Discrete Mathematics

CS 221
Level 4
Computer Science

‫الحاسب‬ ‫قسم علوم‬

Computer Science Department 1 Computers and ‫المعلومات‬ ‫وتقنية‬Technology
Information ‫كلية الحاسبات‬
 Discrete Mathematics
Chapter 1
Logic & Proofs
Propositional logic, Prop. Equivalences, Predicates & Quantifiers, Rules of Inference,
Introduction to Proofs, Proof Methods.

Chapter 2
Sets
Sets, Venn Diagrams, Set Operations, cardinality and accountability.

Relation & Function

Chapter 3 Relation, Composition of Relations, Pictorial Representation, Partial Ordering, Combining
Relations. Functions, Composition of Functions, Recursive Functions.
Sequences & Summations
Arithmetic progression, geometric progression, recursively defined sequences, Fibonacci
Chapter 4
sequence, summation as a sequence, arithmetic & geometric series.

Mathematical Reasoning
Chapter 5 Proof strategies, mathematical induction, recursive mathematical definitions, Structural
Induction.
Counting
Chapter 6 Basic rules, Pigeon hall principal, Permutations and combinations, Binomial coefficients
and Pascal triangle.
Graphs & Trees
Chapter 7 Graph terminology, Graph types, Connectivity, Graph coloring. Trees, Types of Trees,
Traversing trees. Introduction to Automata, DFA.

‫الحاسب‬ ‫قسم علوم‬

Computer Science Department 2 Computers and ‫المعلومات‬ ‫وتقنية‬Technology
Information ‫كلية الحاسبات‬
 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Functions
Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function
f from A to B, denoted f: A → B is an assignment
of each element of A to exactly one element of B.
We write f(a) = b if b is the unique element of B
assigned by the function f to the element a of A.
Students Grades
• Functions are sometimes Carlota
A
B
called mappings or Sandeep C
transformations. Williams D
F
Scott

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Functions
• A function f: A → B can also be defined as a
subset of A×B (a relation). This subset is
restricted to be a relation where no two
elements of the relation have the same first
element.
• Specifically, a function f from A to B contains
one, and only one ordered pair (a, b) for every
element a∈ A.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Functions
Given a function f: A → B:
• We say f maps A to B or
f is a mapping from A to B.
• A is called the domain of f.
• B is called the codomain of f.
• If f(a) = b,
– then b is called the image of a under f.
– a is called the preimage of b.
• The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f. We
denote it by f(A).
• Two functions are equal when they have the same domain, the
same codomain and map each element of the domain to the same
element of the codomain.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Representing Functions
• Functions may be specified in different ways:
– An explicit statement of the assignment.
Students and grades example.
– A formula.
f(x) = x + 1
– A computer program.
• A Java program that when given an integer n, produces
the nth Fibonacci Number (covered in the next section
and also inChapter 5).

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Questions
f(a) = ? z
A B
The image of d is ? z
a
x
The domain of f is ? A
b
y
The codomain of f is ? B
c

The preimage of y is ? b d z

f(A) = ? {y,z}
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ? {a,c,d}

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Question on Functions and Sets
• If and S is a subset of A, then

A B
a
f {a,b,c,} is ? {y,z}
x
b
f {c,d} is ? {z} y
c

d z

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Injections
Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one
, or injective, if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies
that a = b for all a and b in the domain of f. A
function is said to be an injection if it is one-
to-one. A B
x
a
v
b
y
c
z
d

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Surjections
Definition: A function f from A to B is called
onto or surjective, if and only if for every
element there is an element
with . A function f is called a
surjection if it is onto. A B
a x

b
y
c
z
d

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Bijections
Definition: A function f is a one-to-one
correspondence, or a bijection, if it is both
one-to-one and onto (surjective and injective).
A B
a x

b
y
c

d z

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c,d} to
{1,2,3} defined by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and
f(d) = 3. Is f an onto function?
Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of
the codomain are images of elements in the
domain. If the codomain were changed to
{1,2,3,4}, f would not be onto.
Example 2: Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set
of integers onto?
Solution: No, f is not onto because there is no
integer x with x2 = −1, for example.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Inverse Functions
Definition: Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then the
inverse of f, denoted , is the function from B to
A defined as
No inverse exists unless f is a bijection. Why?

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Inverse Functions
f
A B
A B V
a
a V

b
b W
W
c
c
d X
d X

Y
Y

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Questions
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c} to
{1,2,3} such that f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) = 1.
Is f invertible and if so what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-

to-one correspondence. The inverse function f-1 reverses
the correspondence given by f, so f-1 (1) = c, f-1 (2) = a,
and f-1 (3) = b.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Questions
Example 2: Let f: Z  Z be such that f(x) = x +
1. Is f invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-

to-one correspondence. The inverse function f-1
reverses the correspondence so f-1 (y) = y – 1.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Questions
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that .
Is f invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is not invertible because it is not

one-to-one .

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Composition
• Definition: Let f: B → C, g: A → B. The composition of
f with g, denoted is the function from A to C
defined by

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Composition
g f
A B C A C
V a
a h h
b i b
W i
c
c
X j
d
d j
Y

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Composition
Example 1: If and
, then

and

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Composition Questions
Example 2: Let g be the function from the set {a,b,c}
to itself such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f
be the function from the set {a,b,c} to the set {1,2,3}
such that f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, and f(c) = 1.
What is the composition of f and g, and what is the
composition of g and f.
Solution: The composition f∘g is defined by
f∘g (a)= f(g(a)) = f(b) = 2.
f∘g (b)= f(g(b)) = f(c) = 1.
f∘g (c)= f(g(c)) = f(a) = 3.
Note that g∘f is not defined, because the range of f is not a
subset of the domain of g.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Composition Questions
Example 2: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers to the set of integers defined by f(x) = 2x + 3
and g(x) = 3x + 2.
What is the composition of f and g, and also the
composition of g and f ?
Solution:
f∘g (x)= f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
g∘f (x)= g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Graphs of Functions
• Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The
graph of the function f is the set of ordered pairs
{(a,b) | a ∈A and f(a) = b}.

Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) = x2

from Z to Z from Z to Z

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Some Important Functions

• The floor function, denoted

is the largest integer less than or equal to x.

• The ceiling function, denoted

is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x

Example:

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions

Floor and Ceiling Functions

Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Floor and Ceiling Functions

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Proving Properties of Functions
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < ½
– 2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
– ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
– Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.
Case 2: ε≥½
– 2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1,
since 0 ≤ 2 ε - 1< 1.
– ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1
since 0 ≤ ε – 1/2< 1.
– Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n
+ 1.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Factorial Function
Definition: f: N → Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is
the product of the first n positive integers
when n is a nonnegative integer.
f(n) = 1 ∙ 2 ∙∙∙ (n – 1) ∙ n, f(0) = 0! = 1

Examples: Stirling’s Formula:

f(1) = 1! = 1
f(2) = 2! = 1 ∙ 2 = 2

f(6) = 6! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3∙ 4∙ 5 ∙ 6 = 720

f(20) = 2,432,902,008,176,640,000.

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 Ch.03: Relations & Functions
Partial Functions (optional)
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B
is an assignment to each element a in a subset of A,
called the domain of definition of f, of a unique
element b in B.
– The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of
f, respectively.
– We day that f is undefined for elements in A that are not
in the domain of definition of f.
– When the domain of definition of f equals A, we say that
f is a total function.
Example: f: N → R where f(n) = √n is a partial
function from Z to R where the domain of definition
is the set of nonnegative integers. Note that f is
undefined for negative integers.

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