DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR POWERING 416 E COMPUTER SYSTEMS Thomas M. Gruzs Member IEEE Liebert Corporation P. 0.

Box 29186 Columbus, OH 43229

ABSTRACT
The military and aircraft industries have used 400 Hz power for quite some time because of the size and weight advantages of 400 Hz components. Certain high performance mainframe computer systems require the use of 415 Hz power. The design of 415 H z power systems for mainframe computer systems requires additional considerations beyond those of conventional 60 H z systems. This paper explores the effects of the higher frequency on the wiring, components, and power system design. Topics discussed include voltage drop, line drop compensation, centralized vs. distributed power sources, and the special requirements of typical mainframe computer systems. This paper is based in part on material intended to be included in the "Recommended Practice For Powering And Grounding Sensitive Electronic Equipment'' (PARP1100)and is presented to solicit comments.

often some form of power conditioning is required. Table 1, excerpted from FIPS PUB 94 [ ] describes the typical acceptable 7, limits for 60 H z computer power systems. 415 H z mainframe computer systems generally have different requirements from 60 Hz systems. Typical 415 H z computer requirements, taken from 9, 1111, are summacomputer vendors' planning manuals 1 1 [lo], rized on Table 2. A major difference exists in the voltage and frequency specifications. The 415 H z voltage tolerance is much tighter, typically f2%, while the frequency tolerance is much broader, typically f35 Hz. These major differences should influence the power system designs; the accepted standard practices for 60 Hz systems are not always applicable to 415 H z systems.

I "
The design considerations for 60 H z power systems are well documented in engineering literature which include such references as the IEEE Color Books 111, 1 1 1 1 [41, [61.Some references, 2 , 3 , [51, such as FIPS PUB 94 [7],contain additional design considerations for powering 60 H z computer systems. There are few if any widely known references, outside of the computer vendor's installation planning manuals, which contain design considerations for powering 415 H z computer systems. References for the military and aircraft industries provide insights into the special considerations for 400 H z power systems, but they do not specifically address distributing 400-420 H z power in industrial and commercial buildings under the constraints of the National Electrical while also meeting the requirements of mainframe Code (NEC) [8] computer systems. Since the majority of commercially available electrical power in the world today is either 50 or 60 Hz, why do some mainframe computer systems require 415 H z input power? 415 Hz power must offer some advantages to the computer vendor over 50 or 60 H power. First, 415 Hz power supply components are signifiz cantly smaller-the transformers and inductors are smaller for the same power capacity and rectified 415 Hz requires significantly less filter capacitance. Additionally, since 415 H z power is not commercially available, some form of frequency conversion equipment, such as a motor-generator set or static frequency converter, must be used and is often relied upon to provide power conditioning or voltage pre-regulation. The 415 H z computer power supplies can be designed with a narrower input voltage specification than 50 or 60 H z power supplies which are applied to commercial power systems (without power conditioning) where wider voltage variations and other power disturbances are to be expected.

One of the most pronounced differences between 60 Hz and 415 Hz power systems is in wiringpractices. At the higher frequency, wiring impedance increases significantly due to the higher inductive reactance and Akffective resistance [12].The AC-effective resistance is the DC resistance of the conductor adjusted for the additional losses due to skin effect, proximity effect, and the circulating and eddy currents in the shield or conduit. With inductive from 60 Hz to reactance being 2 IT fL,increasing the frequency (0 415 H z increases the inductive reactance by approximately seven times for a given wiring circuit inductance Q. Wiring inductance can be reduced by decreasing the distance between phase conductors (such as by using thinner insulation or multi-conductor cables) or by using parallel circuit conductors where the individual conductors of the same phase are separated as much as possible (such as in separate raceways). The presence of magnetic materials increases wiring inductance and so the use of non-metallic or non-ferrous (aluminum) wireways is recommended practice for 415 Hz systems. The data on impedance of 60H z wiring is readily available in electrical engineering references and handbooks. The data on impedance of 415 H z wiring is less available. Tables 3 through 7 give impedance data for various wire and conduit configurations taken from four different sources and tabulated in Ohms per 100 feet. While the data is very similar, there are some significant differences. Attempts have been made by the author to correlate actual field data on voltage drop of single copper conductors in aluminum conduit to calculated data with some success. Errors of up to 20% have been observed. Other variables encountered in the field, such as the random lay of conductors in the conduit, the proximity of the conduits to ferrous objects, the use of steel conduit fittings, and the fact that 415H z computer system loads are very nonlinear (having significant amounts of harmonic currents of 415 Hz), have been attributed to the lack of correlation. When the computer system load currents contain significant amounts of harmonic currents, the increased wiring impedance at the harmonic frequencies c a m increased voltage drop, phase imbalance, and distortion. One particular error which has been observed is the apparent imbalance of the per phase wiring impedance when single conductors with random lay are used in a metallic conduit. This results i a phase voltage imbalance due to the unbalanced n wiring voltage drops.

