiling - Sub-soiling is the process of cultivating the soil with the purpose of
breaking up the hard pan. Hard pans may be formed due to continuous use of heavy
machinery on the land.
 Importance of sub-soiling
 Breaking up the hard pan hence improving drainage
 Improving soil aeration
 Bringing to the surface leached minerals
 Improve root penetration

E. MINIMUM TILLAGE
This is the use of a combination of farming practices that disturb soil the least. These
farming practices include;
 Application of herbicides in controlling weeds
 Timing cultivation/timely weeding of the previous crop
 Mulching - mulch prevents weeds from growing
 Restricting cultivation to the area where seeds are to be planted - Weeds
in the rest of the field are controlled by slashing.
 Establishing a cover crop on the field
 Uprooting or slashing weeds in perennial crops.
Reasons for carrying out minimum tillage
 Reduce the cost of cultivation - by reducing the number of operations.

 To control soil erosion

 To maintain soil structure

 To conserve soil moisture - continuous cultivation exposes the soil to sun’s heat
hence evaporation of soil moisture.

 To prevent root and underground structures disturbance

 To prevent exposure of humus to adverse conditions such as sun’s heat that
cause volatilization of nitrogen

PLANTING
Planting is the placement of the planting material in the soil for the purpose of regeneration in
order to produce more of the plant species.

Types of planting materials

 Seeds
 Vegetative materials
SELECTION MATERIALS
Factors considered when selecting planting materials (seeds and vegetative materials)

 Suitability to the ecological conditions – select seeds which are adapted to the soil
conditions, temperatures and the amount of rainfall in the area.
 Purity of the materials - Planting material which are free from foreign materials
 Germination percentage - this is a measure of the germination potential of seeds.
 Certified seeds - are seeds which have 100% germination potential and free from
diseases and pests.

Time of Planting
The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of the crop to be planted and the
environmental conditions of the area.

Factors to consider in timely planting

 The rainfall pattern or moisture condition of the soil

 Type of crop to be planted
 Soil type
 Market demand
 Prevalence of pests and diseases
 Weed control

Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. In some areas where
rainfall is scarce dry planting is recommended.

Advantages of timely planting

 Crops make maximum use of rainfall and suitable soil temperature - leading to
vigorous growth.
 Crops usually escape serious pest and disease attack
 Crops benefit from nitrogen flush - which is available at the beginning of the rain.
 Timing high market prices
 Crops establish earlier than the weeds, hence smothering them

DEPTH OF PLANTING
This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed.

Factors that determine the Depth of Planting

a) Soil type - seeds will emerge from greater depths in sandy soils that are light
than in clay soils.
b) Soil moisture content - it is recommended to plants deep in dry soils in order to
place the seed in a zone with moist soil.
 c) Size of the seed - larger seeds are planted deeper in the soil because they have
enough food reserves to make them shoot and emerge through the soil to the
surface.
d) Type of the germination - seeds with epigeal type of germination such as beans
should be planted shallower than those with hypogeal type of germination such
as maize.

CROP SPACING

 Spacing is the distance of plants between and within the rows.

 Spacing determines plant population and the main aim of correct spacing is to obtain
maximum number of plants per unit area, which will make maximum use of the
environmental factors.
 Wider spacing leads to a reduced plant population, which means lower yields,
whereas closer spacing could lead to overcrowding of plants and competition for
nutrients and other resources would occur.
 Correctly spaced crops produce yield of high quality that are acceptable in the market.
Plant Population

 This refers to the ideal number of plants that can be comfortably accommodated in
any given area, without overcrowding or too few to waste space.
 Agricultural research has arrived at the optimum number of various crop plants to be
recommended to farmers.
 Plant population is determined by dividing the planting area by spacing of the crop,
that is;

Plant population =

Example
Given that maize is planted at a spacing of 75 x 25 cm, calculate the plant population in a plot
of land measuring 4 x 3 m.

