SOLUTIONS

1.)​ Solutions: Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two
components.
2.)​ Binary solution: A solution having two components (solute and solvent) is called a
binary solution.

3.)​ Concentration: It is the amount of solute in a given amount of solution.

●​ .Mass by mass percentage (w/m): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100 mL of
solution.
Mass % of a component= Mass of the component in the solution X 100
Total mass of the solution
●​ Volume percentage (V/V):
Volume % of a component = Volume of the component × 100
Total volume of solution
a 35% (v/v) solution of ethylene glycol, an antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the
engine. At this concentration the antifreeze lowers the freezing point of water to 255.4K
(–17.6°C).
●​ Mass by volume percentage (w/V): Mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solution.
●​ Parts per million = Number of parts of the component ×106
Total number of parts of all components of the solution
●​ Mole fraction of a component = Number of moles of the component
Total number of moles of all the components
X1= n1 X2 = n2
n1+n2 n1+n2
X1+X2=1 X has NO UNITS
●​ Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre (or one
cubic decimetre) of solution. Unit : moles/lit.
 M = n (Moles of solute)
V(Volume of solution in litre)
M = w X 1000 M=w X 1
mw V(ml) mw V(lit,)
●​ Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent. moles/kg
. Molality = Number of moles of solute
Mass of solvent in kilograms
m = w X 1000 m=w X 1
MW W(g) MW W(Kg)
●​ Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent of temperature, whereas
molarity is a function of temperature. This is because volume depends on temperature
and the mass does not.
4.)​ Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified
amount of solvent at a specified temperature.
●​ Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
i.) Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes in nonpolar solvents.
like dissolves like.
ii.) Saturated solution. : A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the
same temperature and pressure.
Unsaturated solution: is one in which more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature.
iii.) Effect of temperature : The solubility of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by
temperature changes. As per Le Chatelier's Principle, if the dissolution process is
endothermic (∆sol H > 0), the solubility should increase with rise in temperature and if it
is exothermic (∆sol H < 0) the solubility should decrease.
iv.)Effect of pressure: Pressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of
solids in liquids because solids and liquids are highly incompressible.
●​ Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid:
i.) Many gases dissolve in water. Oxygen dissolves only to a small extent in water. It is
this dissolved oxygen which sustains all aquatic life. Hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) is
highly soluble in water.
ii.) Effect of pressure : Solubility of gases increases with increase of pressure
Henry’s law. “The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas present above the surface of liquid or solution.”
“ The mole fraction of gas in the solution is proportional to the partial pressure of
the gas over the solution.”
“the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of
the gas (x) in the solution”
p = KH X Here KH is Henry’s law constant.
KH depends on the temperature & nature of the gas.
KH ∝ 1/solubility of the gas in the liquid.
KH ∝ Temperature.
 iii.) Effect of temperature : Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in
temperature As dissolution is an exothermic process.(Le Chatelier’s Principle).
It is due to this reason that aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather
than in warm waters.
●​ APPLICATIONS OF HENRY'S LAW
●​ To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under
high pressure.
●​ Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases while breathing air
at high pressure underwater. Increased pressure increases the solubility of atmospheric
gases in blood. When the divers come towards surface, the pressure gradually
decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles of
nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical condition known as
bends, which are painful and dangerous to life. To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic
effects of high concentrations of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers
are filled with air diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
●​ At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This
leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high
altitudes or climbers. Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to
think clearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia.
5.)​ Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions
Consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids denoted as 1 and 2.
ptotal= total vapour pressure.
p1 and p2 = partial vapour pressures of the two components 1 and 2 respectively.
x1 and x2 =mole fractions of the two components 1 and 2 respectively.
Raoult’s law : For a solution of volatile liquids,the partial vapour pressure of each
component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution.
p1 = p10 x1 p2 = p20 x2
p10 = vapour pressure of pure component 1
p20 = vapour pressure of pure component 2
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures,
ptotal = p1 + p2
p10 x1+p20 x2
 ●​ Raoult’s Law as a special case of Henry’s Law
Raoult’s law p1 = p10 x1
Henry’s law p = KH x.
If we compare the equations for Raoult’s law and Henry’s law, it can be seen that
the partial pressure of the volatile component or gas is directly proportional to its
mole fraction in solution. Only the proportionality constant KH differs from p10 .
Thus, Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes
equal to p10.
6.)​ Ideal Solutions : The solutions which obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of
concentration.
●​ ∆mixH = 0, ∆mixV = 0
●​ the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules are
same as between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules..
●​ n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and chloroethane, benzene and toluene.