Computer systems generally require higher quality power than other types of loads such as lighting and motors. The quality of power available in commercial and industrial facilities is not always within the recommended limits for computer systems and

88CH2565-0/88/0000-1495S01 0 1988 IEEE .OO

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Table 1 60 HZ POWER QUALITY

AlTRIBUTE
NORMAL
FREQUENCY STEADY STATE VOLTAGE VOLTAGE SURGESISAGS PHASE IMBALANCE VOLTAGE MODULATION POWER FACTOR CURRENT CREST FACTOR HARMONIC VOLTAGE DISTORTION

!2RmGAL
60 f0.2 Hz f 3% f 5% 3% Max. 1% Max. 0.6 Lag to 0.9 Lead Greater than 2.5 5% Max.

60 f0.5 Hz + 5,-10% +20,-30% 5% Max. 3% Max. 0.8 Lag 1.4to 2.5 10 to 20%

Table 2 415 E POWER QUALITY 191, [lo], 1111

TYPICAL ACCEPTABLE LIMITS FOR A

AlTRIBUTE
FREQUENCY STEADY STATE VOLTAGE VOLTAGE SURGES/SAGS PHASE IMBAIANCE VOLTAGE MODULATION POWER FACTOR

uEc-0420 f35 Hz f 2% + 8,-10% 0.25to 0.5 Sec. 1% Max. 1% Max. 0.7Lag to 0.6Lead

To help meet the tight voltage requirements of 415 Hz computer systems, 415 Hz wiring runs should be as short as practical. It is important to note that the power sources output voltage regulation specification (output voltage change due to load, temperature change, drift, etc.) must be subtracted from the computers steady-state voltage specification to determine the maximum wiringvoltage drop. Often, since the typical power sources voltage regulation specification is fl%, the maximum voltage drop from the regulated 415 Hz.power source fo the load must be less than 2%. Other methods, such as line drop compensation which is discussed later, can allow greater wiring voltage drop.
Voltage drop can be calculated fiom the impedance data and load current. For example, for 75 feet of#l/O single conductor copper wire in aluminum conduit and a threephase 120Amp 415Hz load, the voltage drop is calculated as follows:
V Drop L-L = V Drop L-L = V Drop L-L = % V Drop L-L= % V Drop L-L=

conduit will effectively reduce the AC resistance inside a but not the inductive reactance of the wiring. Pre-assembled ) seven conductor 400 Hz cable (see Figure 2 has been found to be very effective in reducing 415 Hz voltage drop. Placing a three (3W+ G) or seven (6W G) conductor cable assembly in non-ferrous conduit does not significantly increase the wiring impedance.

0.09

0.08
I -

3
I 1

0.07

Ix Zx f l 120 Amps x 0.0307a 1100 F x 75 F x t t

4.19 V 4.79 V/208V x 100

Jr

2.3%

From the 415 Hz impedance tables, i t is clear that the inductive reactance remains fairly constant over a large range of wire sizes. A plot of the impedancevs. wire size (Figure 1)shows diminishing returns are obtained as larger wire sizes are used to reduce wiring voltage drop. It is for this reason that wire sizes larger than # 210 are generally not recommended and that parallel conductors in parallel conduits are recommended for higher ampacities. The conduits can impedance of parallel circuit conductors in be obtained by dividing the wiring impedance in the tables by the number of parallel conduits. Running parallel circuit conductors
14%

#8 #4 #1 #2/0 #3/0 #4/0 #6 #2 #1/0 250

300

350

400

500
/

AWG

M&
WIRE SIZE

415 E WIRING IMPEDANCE VS WIRE SIZE SINGLE COPPER CONDUCTORS IN ALUMINUM CONDUIT Figure 1

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Table 3 U21 415 E IMPEDANCE IN OHMS PER 100 FEET SINGLE COPPER CONDUCTORS
Wire size
(W) --___---)___----8 6 4 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 MCM 300 MCM 350 MCM 400 MCM 500 MCM

I I I -c I 0.0782 I 0.0493 I 0.0315 I 0.0198 I 0.0164 I 0.0135 1 0.0115 I 0.0097 1 0.0084 I 0.0076 I 0.0070 I 0.0064 I 0.0061 I 0.0054

In Air

"etallic
Z

Conduit1

Rigid Aluminum Conduit

Rigid Steel Conduit I

____--_0.0267 0.0258 0.0248 0.0235 0.0232 0.0229 0.0224 0.0220 0.0218 0.0217 0.0212 0.0212 0.0211 0.0206

xl

RaC
0.0782 0.0493 0.0315 0.0198 0.0164 0.0135 0.0115 0.0097 0.0084 0.0076 0.0070 0.0064 0.0061 0.0054

x1
0.0321 0.0310 0.0291 0.0284 0.0279 0.0275 0.0269 0.0264 0.0261 0.0260 0.0255 0.0254 0.0253 0.0248

z
0.0845 0.0582 0.0433 0.0346 0.0324 0.0307 0.0293 0.0281 0.0274 0.0271 0.0265 0.0262 0.0260 0.0253