Solution

Plant population =

Area of land = 400 cm x 300 cm

Spacing of maize = 75 cm x 25 cm
Therefore, plant population = = 64
= 64 plants

Recommended spacing for some of the crops is shown in table below;

crop Spacing
Maize 75 cm × 25 cm
Tea 1.5 m × 0.75 m
Beans 45 - 60 m × 25 cm
Bananas 3.6 – 6.0 m × 3.6 – 4.5 m
Coconut 9mx9m
kales 60 x 60 cm
Factors that determine the spacing of the crop

 The type of machinery to be used - the space between the rows should allow
free passage of the machinery, which can be used in the field.
 The size of the plant - tall crop varieties require wider spacing while short
varieties require closer spacing.
 Soil fertility - a fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore, closer
spacing is possible.
 Moisture availability - areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large
number of plants hence closer spacing than areas of low rainfall.
 Use of the crop - crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted
at a closer spacing than those planted for grain production.
 Pest and disease control - when crops are properly spaced, pests might find it
difficult to move from one place to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts.
 Growth habit of the crop - spreading and tillering crop (e.g. sugarcane) varieties
require wider spacing than erect type (e.g. maize).

SEED RATE

Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by the ultimate
crop stand which is desired. The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the
maximum yields from a unit area without sacrificing quality. Seeds with low germination
percentage are planted at higher seed rates than those, which have about 100% germination
percentage.

Determination of seed rate

 One seed per hole

 Two seeds per whole
 Factors to consider in choosing seed rates

 Seed purity
When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is
required. On the contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seed.

 Germination percentage
Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seeds of lower germination
percentage are required in larger amounts.

 Spacing
At closer spacing, more seeds are used than at wider spacing.

 Number of seeds per hole

When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only
one seed is planted per hole.

 The purpose of the crop

A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain
production.

METHODS OF PLANTING

There are practically six methods of planting, namely:

i. Transplanting
ii. Row planting
iii. Over sowing
iv. Broadcasting
v. Under-sowing
vi. Use of furrow and a ridge
1. Row Planting
This is where the seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in
rows.

Advantages of row planting

 Machines can be used easily between the rows

 It is easy to establish the correct plant population
 Lower seed rate is used than if broadcasting is adopted
 It is easy to carry out cultural practices such as weeding, spraying and harvesting
 Disadvantages of row planting

 It does not provide an ample foliage cover.

 It is more expensive than broadcasting because of consuming a lot of labour and time.
 It requires some skill in measuring the distances between and within the rows.

2. Broadcasting

This method involves scattering the seeds all over the field in a random manner. It is
commonly adapted for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses.

Advantages of broadcasting

 It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting.

 It gives a good ground cover.
Disadvantages

 It uses more seed than row planting.

 The seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some areas of the farm
 It results to poor performance due to competition.
 Weeding cannot be mechanized

3. Over-sowing

 This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass

pasture. Some form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing
or hard grazing plus slight soil disturbance is recommended before over-sowing.

 A heavy dose of single superphosphate at the rate of 200-400 kg/ha is applied.

 The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established.
4. Under-sowing
 This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize.
 Maize is planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains.
 Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertiliser.
 No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the
young pasture seedlings to sunlight.
 5. Transplanting

 In transplanting healthy and vigorous growing seedlings, are transplanted from a nursery
bed to the main field.

Figure 9: seedlings meant for transplanting

 Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month old
or have 4 -6 leaves or are about 10-15 cm in height.

6. Use of ridge and furrows

 Ridging is a process of digging soil in a continuous line. It is important in growing Irish
potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava and groundnuts.
 A furrow is a narrow trench usually for planting seeds

Figure 2: potato seeds placed in trenches Figure 3: furrows and trenches

TYPES OF ORGANIC MANURE

 Organic manures are substances added to soil to provide one or more plant nutrients.
 Manure is classified according to the method of preparation and the materials from
which it is made.
 There are three types of organic manure based on the above classification.
  Green manure
 Farmyard manure
 Compost manure

GREEN MANURE

 This is a type of manure made of green plants.

