Information sheet 1:

NUTRIENTS AND FOOD ANALYSIS

NUTRITION

Nutrition–is the study of various physical and chemical processes that transform food elements to body
elements and the influence of various feed additives to various processes in the body.

- It involves ingestion, digestion and absorption of various nutrients, their transport to all body cells, its
metabolism and the removal of the unusable nutrients and waste products of metabolism.

Food/Feed–a term given to any material that comes naturally in both plants and animals including the by-
products prepared from them.

Feedstuff –the term given to any material both natural in origin and synthetically prepared that when
properly used have nutritional value in the diet.
Ex: Corn, DL methionine, feed supplements, some vitamin pre-mixes, etc

Nutrients –are substances or elements found in that are very necessary to support animal life processes of
the animals. These are the carbohydrates, fats, proteins vitamins, minerals and water.

Ration–the food given to the animals with balance of nutrients needed by the animals within 24 hours
requirement/food allowance.

Diet–it is the kind of food given to the animals regardless whether balance or unbalance of nutrient
requirements needed by the animals.

Digestion–is the process of breaking down of food particles through mechanical, enzymatic and/or
microbial processes in preparation for absorption

Absorption–is the transport of all digested nutrients to all parts of the body tissues and cells

Metabolism–is the next process of nutrient utilization in the body after it is digested and absorbed in the
cells. It is the sum total of all the physical and chemical changes occurring in the body where nutrients are
metabolized into energy in the form of ATP, carbon dioxide, and water (metabolic water).

Metabolic water –is the water produced from the nutrients (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) when
metabolized in the cells.

Type of Animals according to the structure of their stomach

A. Monogastric- also called “simple-stomach” animals

- Animals with one-compartment stomach
E.g., pigs and horses
B. Modified Simple Stomach/ Avian- has crop (for storage of feed), proventriculus (secretion of gastric
enzymes for digestion), and gizzard (for mixing and grinding feed) E.g., Poultry species

C. Ruminants- also called “compound stomach animals”

- have only one true gastric stomach (abomasum) but with additional
compartments for fiber digestion: Rumen, Reticulum, Omasum, and Abomasum

MILK PRODUCTION

Good dairy cows in the temperate countries such as the U.S. yield about 25-50 kg milk daily. Relatively
good dairy cows in the Philippines and in most of the tropics correspondingly yield only about 8-12 kg
daily. Genetics and climate (direct and indirect effects) have very much to do with this difference.

Classification of Feedstuff

Roughages
Feed materials containing more than 18% crude fiber and are generally low in energy. Available in 3
forms:
-Dry roughages
-Silage
-Pasture
2 basic types: Grasses and Legumes

Concentrates- Feeds that are high in energy (NFE and TDN) and low in crude fiber (less than 18%).

Two Types of Concentrates:

A. Basal or Energy Feeds

It is generally characterized by high in energy (TDN, ME)
-low in fiber (less than 18%)
- low in protein (less than 20%)–protein quality is variable and generally quite low - Cereal grains (corn,
sorghum, feed wheat)
- Mill by products (rice bran, wheat pollard, corn bran, corn gluten feed, dried whey, molasses)
- Fats/oils (vegetable oils & animal fats)

B. Protein Feeds
Contain more than 20% protein
Have two origins:

1. Animal Origin Protein Feeds- Generally high-quality protein feeds.

- Derived from meat packing or rendering plants, from surplus milk or milk products, and from marine
sources.
- This group of feeds are usually employed to improve the total protein of basal feeds.
- Ex. Fish meal, Meat and bone meal, Skim milk powder

2. Plant Origin Protein Feeds

Includes the common oil seed by-products. Vary in protein content and feeding
value depending on the seed from which they are produced, the amount of hull
and/or seed coat included, and the method of oil extraction used.
- Ex. Soybean oil meal, peanut meal, corn gluten meal, brewer’s dried grain, copra meal, etc.

Supplements- Feedstuff that is mixed with a primary grain and/or roughage to provide all the nutrients
required to support the form of production for which it is
intended.
-Mineral Supplements
-Vitamin Supplements
-Amino Acid Supplements
-Feed Additives

Mineral Supplements- Rich sources of one or more of the inorganic elements needed to perform certain
essential body function.
Limestone –source of calcium
Oyster Shell –source of calcium
Salt (table salt) –source of Na & Cl
Tricalcium Phosphate –source of calcium & phosphorus

Vitamin Supplements- Rich synthetic or natural feed sources of one or more of the complex organic
compounds, called vitamins.
Fat Soluble Vitamins
B-Complex Vitamins
Vitamin C

Feed Additives- substances of non-nutritive nature which when added to feed will improve feed
efficiency and/or production of animals.
Antibiotics; Antioxidants; Flavoring Agents; Probiotics
RATION FORMULATION

Feed Formulation- the process of quantifying the amounts of feed ingredients that need to be combined
to form a diet that supplies all of their nutrient’s requirements.