0.0826 0.0556 0.0401 0.0307 0.0284 0.0266 0.0252 0.0240 0.0233 0.0230 0.0223 0.0221 0.0219 0.0213

I I Rac x1 Z I-----------------------I 0.0782 0.0321 0.0845 I 0.0493 0.0310 0.0582 I 0.0315 0.0297 0.0433 I 0.0198 0.0284 0.0346

______-_____-----------I
0.0784 0.0497 0.0322 0.0202 0.0175 0.0152 0.0135 0.0118 0.0110 0.0101 0.0097 0.0093 0.0091 0.0084 0.0401 0.0387 0.0371 0.0354 0.0348 0.0344 0.0336 0.0330 0.0328 0.0325 0.0319 0.0318 0.0315 0.0310 0.0880 0.0630 0.0492 0.0408 0.0390 0.0376 0.0362 0.0350 0.0346 0.0340 0.0333 0.0331 0.0328 0.0321

RaC

xl

I 1 I I I I

I I I

0.0164 0.0135 0.0115 0.0091 0.0084 0.0076 0.0070 0.0064 0.0061 0.0054

0.0219 0.0275 0.0269 0.0264 0.0261 0.0260 0.0255 0.0254 0.0253 0.0248

0.0324 0.0307 0.0293 0.0281 0.0274 0.0271 0.0265 0.0262 0.0260 0.0253

I I I I I I I I I I

I I I

Table 4 r121 415 E IMPEDANCE IN OHMS PER 100 FEET COPPER THREE CONDUCTOR JACKETED CABLE
Wire Size
(M)

I I

In Air

-I_-----_-

Rac

x1

z
0.0381 0.0284 0.0259 0.0238 0.0223 0.0211 0.0203 0.0199 0.0195 0.0191 0.0188 0.0184

I I I I I I I

I I

I I

0.0315 0.0198 0.0164 0.0135 0.0115 0.0097 0.0084 0.0076 0.0070 0.0064 0.0061 0.0054

0.0214 0.0203 0.0201 0.0195 0.0191 0.0188 0.0185 0.0184 0.0182 0.0180 0.0178 0.0175

I Rigid Aluminum Conduit1 Rigid Steel Conduit I Aluminum Armored Cable I I I x1 z I Rac xl Z I Rac x1 z I Rac -------.I ----_-----------_------ ----------------.--____--I --------0.0315 0.0214 0.0381 1 0.0322 0.0278 0.0425 I 0.0317 0.0246 0.0401 0.0198 0.0203 0.0284 I 0.0204 0.0265 0.0334 I 0.0200 0.0245 0.0316 0.0164 0.0201 0.0259 I 0.0177 0.0260 0.0314 I 0.0167 0.0240 0.0292 0.0135 0.0195 0.0238 I 0.0154 0.0254 0.0291 I 0.0138 0.0234 0.0271 0.0115 0.0191 0.0223 I 0.0139 0.0249 0.0285 I 0.0118 0.0229 0.0258 0.0097 0.0188 0.0211 I 0.0121 0.0244 0.0272 I 0.0100 0.0225 0.0246 0.0084 0.0185 0.0203 I 0.0114 0.0240 0.0265 I 0.0087 0.0247 0.0262 0.0076 0.0184 0.0199 1 0.0107 0.0240 0.0263 I 0.0080 0.0248 0.0260 0.0070 0.0182 0.0195 I 0.0103 0.0236 0.0258 I 0.0013 0.0218 0.0230 0.0064 0.0180 0.0191 I 0.0099 0.0234 0.0254 I 0.0067 0.0216 0.0226 0.0061 0.0178 0.0188 I 0.0098 0.0232 0.0251 I 0.0065 0.0214 0.0223 0.0054 0.0175 0.0184 I 0.0092 0.0228 0.0246 1 0.0058 0.0211 0.0218
,

Table 5 1131 AIRCRAFT CABLE IMPEDANCE AT 400 E IN OHMS PER 100 FEET
Cable
AN-8 AN-6 AN-4 AN-2 AN-0

Table 6 1141 400 E IMPEDANCE I OHMS PER 100 FEET N SINGLE COPPER CONDUCTORS

Wire Size RaC

8 6 4 2 0.0700 0.0440 0.0282 0.0188 0.0127

In Air

(MI Z I ------___-_--_--_______________ --_----I

x1
0.0226 0.0221 0.0212 0.0206 0.0204 0.0736 0.0492 0.0353 0.0279 0.0240

I I I I I I
I

1/0

8 6 4 3 2 1

1/0

Table 7 1151 415 E IMPEDANCE IN OHMS PER 100 FEET 7 CONDUCTOR 400 E CABLE ASSEMBLY
In Air I I I (=I RaC xl Z I -------- II________________________ I 2 I 0.0099 0.0104 0.0144 I 1 1 0.0082 0.0102 0.0131 I I 0.0068 0.0100 0.0120 I 1/0 2/0 I 0.0058 0.0097 0.0113 I
Wire