 Plants are grown for the purpose of incorporating into the soil thus improving soil
fertility.
 Examples of plants used as green manure include - Maize, Sorghum, Sun-flower,
Groundnuts, Cowpeas, Sun-hemp, Clovers, Lucerne and Beans.

Characteristics of plants used as Green Manure

 They should be highly vegetative or leafy.

 They should have a fast growth rate.
 They should have high nitrogen content.
 The plants should be hardy, that is, they should be capable of growing in poor
conditions.

Reasons why Green Manure is not commonly used

 Most of the crops grown are food crops and it is hard for people to use them as green
manure.
 Green manure crops might use most of the soil moisture and leave very little for the
next crop.
 Most of the nutrients are used up by micro-organisms in the process of decomposing
the green manure plant. These will only be released by micro-organisms when they
die. They release nutrients to the soil slowly.
 It takes time for the green manure crop to decompose and therefore planting is
delayed.

Preparation of Green Manure

 The crop is planted in the field

 It is then allowed to grow up to the flowering stage, after which it is incorporated into
the soil through ploughing
 It is then allowed to decompose.
 After this the field should be prepared for planting the major crop.
FARMYARD MANURE (FYM)

 Farmyard manure is a mixture of animal waste (urine and dung) and crop residues
used as animal beddings in animal houses.
 The mixture should be allowed enough time to decompose.
Factors determining the quality of FYM

i. The type of animals used - dung from fattening animals has a higher level of
nutrients than that from dairy animals. Non-ruminants such as pigs and poultry
absorb less nutrients from their feed and therefore give dung which has a higher
level of nutrients.
ii. Type of food eaten - feedstuffs that are highly nutritious result in manure with a
higher level of nutrients.
iii. Type of litter used - Wood shavings and sawdust are slow to decompose and
contain very little nutrients. Farmers are advised to use litter with a high urine
absorption capacity.
iv. Method of storage - FYM must be stored well preferably in a place with a leak-
free roof and a concrete floor. This is to prevent loss of nutrients through leaching
and vaporisation by the action of rain and heat respectively.

Preparation of FYM

 A layer of grass, wood shavings or saw dust is provided in the houses of farm animals
to serve as beddings.
 Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings and mix them through
trampling.
 After some time, which varies from one type of animal to another, the bedding is
replaced.
 The discarded bedding is deposited in a specially prepared shed and new layers of
used beddings are continually added until a heap is formed.
 In the course of time, decomposition and mineralisation of these materials take place
through the activities of certain bacteria resulting in rich manure. It can then be used
in the farm.

COMPOST MANURE

 This is a type of manure that is prepared from composed (heaped) organic materials.
 The compost materials include plant residue and animal waste or plant materials only.
 Kitchen refuse and left overs may also be included.
 Synthetics and plants with pests, diseases and weed seeds should be avoided
Factors considered when selecting site for compost pit

 A well-drained place - this avoids waterlogging which leaches nutrients from the
manure.
 Direction of the prevailing wind - Should avoid direct drift from the compost
manure to the dwelling place. This prevents bad odour being blown to the
homestead.
 Size of the farm - the site should be centrally placed to the area of the farm when
compost manure is to be used.
  Accessibility - the site must be easily accessible to make it easy for transportation
of materials needed.

Preparation of Compost Manure

There are two methods of preparing compost manure. These are:

i. Indore Method (Pit Method)

ii. Four heap system (Stack Method)

i. INDORE METHOD (PIT METHOD)

 The materials to be made into compost are packed into a pit 1.2 m long, 1.2m wide
and 1.2m deep. These are placed in layers, starting with fibrous material such as
maize stalks which form the foundation of the compost layers.
 This is then followed by a layer of grass, leaves or any type of refuse material.
 On top of this, a layer of well-rotted manure is added to provide nutrients to the
micro-organisms.
 This should be followed by a thin layer of wood ash to improve the level of
phosphorus and potassium in resulting manure.
 Then a layer of topsoil is added which introduces micro-organisms necessary for the
decomposition of the organic materials.
 The above sequence of layers is repeated until the pit is full.
 A layer of soil is added to cover the pit. The pits should be covered to prevent entry of
too much water causing waterlogging.

