JSS2 SECOND TERM BASIC EDUCATION

1. Environmental pollution

2. Ways of reducing pollution risk

3. Consequence of air pollution

4. Ecology

5. Changes in matter

6. Changes in living things

7. Changes in non-living things

8. Crude oil and petroleum chemical

WEEK 1

Topic: Environmental Pollution

Introduction

The environment is the whole of our surrounding and it is made up of living and
non-living components. The non-living components consist of water, air, land etc.
The three non-living components are important for life on earth. The discharge of
waste substances into the environment in quantities that are harmful to human
beings is called POLLUTION. Pollution is the introduction of a contaminant into a
natural environment, usually by humans. In other words, Pollution is the addition
to the ecosystem of something which has a detrimental effect on it. One of the
most important causes of pollution is the high rate of energy usage by modern,
growing populations.
When some physical, chemical or biological changes occur in our physical
environment it is known as pollution and the substances which brings these
changes are known as Pollutants. The sources for the pollution can be natural or
manmade.

Different kinds of pollution are found, but we will discuss the following:

Air Pollution.

Water Pollution.

Land Pollution.

Air Pollution

Air pollution is the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that, in

sufficient concentrations, endanger human health or produce other measured
effects on living matter and other materials. In other words, Air pollution is
defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural
composition and chemistry of the air. This can be in the form of particulate
matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other vapours that
cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or
the nitrogen cycle.

Among the major sources of pollution are power and heat generation, the
burning of solid wastes, industrial processes, and, especially, transportation. The
six major types of pollutants are carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, particulates, sulphur dioxide, and photochemical oxidants.

Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive
sources include:

Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust

Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources

Building construction or demolition

Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed.

Smog increases, higher rain acidity, crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, and
higher rates of asthma. Many scientists believe that global warming is also related
to increased air pollution.

Examples of Air Pollution

Noise Pollution
Noise pollution or unwanted sounds that are carried by the air, have an irritating
and detrimental effect on humans and other animals. Careful planning of streets
and buildings in towns and better control over noisy vehicles may add to the
control of noise pollution.

Tobacco Smoke
Tobacco smoke is one of the major forms of pollution in buildings. It is not only
the smoker who is infected, but everyone who inhales the polluted air. There is a
very strong connection between smoking and lung cancer. Bronchitis is common
among smokers and unborn babies of mothers who smoke also suffer from the
harmful effects of smoking.
Exhaust Gases of Vehicles
Pollution from exhaust gases of vehicles is reponsible for 60% of all air pollution
and in cities up to 80%. There is a large variety of harmful chemicals present in
these gases, with lead being one of the most dangerous.

Combustion of Coal
The combustion of caol without special precautions can have serious
consequences. If winds do not blow away the poisonous gases, they can have
fatal effects and may lead to death.

Acid rain
Acid rain is the term for pollution caused when sulfur and nitrogen dioxides
combine with atmospheric moisture to produce highly acidic rain, snow, hail, or
fog. The acid eats into the stone, brick and metal articles and pollutes water
sources. Coal in South Africa is rich in sulphur and the power stations in the
Mpumalanga Province could be reponsible for acid rain over other areas of our
country.

Control Measures

Although individual people can help to combat air pollution in their own
immediate environment, efficient control can be best achieved by legislation.
Some commonly enforced control measures include

The establishment of more smokeless zones;

Control over the kinds of fuel used in cars, aeroplanes, power stations, etc.

Water Pollution
Water pollution is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical,
physical, or biological material that degrades the quality of the water and affects
the organisms living in it. In other words, Water pollution involves any
contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or bacterial matter that
degrades the water’s quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in oceans,
rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as different water sources flow
together the pollution can spread.

This process ranges from simple addition of dissolved or suspended solids to

discharge of the most insidious and persistent toxic pollutants (such as pesticides,
heavy metals, and non-degradable, bioaccumulative, chemical compounds).

Causes of water pollution include:

Domestic waste substances include the following

Soap and detergents used in washing clothes, dishes and cars may flow back into
the source of water supply such as lake, stream, river etc

Oil such as vegetable oil, kerosene, petrol from cars, palm oil, diesel from
generator are spilled in the home or washed out from pots and maybe allowed to
flow into the source of water supply

Refuse dumped beside river or stream may decay amd produce toxic materials
which can be washed into the source of water supply
Dungs from animals, chickens, dog or cow left on land may decay and the
poisonous material may be washed into the water source.

Other Sources of water pollutants generated from industries are

Acids eg hydrocyanic acid which is present in water squeezed out from cassava

Soap and detergent used in washing industrial equipment may flow back to
nearby water sources

Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies

Organic material decay in water supplies

Alcohol may be washed out from breweries

The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water
available, lowering water supplies for crop irrigation, and impacting fish and
wildlife populations that require water of a certain purity for survival.

Examples of Water Pollution

Industrial affluents
Water is discharged from after having been used in production processes. This
waste water may contain acids, alkalis, salts, poisons, oils and in some cases
harmful bacteria.