2/0

W O
4/0 250 MCM 300 MCM 350 MCM 400 MCM 500 MCM

size

0.0782 0.0494 0.0315 0.0257 0.0198 0.0164 0.0136 0.0116 0.0097 0.0085 0.0077 0.0071 0.0064 0.0062 0.0055

0.0284 0.0281 0.0278 0.0275 0.0269 0.0265 0.0262 0.0257 0.0252 0.0249 0.0248 0.0244 0.0244 0.0242 0.0238

0.0832 0.0568 0.0420 0.0376 0.0334 0.0312 0.0295 0.0282 0.0270 0.0263 0.0260 0.0254 0.0252 0 * 0250 0.0244

1497

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BGRUU
WIRING IMPEDANCE
R.A C .
PASSI E V LINE DROP COMPENSATOR

r-7 . - 1 ,
11 .

bXC?J-

PHASE CONDUCTORS ALL CONDUCTORS ARE THE SAVE SIZE FOR THE MUST STABLE CABLE GEOMETRY.

7 CONDUCTOR 400 HZ CABLE Figure 2

In the United States, armor, conduit or other wireway is required for power conductors to meet electrical codes and to protect the wiring from damage. For computer systems, metallic conduit is usually preferred because it provides electrostatic shielding of the power conductors. In data processingrooms (seeNFPA75 [16] for definition of a data processing room), the choice of 415 Hz power conductors and raceway are further limited by NEC Article 645-2. Of the choices, rigid aluminum conduit or aluminum metal-clad cable are preferred. To the best of the author's knowledge, no other Article 645-2 acceptable cable, wireway, or conduit is available in a non-ferrous metal (aluminum) construction as a listed product. To minimize inadvertent and unintentional ground connections to the shield (armor or conduit),jacketed aluminum metal-clad cable can be used. The ampacity of 415 Hz power cables also require some special considerations. At higher frequencies,the ampacity of the circuit conductors is reduced. This reduction in ampacity can be calculated using the derating factor of ,/1/ (Rac/R.dc) [12] applied to the 60 Hz ampacity tables published by the wire manufacturer or the National Electrical Code (Article 310) [8]. When more than three current-carrying conductors are used within a single raceway, the ampacity of the conductors is further derated in accordance with the NEC Article 310.

I
SOURCE

VOLTAGE WITHOUT LDC/

I
LOAD

LOCATION OF LDC

PASSIVE LINE DROP COMPENSATION Figure 3

To be effective, the passive LDC must be adjusted properly and properly located in the 415 Hz power system. The LDC can be located anywhere along the wiring run having the inductive reactance to be canceled. For 415 Hz power systems having more than one load, in order to avoid the loss of voltage regulation when a load(s) is switched off, the LDC must be located in the wiring or runs (s)having the most inductive reactance. For systems having a long power feeder and short branch circuits, the LDC must be located in the power feeder. For systems having a short power feeder and long branch circuits, an LDC should be located in each branch circuit and not the power feeder. Figure 4 shows the cir-

CIRCUIT VOLTAcf

WITH ONE LOAD OFF

MIHINAL

LOADS ON

DROP COMPEWith the significant wiring voltage drops of 415 Hz wiring, various line drop compensation techniques are often used to improve voltage regulation. Both passive and active line drop compensators are available. Passive line drop compensators (LDC's) consist of inductive and capacitive elements used to reduce the effective wiring impedance. The most common passive LDC consist of a series-connected transformer with the secondary windings connected to capacitors (see Figure 3). The intention is to effectively introduce enough series capacitive reactance to cancel the inductive reactance of the wiring and reduce the net impedance to the wiringAC resistance. For adjustment, the transformer typically has multiple secondary taps to change the turns ratio and thus the reflected capacitive reactance. LDC's typically provide discrete steps of capacitive reactance over a limited range. The actual wiring inductive reactance may not match one of the available LDCvalues, and so total cancellation is not always possible. Passive LDC's also cannot compensate for the AC-resistive voltage drop of the wiring.
1498