Methods of Ration Formulation

A. TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD

- Although time consuming, consideration is given to all nutrients
Example:
Choose a combination of ingredients that will provide a feed with around 22-
30% crude protein
Ingredient % Crude Protein Amount

Rice Bran 9.9 50

Brewer Waste 22.8 30

Soybean Meal 46.2 10

Fish Meal 57.7 10

TOTAL 100

To calculate total amount of CP:

Rice Bran = 50x (9.9/100) = 4.95

Brewer Waste = 30x (22.8/100) = 6.84
Soybean Meal = 10x (46.2/100) = 4.62
Fish Meal = 10x (57.7/100) = 5.71
TOTAL = 22.12

B. PEARSON SQUARE METHOD

Simple & easy method of determining the correct proportion of two feed ingredients or two feed groups
to obtain a desired level of protein.
However, only the protein content of the ration is given major consideration.

General steps in feed formulation

✓ Know the particular species and class of animal for which a ration is intended.
✓ Determine the nutrient requirements of animals.
✓ Identify feeds to be used in feed formulation. Consider the availability and unit price. ✓ Be acquainted
with the nutrient composition of the feeds to be used.
✓ Decide on a suitable combination of feeds that results to a good ration.

Important considerations in feed formulation

• Nutrient requirements
• Palatability
• Economical
• Digestibility
• Presence of anti-nutritional factors

Information sheet 2
ANIMAL NUTRITION

ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND PROCESSING

Meat and Meat Products

MEAT- properly dressed flesh derived from mature animals in good condition at the time of slaughter.

CARCASS- the body of any slaughtered animal after bleeding and dressing.

DRESSING PERCENTAGE- percent yield of the carcass, carcass weight divided by the slaughter weight
multiplied by 100.

FRESH MEAT- meat from an animal that has not undergone any substantial physical, microbiological
and chemical change from the time of change.

LEAN CUTS- cuts of pork composed of the loin, ham and shoulder.

RETAIL CUTS- cuts of meat handled in small quantities and which may be prepared for the table without
further cutting and trimming.

WHOLESALE CUTS- meat cuts that are handled in bulk and usually require further cutting before these
are prepared for the table.

GREEN HAMS- uncured smoked hams

RIGOR MORTIS- the stiffening of the muscles after an animal dies, believed to be due to muscle
contraction.

HOT BONED MEAT- meat deboned before the development of rigor mortis.

HOT MEAT- meat from an unaccredited slaughterhouse, or obtained from illegal source of meat.
Meat of Different Animals

Beef- ox, one year old and above

Veal– ox, less than one year old
Carabeef– carabao beef, caraveal
Chevon–goat
Game meat –game animals (wild hunted)
Horsemeat-horse
Lamb–sheep, less than one year old
Mutton–sheep, one year old and above
Pork–pig
Venison–deer

Slaughtering- from fasting through stunning, bleeding up to skinning and evisceration. Butchering–from
splitting and quartering, to cutting the carcass into the retail cuts.
Abattoir or slaughterhouse–the premises used in the slaughter of animals for human consumption.

Principles in Selecting
The meat produced should possess the characteristics necessary for the products to make
• Sex
• Age
• Size
• Health
• Meat Yield
• Fatness

SEX
✓ Barrows and gifts have no distinct differences in meat quality.
✓ Boar taint odor is only apparent in uncastrated male after reaching seven months of age. Thus, less
than seven months boar is fit for slaughter.
✓ Meats from castrated hogs are fatter than their female and uncastrated male counterparts of the same
age.
✓ Meat from pregnant animal is low in quality. The meat may be fishy in odor when the animal is at an
advance stage of pregnancy.
✓ In cattle, meat from bull is generally less tender and lower in overall acceptability than that of steers.
AGE
✓ Recommended for swine is 6 to 12 months, 3 years of younger for cattle and carabao, and about a year
for goats.
✓ Meat from older animals tends to become darker, tougher, fatter and poorer in quality than meat from
younger animals. However, it is flavorful, has a high-water binding and emulsion capacity which is
associated with high degree of marbling.
✓ The most important quality factor which changes with age is tenderness. Beyond 42 months of age,
meat from young and old animals is already equal in terms of tenderness.
✓ In general, meat from old animals is juicier than meat from young ones.
✓ Pork follows the same trend as beef. Very little change in tenderness occurs after eleven months of
age.

SIZE
✓ The recommended slaughter weight of animals for fresh meat retailing and intact meat processing
✓ 80 to 110 kgs for hogs
✓ 300 to 450 kgs for cattle and carabao
✓ Within these weight ranges, the retail cut yield from the different livestock is optimum.