7.)​ Non- Ideal Solutions: When a solution does not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range
of concentration.
●​ Non- Ideal Solutions showing positive deviation .
●​ ∆mixH > 0, ∆mixV > 0
●​ the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules are
weaker than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules.
●​ ethanol and acetone, carbon disulphide and acetone
 ●​ Non- Ideal Solutions showing negative deviation .
●​ ∆mixH < 0, ∆mixV < 0
●​ The intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules are
stronger than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules.
●​ Phenol and aniline & chloroform and acetone

8.)​ Azeotropes : Binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase
and boil at a constant temperature. It is not possible to separate the components by
fractional distillation.
●​ Minimum boiling azeotrope : The solutions which show a large positive
deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific
composition.
Eg. ethanol-water mixture containing approximately 95% by volume of ethanol.
●​ Maximum boiling azeotrope: The solutions that show large negative deviation
from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Eg. Nitric acid and water 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass, with a boiling
point of 393.5 K.
9.)​ Colligative properties : Properties which depend on the number of solute particles
irrespective of their nature relative to the total number of particles present in the solution.
●​ Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
 ●​ ∆P = Po -P
P
Po= Vapour pressure of pure solvent
P= Vapour pressure of solution formed by adding non- volatile solute.
∆P = Po - P = X solute
P
∆P = Po - P = w X MW
P mw W.
w = weight of solute , mw = molecular weight of solute
W = weight of solvent , MW= molecular weight of solvent.
Relative lowering of vapour pressure caused by addition of non- volatile
solute is equal to the mole fraction of the solute.
●​ Elevation of Boiling Point
Boiling Point :-Temperature at which its vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

Let Tbo be the boiling point of pure solvent

Tb be the boiling point of solution.
∆Tb =Tb - Tbo is known as the elevation of boiling point.
Kb Molal Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic Constant).
Unit of Kb = Kkg mol-1.Values of Kb depends on nature of solvent
∆Tb = Kb molality
∆Tb = Kb w X 1
mw Wkg
∆Tb = Kb w X 1000
mw Wg
w = weight of solute , mw=molecular weight of solute W=weight of solvent
●​ Depression of Freezing Point:
The freezing point of a substance may be defined as the temperature at which the
vapour pressure of the substance in its liquid phase is equal to its vapour pressure in the
solid phase.
 Let Tfo be the freezing point of pure solvent
Tf be the freezing point of solution.
∆Tf = Tfo - Tf is known as the depression in freezing point.
Kf is called Molal depression Constant (Cryoscopic Constant). The unit of Kf is
K kg mol-1.Values of Kf depends on nature of solvent
∆Tf = Kf molality
∆Tf = Kf w X 1
mw Wkg
∆Tf = Kf w X 1000
mw Wg
w = weight of solute , mw = molecular weight of solute W = weight of solvent.
●​ Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
i.) Osmosis is a process of movement of solvents through a semi-permeable membrane
from a region of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration.
ii.) Semi-permeable membrane - A membrane through which only smaller molecules like
water can pass but not the bigger molecules like solutes.pig’s bladder or parchment paper
,synthetic such as cellophane.
iii.) Osmotic pressure:- Pressure that just stops the flow of solvent is called osmotic
pressure of the solution.
iv.) Osmotic pressure is proportional to the molarity, C of the solution at a given temperature
T.
Π=CRT Π is the osmotic pressure and R is the gas constant.
Π = (n /V) R T
Π= wRT
mw. V
v.) The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over other methods as pressure
measurement is around the room temperature and the molarity of the solution is used
instead of molality. As compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large even
for very dilute solutions. The technique of osmotic pressure for determination of molar mass
of solutes is particularly useful for proteins, polymers and other macromolecules
(biomolecules ) as they are generally not stable at higher temperatures and polymers have
poor solubility.
 vi.) Isotonic solutions : Two solutions having the same osmotic pressure at a given
temperature . When such solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane no
osmosis occurs between them.
The fluid inside the blood cell is isotonic with 0.9% (mass/ volume) sodium chloride
solution, called normal saline solution hence it is safe to inject intravenously.
If blood cells are placed in a solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium
chloride, water will flow out of the cells and they would shrink. Such a solution is called
hypertonic.
If the salt concentration is less than 0.9% (mass/volume), the solution is said to be
hypotonic. In this case, water will flow into the cells if placed in this solution and they would
swell.
vii.) Applications of Osmosis
●​ A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water via osmosis and
shrivels into pickles.
●​ Wilted flowers revive when placed in freshwater.
●​ People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in tissue cells and
intercellular spaces because of osmosis. The resulting puffiness or swelling is called
edema. Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into the upper
portion of the plant is partly due to osmosis.
●​ The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against
bacterial action.
viii.)Reverse osmosis :Pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semipermeable
membrane. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of seawater

10.)​ Abnormal Molecular Mass : Molar mass is abnormal in case of Dissociation.or

Association.
Van’t Hoff factor(i) is used to represent the extent of dissociation or association
i = Mn
Mo
i = Observed colligative property
Calculated colligative property
i = Total number of moles of particles after association/dissociation
Number of moles of particles before association/dissociation
Po - P = i w X MW
P mw W
∆Tb = i Kb m ∆Tf = i Kf m Π=iCRT
Van’t Hoff factor i ,if the solute is completely ionised
NaCl 2

MgSO4 3

KCl 2

K2SO4 . 3

K4[Fe(CN)6] 5

Degree of Dissociation ∝ = i -1
n -1

Degree of Association ∝ = i -1
1/n -1