I
SOURCE

I
LOCATION OF LDC

LOAD

LOCATION CIF LDC WITH LONG POVER FEEDER AND SHDRT BRANCH CIRCUIT

LOAD #l

OAD # VOL

I I
SOURCE

VOLTAGE R E I S

DUE TO LDC K

I
LOCATION OF L E ' S

I I
I
LOAD #1

I
LOAD #2

LOCATION O f LDC'S VITH LONG

BRANCH

CIRWITS

PROPER LDC LOCATIONS WITH MULTIPLE LOADS Figure 4

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SOURCE

1
I I I

LOAD

LCFPENSATION -AD^
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE THE NO LDAD VOLTAGE AT LOAD 11 EXCEEDS 2% LIMIT

ACTIVE LINE DROP COMPENSATION USING CURRENT FEEDBACK

+2%

SOURCE

NOUINAL

---1 I
I
I
I

LOAD

SOURCE

LOCATION OF LDC THE FULL LOAD VOLTAGE AT LOAD 12 EXCEEDS W LIMIT

VOLTAGE SENSE LEAMS)

ACTIVE LINE DROP COHPENSATIDN USING VOLTAGE FEEDBACK

IMPROPER LDC LOCATION Figure 5

cuit voltages with proper location of LDCs. Figure 5 depicts how the circuit voltages to the loads may exceed the f2% limit if the LDC is improperly located and a load is turned off.

VOLTAGE

.
SOURCE OUTPUT VOLTAGE WITH COMPENSATION RESULTING VOLTAGE AT LOAD INPUT

NOMINAL

A problem with passive LDCs is that they are frequency dependent since they are based on series resonance. With non-linear computer loads having significant harmonic current components, the effectivenessof a passive LDC is reduced. Typical 415 Hz computer loads have been observed to contain 25 to 40% harmonic current distortion. Only at the fundamental (resonant) frequency will the capacitive reactance (Xc) cancel the wiring inductive reactance m).At the harmonic frequencies, Xc decreases in proportion to the frequency increase while XI increases. The result is that the LDC is less effective than calculated using only the 415 H impedances. z

VOLTAGE DRDP DUE TO WIRING IMPEDANCE

LOAD CURRENT

>

ACTIVE LINE DROP COMPENSATION Figure 6

Voltage feedback line drop compensation operates in a manner similar to the current-controlled LDC. The voltapsense point in the circuit is regulated to nominal voltage. The voltage sense point is typically the branch circuit distribution panel. Referring to the same examples given in Figure 7, steady-state voltage can generally be maintained within specifications if the branch circuit voltage drops are less than 2%.

Active line drop compensation involves adjusting the power source output voltage to compensate for the wiring voltage drop. Two automatic methods are in widespread use (seeFigure 6). One involves adjusting the output voltage in proportion to the output current. The other method utilizes a remQte voltage sense feedback signal. Both methods can provide adequate voltage regulation at the load with only one load. When multiple loads are powered from one source, care must be exercised with either method to ensure providing acceptable voltage to all loads under all possible conditions (all loads off, all loads on, one or more loads on or om. Theoretically, if the individual branch wiring voltage drops are limited to less than 4%, active line drop compensation can maintain the load voltages within f2% for all load conditions. Practically, because of source voltage variations, the branch wiringvoltage drops must be limited to 2%. Figure 7 shows two examples of active line drop compensation. A correct application where the branch circuits voltage drops are less than 2%, and an improper application where a short power feeder and relatively long (higher impedance) branch circuits are used. When any load is switched off, the voltage drop in that branch circuit is zero and so the load will see the voltage at the point of connection to the power feeder. In the improper application example of Figure 7, the no load voltage at load #1 exceeds the +2% limit when only load #2 is on. Voltage detection circuits, typically included in 415 H computer systems, will prevent system operation if the z steady-state voltage exceeds specifications.
1499

A variation of voltage feedback line drop compensation is the use of an averaging network to sense the voltage at each load and develop a feedback signal which represents the arithmetic average of all loadvoltages. With this technique, the average of all loadvoltages is nominal. As long as the variation in load voltages is minimal, the averaging technique maintains all loail voltages within the f2% limits. Figure 8 is an example where the averaging networkcannot maintainvoltage within specifications when a load is turned off because the branch circuit voltage drops are too great.
Some limitations of active line drop compensation include a limited compensation range and a relatively slow compensation response time. Some 415 Hz sources limit the maximum output voltage to + 5%. A combination of both passive and active line drop compensation has been used effectively. However, the system must be properly designed and adjusted to ensure proper voltage regulation. When multiple 415 Hz sources and multiple loads are involved, proper design and field adjustments can become quite complex.