HEALTH
✓ Only healthy animals shall be considered for slaughter, however, those with minimal defects can also
be slaughtered when they pass the anti-mortem inspection.
✓ Unhealthy animals must first be treated to become normal prior to slaughter. Meat from unhealthy
animals is poor in quality and is not recommended.

MEAT YIELD
✓ The average dressing percentage of swine in the Philippines, head off is about 69% and the total
trimmed lean cuts amount to 36% of the live weight.
✓ Beef and carabeef have similar average dressing percentage of 48% but differ in the total lean yield
with 34% and 33% respectively.
✓ Goats on the other hand have 43% dressing percentage and 27% total lean yield.

FATNESS
✓ Consumers discriminate fatty meat, however, fat greatly influences flavor, tenderness and juiciness.
✓ For comminuted beef and pork products, 30 to 40% fat seems to be the most acceptable in terms of
flavor, tenderness, juiciness and overall acceptability.

Management prior to Slaughter

Fasting
✓ Feed is withdrawn but sufficient water is given.
✓ Pigs being simple stomach animals are fasted for 12-24 hours while carabaos and cattle being
ruminants are fasted for 24-48 hours

Advantages of fasting:
•Savings of feed
•Ease of cleaning entrails
•Ease of cleaning and eviscerating carcass
•A thoroughly bled and brightly colored carcass
•Long shelf-life
•Low shrinkage of the resulting meat
Stress
✓ Any form of stress should not be given to the animal prior to slaughter (shipping stress, over-crowding
stress, driving stress, heat stress and others)
✓ Animals must be allowed to relax for 1-3 days in the luggage area and be properly conditioned before
they are slaughtered.

Disadvantages of stress:
•Loss of muscle glycogen
•High temperature of carcars
•Low water binging capacity of meat
•Low aroma, flavor, texture and juiciness scores
•Meat from stressed animals is not recommended for curing.
•The condition of the meat is pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) if the stress is not severe and it becomes dry,
firm and dark (DFD) when the stress is severe.
•The pH of meat from unstressed animals is 5.3 and the drop is very gradual. The meat from stressed
animals has pH within the range of 6.0 to 7.0 and the ph drop is rapid.

Mishandling
✓ Blood clots developed in the part of an animal whipped, kicked or boxed prior to slaughter due to the
breaking of some blood vessels in these affected areas.
✓ Meat with blood clots and red spots are not good materials for processing because they always spoil
before the curing period is completed.

Slaughtering Guidelines
✓ Set by the National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS), formerly National Meat Inspection Commission
✓ Provided the minimum set of equipment and the standard features of a slaughterhouse.

Classification of Slaughterhouses in the Philippines

✓ AAA
Those adequate facilities and operational procedure of which meat processed herein is eligible for sale in
any market in and out of the country
✓ AA
Those with facilities and operational procedures sufficiently adequate that the meat processed herein is
eligible for sale in any market in the Philippines
✓A
Those with facilities and operational procedure of minimum adequacy, the meat processed herein is
eligible for sale only in the city or municipality in which plant is located.

Basic Requirements
•The cleanliness of the meat produced
•The hygiene of production
•The efficiency of meat inspection
•The adequacy of meat preservation
General Steps in Slaughtering

Ante-mortem Inspection
- conducted by a qualified meat inspector to determine whether the animal is fit for slaughter
- Accept only those animals that are healthful, safe from harmful chemical and drug residues, and capable
of being converted into wholesome product.

Stunning
- Rendering the animal unconscious without killing them to make the restraining easy and sticking
humane.

Sticking
- Withdrawing blood from the carcass; cautioned not to pierce the heart that may cause instant death of
the animal and will prevent thoroughly bleeding; efficiently
cutting the carotid artery or the jugular vein not later than 3-5 minutes after
stunning.
Cleaning of the Carcass
- Includes scalding, scraping, shaving, flaying, dehiding.

Eviscerating
- Removing visceral organs from the carcass.

Splitting
- Cutting of the entire backbone of the carcass.

Washing
- With clean potable water to remove dirt, blood, etc.

POST-MORTEM INSPECTION
- Done by qualified meat inspector to determine if the meat is fit for human consumption.
Inspected and passed:
- the carcasses so marked have been found to be sound, healthful, wholesome and fit for human
consumption
Passed for sterilization:
- carcasses or parts of carcasses so marked inspected and passed for food, subject to the condition that
these must be sterilized by steaming in an appropriate apparatus
or by boiling in an open kettle
Inspected and condemned:
- Carcasses or parts of carcasses so marked are unsound, unhealthful, and unwholesome or unfit for
human consumption; those unfit for both human and
animal is denatured with strong chemical disinfectants prior to final disposal.
Passed for rendering:
- Carcasses or parts of carcasses that may be converted into animal feed.
SWINE

Scalding
- Dipping the carcass in hot water to loosen up hairs and scarf; the water temperature must be maintained
at 54 to 84oc; Too hot water can cause hair setting
while too cold water cannot affect loosening of hairs and scarf.
Scraping
- Removal of hair using a scraping knife.