N/B: During the dry season the material should be kept moist by adding water. The
vegetative materials used should be young. However, if old crop residues are used,
nitrogenous fertilisers should be added to raise the level of nitrogen in the manure.
1.2 M

1.2 M
Five pits are dug in series and materials filled as follows:

Pits I, II, III and IV are filled with fresh materials as described above. After three to four
weeks, the materials in pit IV are transferred to pit V, the materials in pit III to pit IV, in pit II
to pit III and in pit I to II. This process is repeated until the material that was prepared first is
well rotten and taken to the field as compost manure.

Pit I Pit II Pit III Pit IV Pit V

ii. FOUR HEAP SYSTEM (STACK METHOD)

 In this method, four heaps are used.
 The materials on each heap are crop residue, animal waste, old farmyard or compost
manure, inorganic fertilisers and topsoil.

Preparation/ construction

 Surface vegetation and topsoil are scraped off the selected site and then the ground is
levelled.
 Posts are fixed at a distance of 1.2 m apart to form the corners of the heap. The posts
should be 2m high.
 Wood planks are fixed on the sides and materials arranged as in Indore method.
 If four heaps are used, materials are placed in the heaps labelled X. after three to four
weeks, the decomposing materials are transferred to heap Y. after another three to
four weeks, the compost materials are transferred to heap Z. it stays for another three
to four weeks and is then taken to the field as compost. The manure heaps must be
turned occasionally, at least every three months, to facilitate circulation of air within
the heap for proper decomposition. The manure is ready for use after six months.

X Y X

FIELD
N/B: a long sharp pointed stick is driven into the pile at an angle. The stick is used for
checking temperatures within the heap from time to time. If the temperature inside is high it
can be corrected by adding water.

INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

Inorganic fertilizers are chemically made compounds processed for commercial use which are added
into the soil to improve its fertility by providing one or more plant nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF INORGANIC FERTILISERS.

Fertilisers are classified in the following basis:

i. Nutrients contained.
ii. Mode of application.
iii. Time of application.
iv. Effects on soil Ph.

PROPERTIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF FERTILISERS.

(i) NITROGENOUS FERTILISERS

Characteristics of Nitrogenous fertilizers:

 They are highly soluble in soil water.

 They are easily leached to lower horizons.
 They have a short residual effect.
 They have scorching or burning effect on plants.
 They are highly volatile.
 They are hygroscopic i.e they absorb moisture from the atmosphere and cake.
 They are highly corrosive.

(II)PHOSPHATIC FERTILISERS

Characteristics:

 They are sparingly soluble in water.

 They have a residual effect.
 They are not liable to leaching.
 They have a slight scorching effect.

POTASSIC FERTILISERS

Characteristics:

 They have a moderate scorching effect.

 They have moderate solubility in water than phosphorus but less than nitrogen.

FERTILISER APPLICATION
Phosphate fertilisers are applied during the planting time while the nitrogen fertilizers are applied
after the emergence of the crop.

METHODS OF FERTILISER APPLICATION

i. Broadcasting.

It involves the random scattering of fertilizers on the ground for plant use.

ii. Placement method.

This is the application of the fertiliser in the planting holes or drills.

iii. Side dressing.

This is the placement of nitrogenous fertiliser at the side of the crop being top dressed. It can be
achieved by:

a. Band application.
b. Ring application method. It is the placement of fertiliser around an individual crop
just beneath the edge of the canopy.
iv. Foliar spraying.

This is the application of specially formulated fertiliser solution onto the foliage of the crop.

v. Drip application.

This is where the fertiliser is dissolved and applied to individual plants, through perforated pipes or
bottles.