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41

LOAD #2

VITH BOTH LOADS ON

/

LOAD VOLTAGES REMAIN

Z P B O T H LOADS ON

WITH LOAD #1 OFF, VOLTAGE AT LOADS EXCEED LIMITS EVEN THOUGH AVERAGE

VOLTAGE FEEDBACK LINE DROP COMPENSATION WITH MULTIPLE LOADS AND AVERAGING VOLTAGE SENSE NETWORK Figure 8 circuit breaker would be required (175Ax 1.25 = 219A). However, because of a 25% derating factor for 415 Hz, a 300 amp circuit breaker should be used (175x 1.25x 1.25 = 273A). Should the wire ampacity be based on 225 amps (219A)or 300 amps (273A)? On the surface it would appear that wiring, derated for 415 Hz operation, sized for 225 amps would be adequate. However, wiring selected in this way would appear not to meet the NEC based on the nameplate ampacity of the circuit breaker nor agree with the minimum wire size specified in the UL tests for the circuit breaker [ZO]. It is recommended that wire sizes be calculated based on the 415 Hz ampacity of the circuit breaker and the 415 H z ampacity ofthe wire as well as based on the nameplate ampacity of the circuit breaker and the 60 Hz ampacity tables in the NEC. The larger of the two calculated wire sizes should be used as a minimum. In many practical 415 Hz systems, voltage drop considerations will require even larger wire sizes (or equivalent parallel circuit conductors),

I
S DR E LJC

I JUNCTION

I Lwn 1 1

LOAD K

IMPROPER APPLICATUJN

CURRENT FEEDBACK LINE DROP COMPENSATION

WITHMULTIPLEIDADS Figure 7

Circuit breakers, switches and other electrical system components generally must be derated when used in 415 H z applications. Derating factors vary by manufacturer based on test data for the particular devices. For circuit breakers, the 415 Hz continuous current rating can be as low as 50% of the 60 Hz rating depending on frame size. Generally smaller circuit breakers are derated less than larger ones. DeratingtactorS of 20% (0.8times 1] the 60 Hz rating) are typical 1171, [ 8 .The interrupting capacity of circuit breakers a t 415 Hz is also greatly reduced. While there are no UL standards developed for 415 Hz circuit breakers, based on limited testing, circuit breaker manufacturers estimate the 415 Hz interrupting capacities to be only 10 to 50% of the 60 Hz capacities. Fortunately, however, most practical 415 H z sources for computer systems are relatively small and have limited short circuit current available. When circuit breakers are used a t 415 Hz, they should be sized for the expected 415 Hz load using the derating factors given by the manufacturer. For example, one manufacturer's application guide includes a series of factors for such items as wire size, ambient temperature, altitude, and frequency which are used to determine the proper circuit breaker ampacity [19].Some manufacturers will provide circuit breakers calibrated for 400 Hz. Because of the 415 Hz deratings for circuit breakers, there is sometimes confusion in matching wire ampacity to circuit breaker ampacity. For example, for a 175 amp load, normally a 225 amp

Because 415 Hz power is not generally available from public utilities, some form of frequency conversion equipment, such as motor-generator sets or static frequency converters, must be used. The desired availability of most 415 Hz computer systems requires a highly reliable 415 Hz power system. Redundant (parallel) frequency converters are often used to protect against failure of any one frequency converter. However, complex parallelingcircuitry can sometimes result in lower reliability for a paralleled system than for a simpler single frequency converter. Since the frequency converters derive their power from the 50 or 60 Hz power system, the reliability of the 415 H z power system is affected by the reliability (or lack of reliability) of the 50 or 60 Hz power system. For critical applications, the 50 or 60 Hz power system should include a standby (emergency) generator and automatic transfer switchgear to protect against utility outages. The frequency conversion equipment must then be configured as an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)with batteries (asis the case with most static frequency converters) or the frequency converter must be powered from a 50 or 60 Hz UPS to provide continuity of operation during the outage until the standby generator can be placed on-line.

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GROUNDING
For the same safety and computer system performance considerations, 415 Hz computer power systems should be grounded the same as 60 Hz computer power systems. FIPS PUB 94 [7] describes the recommended grounding practices for 60 Hz systems. The recommendations for 415 Hz systems are the same except that isolation transformers, which are used in 60 Hz systems within the computer room to provide a controlled power grounding and computer grounding point, are not typically used in 415 Hz systems. Most 415 Hz frequency converters for computer systems have 1201208 volt, 3 phase, wye-connected outputs which are considered separately derived AC sources. As a separately derived AC source, the frequency converter should be grounded according to NECArticle 250-26; the neutral should be bonded to ground and a grounding electrode conductor should be connected to the nearest effective grounding electrode (building steel, metal water pipe, or other made electrode). An insulated equipment grounding conductor should be included with the power circuit conductors to ensure an effective ground path and lower the system ground impedance. A signal reference grid should be used in the computer room to provide a low impedance ground reference over a broad band of frequencies (up to 30 MHz). Connections to the signal reference grid should be by way of short (18" or less) braided or stranded conductors. Figure 9 is a typical groundingarrangement for a distributed 415 Hz system where the frequency converter is located within the computer room. This is the recommended arrangement to minimize common mode noise on the 415 Hz power supply. It is equivalent to FIPS PUB 94's recommended use of an isolation transformer in a computer room power center for 60 Hz power. The 415 Hz power groundingpoint is located within the computer room, close to the load equipment.
415 HZ
FREQUENCY CONVERTER COMPUTER