CATTLE AND CARABAO

Flaying or Skinning
- This is the removal of the hide.

Shrouding
- This is wrapping the carcass with cheese cloth. The cloth is soaked in luke warm water and wrapped
around the carcass while it is warm. The cloth absorbs the
remaining blood at the surface of the carcass, smoothens the internal fat covering,
causes fat to appear white and dense and prevents excessive shrinkage and
oxidation.

GOATS

Singed Method
- After stunning and sticking, singeing is done with either a blow torch or an open fire. While singeing,
the hairs are continuously scraped with a dull knife until the
hairs are all burned. The belly must be pinched to avoid bursting of the whole belly
cavity. After singeing, the cankedskin is sliced off for the preparation of kilawan.
Evisceration is done similar with that in cattle.

Flayed method
- The process of stunning and sticking in the singed method is followed but the skin is not utilized for
food. The removal of fleece or flaying is made slightly different
from that in cattle and carabao. Be sure not to allow the meat to come in contact
with hairs to avoid imparting goat odor to the meat. Evisceration and chilling in
goats are similar with that in cattle except that in goats, splitting of the carcass is not done.
Meat Fabrication
- Cutting carcasses into standard wholesale and retail cuts
- Proper fabrication lowers of cutting losses
- Basic principle: Separate tender meat from tough meat and thick portion from the thin portion because
they require different methods of cooking.
- The cheap parts must be separated from the expensive parts
- The cutting of the muscles across the meat fibers to improve the tenderness of the cut.

Meat Composition
- Contains lean, fat, bones, connective tissues and other similar elements
- The lean is the most important part of meat in relation to human nutrition.
- Meat protein has high biological value. It can supply the essential nutrients needed for normal growth
and physiological function of human adults without being
fortified.
- Meat also contains sufficient B-vitamins, phosphorus, iron and potassium but deficient in calcium.

MEAT PROCESSING
- Modifying meat in order to improve its taste and/or extend its shelf life

Drying
- Removal of moisture from the meat.
- Involves the reduction of the original water content (70% of the meat to about 15%). 2 ways of drying:
1. Natural/Sun drying -natural sunlight is used to reduce the moisture content
of the meat.
2. Artificial drying -a chamber equipped with heating elements maintained at
a temperature of about 45°C and a relative humidity of 85% is used for drying.

Smoking
- Cooking, flavoring, and preserving meat by exposing to smoke

2 methods of smoking:
1. Natural -is the exposure of the meat to wood smoke which causes the deposition of pyro ligneous acid
on the meat surface that acts as preservative and flavoring
agent.

2. Artificial -smoke flavor is incorporated in the meat.

Salting
- A simple method of dehydration in which the salt causes the withdrawal of water from the tissue of both
the meat spoilage organisms, resulting to the shrivelling
and inactivation of the cells.

Curing
- The application of salt, sugar, salitre (potassium nitrate) and other preservatives to prolong the keeping
quality of the product.
- Sugar, spices, vinegar and wine may be used for different types of cures, but in small quantities thus
may have no preservative effect.
Curing Ingredients and Their Functions

Salt
- Are the primary ingredients used in curing.
- a good preservative and provides the most desirable flavour
- Causes the dehydration of the tissues through osmosis, and withdraws water from the protoplasm of the
spoilage organisms, shrivelling and inactivating their cells.
- It improves the ability of the meat protein to retain either the normal moisture content or added water
and stabilize the fat-protein emulsion in sausages.

Sugar
- is a secondary ingredient in curing
- Counteracts the astringent quality of salt, enhances the flavorof the product and aids in lowering the pH
of the cure.
- Refined cane sugar is most suitable. The use of brown sugar is limited by the fact that it caramelizes at
lower temperature and tends to darken the meat on cooking.
- Large amounts of sugar on prolonged curing promotes microbial growth which usually causes acid
fermentation that effects palatability and color.

Nitrates and Nitrites

- Potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate
- Substances responsible for the development of the proper colorin cured meat products.
- Nitrates and nitrites have a pronounced effect on flavor.
- They further effect flavorby acting as powerful antioxidants.
- Very effective inhibitor of the growth of Clostridia.

Phosphates
- Used to increase the water-holding and binding capacity of cured products.
- With increased water-holding capacity, product yields increase, product surfaces are drier and firmer
and emulsion are more stable at higher temperatures.

Vinegar
- added for flavour
- Has some antiseptic value that aids in prolonging the shelf-life of the finished product.
Spices
- enhance palatability of meat
Usually consist of leaves flowers, buds, fruits, seeds, barks, rhizomes, or other plant parts which have
been dried (pepper, onion, garlic, ginger, paprika, laurel, and oregano).