50 OR
60 HZ INPUT

DISTRIBUTED (SINGLE MODULE) 415 HZ SYSTEM GROUNDING Figure 9

Figure 10 is a typical grounding arrangement for a centralized 415 Hz system where multiple frequency converters supply power to one or more 415 Hz computer system loads. Because of size limitations, centralized systems are usually not located in the computer room. This increases the difficulty of controlling common mode noise on the 415 Hz power to the computer system. The parallelingswitchgear and distribution panel are sometimes combined into one cabinet. Even though multiple frequency converter modules are used, when interconnected to the paralleling switchgear, they are considered one separately derived AC source. The neutral conductor from each module must be connected to the paralleling switchgear for grounding purposes even though the neutral circuit may not be required by the load equipment. The neutral-to-ground bond and grounding electrode conductor connection are located in the paralleling switchgear to ensure proper sizing for the total 415 Hz system capacity. Individual frequency converter modules can be disconnected without disrupting the grounding system integrity and the normal circulating currents between paralleled converters are not allowed to flow in the grounding circuit.

415 HZ PARALLELING

5 0 OR 60 HZ INPUT

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COMPUTER SYSTEM #1 A
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COMPUTER SYSTEM #2

50 OR 60 HZ
INPUT

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LOCAL GROUNDING ELECTRODE GRID
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CENTRALIZED (MULTIPLE MODULE) 415 HZ SYSTEM GROUNDING Figure 10

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CENTRALIZED VS. DISTRIBUTED POWER SOURCES

When more than one 415 Hz load is involved, a basic design decision is the choice between a centralized 415 Hz source or several distributed 415 Hz sources. Conventional 60 Hz design practice would be to choose a centralized system because of the economies of scale. The cost per KVA decreases as the system capacity increases. With redundant power sources, typical of 415 Hz systems, the cost of redundancy (N+ 1)over a non-redundant system (N) is less witha large centralized system. However, meeting the 415 Hz computer system requirements (see Table 2) with a centralized 415 Hz system becomes more difficult and often impractical. As was discussed under line drop compensation, proper voltage regulation to multiple loads is difficult to achieve. Location of the equipment becomes a major design consideration. Power feeder and branch circuit voltage drops must be controlled by short lengths or more costly parallel conduits. The apparent economies of scale are often reduced by the 415 Hz wiring costs. Computer requirements other than steady-state voltage regulation, such as phase imbalance, are also a concern with centralized systems, primarily because of the interaction of the non-linear computer loads and the power source. The impedance of the power source and wiring at the harmonic current frequencies can causevoltage imbalance and distortion. When multiple computer loads with different power supply designs (such as with different computer vendors) are operated from a common power source, care must be taken to ensure that there is not an adverse interaction between the various power supplies. For example, one load may affect the power sourcesvoltage waveform such that another load finds it unacceptable, or noise generated by one load may adversely affect another. The computer vendors should be consulted regarding the compatibility of powering multiple computer systems from a common power source. Often, because of thevariability of the 415 Hz centralized system designs, it is dificult to predict an interaction problem. The centralized 415 Hz source and its associated 415 Hz wiring are premises wiring (considered part of the building) and are typically designed support a given computer system. Consideration should be made in the initial design for the anticipated future changes or additions to the 415 Hz loads in order to guard against obsolescence. Often, with the rapid changes that occur in the users requirements or computer technology, it is difficult to accurately predict future 415 Hz computer load requirements and ensure the present power systems compatibility. Distributed 415 Hz sources consist of dedicated power sources located close to the load(s). The 415 Hz design becomes simple and straightforward. 60 Hz power distribution is used in place of 415 Hz distribution; 415 Hz wiring is minimized. The 415 Hz computer power can be grounded in the computer room close to the load equipment. Therefore, the distributed source makes it easier to avoid common mode noise (seethe grounding discussion). With distributed 415 Hz power sources, it is typically easier to meet the computer systems requirements. There are no complex voltage regulation problems and no chance for interaction between multiple loads. The power source need only be compatible with a given computer load.

Distributed sources can also offer flexibility since the 415 Hz source and wiring, matched to a given computer system, can be changed with the computer system. For example, if the next computer system to be used has significantly different power requirements (such as no 415 Hz input), the distributed 415 Hz power source could be considered part of the computer system and disposed of (sold) with the computer system. Some computer vendors have taken this approach by includinga distributed 415 Hz source (such as the IBM 3089 Motor-Generator) with the computer system. One potential drawback of distributed power sources is that they typically are not redundant. A failure of one of the frequency converters shuts down operation of the connected computer. When multiple computer processors are used, the system is often configured such that the failure of one frequency converter (loss of one processor) allows the system to continue operation but a t a reduced processing speed. The lack of redundancy is often overcome from a practical point of view by using power sources with high mean-times-between failures (MTBFs) and low mean-times-torepair (MITRs). Low M T T R s can be obtained even for systems which are difficult to repair by having a readily available spare system which can be quickly and easily installed (such as units on castors with plug and receptacle connections). Some static distributed power sources are available with built-in (internal) redundancy which improves the MTBF and allows repairs to be made during scheduled shutdowns.

The design of 415 Hz power systems for mainframe computer systems requires additional considerations beyond those of conventional 60 Hz systems. The power quality requirements of 415 Hz computer systems are significantly different from those of 60 Hz computer systems. The steady-state voltage tolerance is generally much tighter while the frequency tolerance is much broader. Because of the effects of the higher frequency on wiring impedance, 415 Hz wiring practices are different from 60 Hz. Non-metallic or non-ferrous wireways, as well as relatively short wiring !0 runs, are recommended. Wire sizes larger than # U are not effective a t reducingwiringvoltage drop; for lower voltage drop, parallel conductors in parallel conduits are recommended. For best results, multi-conductor cable assemblies such as the 7 conductor 400 Hz cable, are recommended. Both passive and active line drop compensation techniques are available to offset wiring voltage drop. When more than one load is powered from a common source, careful system design must be used to ensure proper voltage regulation to all loads under all conditions. Centralized 415 Hz power sources offer the advantages of economies of scale and ease of redundancy while having the disadvantages of complicated 415 Nz wiring system design, higher installation costs, lack of flexibility, and potential load interactions. Distributed 415 Hz power sources minimize 415 Hz wiring and make it easier to meet the computer systems power requirements both today and in the future. The design considerations presented in this paper are additional considerations intended to be used with other design criteria normally associated with proper power system design. Comments on this paper are solicited to aid in developing the 415 Hz section of the proposed IEEE Emerald Book, Recommended Practice For Powering & Grounding Sensitive Electronic Equipment (PAR

P1100).
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REFERENCES
[l] ANSIIIEEE .STD. 141-1986 IEEE RED BOOK, Plectricd . .
B w e r Distributi

[ 3 ANSIIIEEE STD. 142-1982 IEEE GREEN BOOK, 2

Grounding Industrial and Commercial Power SvstemS

[ 1 ANSI1IEEE STD. 241-1983 IEEE GRAY BOOK, Electric 3

Power Svstems in Commercial Bu i l d i n a

[4] ANSIIIEEE STD. 399-1980 IEEE BROWN BOOK, Utrial and Commercial Power Svstem Analvsis

[5] ANSIIIEEE STD. 446-1987 IEEE ORANGE BOOK, cy & Standbv Power Svstems For I n h t r i a l and
Commercial &plications [SI ANSIAEEE STD. 493-1980 IEEE GOLD BOOK, Desirm Q f Reliable Industrial and C o m c i a l Power Sv

[7] FIPS PUB 94,Guidelines on Electrical Power for ADP InstallationsUS.Department of Commercemational Bureau of Standards, National Technical Service, Springfield, VA 22161.

[8] NFPA 70-1987,National Electrical Code,National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. [9] "IBM SYSTEM1370 3090 Processor Complex Installation
Manual-Physical Planning", Publication Number GC22-7074-2 International Business Machines Corporation, Poughkeepsie, NY,January, 1986.

[lo]

"Amdahl Computing Systems Physical Planning Manual", Publication No. MM-108334-010,Amdahl Corporation, Sunnyvale, CA, June, 1987.

[ 1 "Sperry UNIVAC 1100/90System Preinstallation PlanI1 ning Specifications", MA5032 Rev. HCB-4, Sperry Corporation, July, 1982. [12]M.E. Lauderbaugh and B.M. Rhoades, "A Guide to 400 HZ
Power Distribution", , ary, 1972,PP. 73-83. Febru-

[13]D.W. Exner and G.H. Singer, Jr., "Impedance Data for 400 Cycle Aircraft Distribution Systems", AIEEE Tech. Paper 52-322,October, 1952. 1 4 "Design Guidebook Prepared for The Air Transport Asso11
ciation of America", McCormick-Morgan Power System Engineers, San Francisco, CA, Feb., 1980.

[15] Correspondence to Liebert Corporation from Jim Lewis, Anixter, Skokie, IL, October 13,1987. [E] NFPA 75-1987,Protectkm of Electronic Camputer/D&
Bocess-Eauipment, tion, Quincy, MA. National Fire Protection Associa-

[17] "Application of Westinghouse Molded Case Circuit Breakers to 400 HZ Systems", Westinghouse Electric Corp., Low Voltage Breaker Division Publication, 1982. [18] "Micro Versa Trip Equipped Circuit Breakers for Use On
400 HZ Systems", General Electric Distribution Equip-

ment Division Publication GIZ2691-19, February, 1982.

[19] "Molded Case Circuit Breakers Application and Selection",

General Electric Publication GET2779G0584-BA-T, Plainville, CT.

[0 h - S 21

n,

Circuit and service C i r c a Underwriter's Laboratories, Northbrook, IL.

. .

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