Mining and Agricultural Wastes

Mines, especially gold and coal mines, are responsible for large quantities of acid
water. Agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and herbicides may wash into rivers and
stagnant water bodies.

Sewage Disposal and Domestic Wastes

Sewage as well as domestic and farm wastes were often allowed to pollute rivers
and dams.

Control Measures

The following measures can be used to stop water pollution:

Every intelligent people should be wise enough not to pollute water in any way;

By research and legislation the pollution of water bodies, even though not
entirely prevented, must be effectively controlled.

Land Pollution

Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth’s land surface through misuse of
the soil by poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste
dumping, and indiscriminate disposal of urban wastes. It includes visible waste
and litter as well as pollution of the soil itself.

Examples of Land Pollution

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is mainly due to chemicals in herbicides (weed killers) and pesticides
(poisons which kill insects and other invertebrate pests). Litter is waste material
dumped in public places such as streets, parks, picnic areas, at bus stops and near
shops.

Waste Disposal
The accumulation of waste threatens the health of people in residential areas.
Waste decays, encourages household pests and turns urban areas into unsightly,
dirty and unhealthy places to live in.

Control Measures

The following measures can be used to control land pollution:

anti-litter campaigns can educate people against littering;

organic waste can be dumped in places far from residential areas;

inorganic materials such as metals, glass and plastic, but also paper, can be
reclaimed and recycled.

Ozone Layer Depletion: Effects and Causes of Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer is responsible for absorbing harmful ultraviolet rays, and
preventing them from entering the Earth’s atmosphere. However, various factors
have led to the depletion and damage of this protective layer.
Ozone is a colourless gas found in the upper atmosphere of the Earth. It is formed
when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet photons, and undergo a chemical
reaction known as photo dissociation or photolysis. In this process, a single
molecule of oxygen breaks down into two oxygen atoms. The free oxygen atom
(O), then combines with an oxygen molecule (O2), and forms a molecule of ozone
(O3). The ozone molecules, in turn absorb ultraviolet rays between 310 to 200 nm
(nanometers) wavelength, and thereby prevent these harmful radiations from
entering the Earth’s atmosphere. The process of absorption of harmful radiation
occurs when ozone molecules split up into a molecule of oxygen, and an oxygen
atom. The oxygen atom (O), again combines with the oxygen molecule (O2) to
regenerate an ozone (O3) molecule. Thus, the total amount of ozone is
maintained by this continuous process of destruction, and regeneration.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone is a triatomic form of oxygen (O3), found in the Earth’s atmosphere. A
combination of low temperatures, elevated chlorine and bromine concentrations
in the upper stratosphere are responsible for the destruction of ozone. The
production and emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), is the leading cause of
ozone layer depletion. CFC’s accounts for almost 80% of the total depletion of
ozone.

Other ozone-depleting substances (ODS), include hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFCs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These are often found in vehicle
emissions, byproducts of industrial processes, refrigerants, and aerosols. ODS are
relatively stable in the lower atmosphere of the Earth, but in the stratosphere,
they are exposed to ultraviolet radiation and thus, they break down to release a
free chlorine atom.

This free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3), and forms chlorine
monoxide (ClO), and a molecule of oxygen. Now, ClO reacts with an ozone
molecule to form a chlorine atom, and two molecules of oxygen. The free chlorine
molecule again reacts with ozone to form chlorine monoxide. The process
continues, and this results in the depletion of the ozone layer.

Possible Effects of Ozone Depletion

As ozone depletes in the stratosphere, it forms a ‘hole’ in the layer. This hole
enables harmful ultraviolet rays to enter the Earth’s atmosphere. Ultraviolet rays
of the Sun are associated with a number of health-related, and environmental
issues.

Impact on Humans

Skin cancer: Exposure to ultraviolet rays poses an increased risk of developing

several types of skin cancers, including malignant melanoma, basal and squamous
cell carcinoma.
Eye damage: Direct exposure to UV radiations can result in photokeratitis (snow
blindness), and cataracts.
Immune system damage: Effects of UV rays include impairment of the immune
system. Increased exposure to UV rays weakens the response of the immune
system.
Accelerated aging of skin: Constant exposure to UV radiation can cause photo
allergy, which results in the outbreak of rash in fair-skinned people.
Other effects: Ozone chemicals can cause difficulty in breathing, chest pain,
throat irritation, and hamper lung functioning.

Effects on Amphibians
Ozone depletion is listed as one of the causes for the declining numbers of
amphibian species. Ozone depletion affects many species of amphibians at every
stage of their life cycle.

Some of the effects are mentioned below:

Hampers growth and development in larvae

Changes behaviour and habits
Causes deformities in some species
Decreases immunity. Some species have become more vulnerable to diseases and
death
Retinal damage and blindness in some species

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

In particular, plankton (phytoplankton and bacterioplankton) are threatened by
increased UV radiation. Marine phytoplankton play a fundamental role in both
the food chain as well as the oceanic carbon cycle. Plankton play an important
role in converting atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen. Ultraviolet rays can
influence the survival rates of these microscopic organisms, by affecting their
orientation and mobility. This eventually disturbs and affects the entire
ecosystem.

Impact on Plants

In some species of plants, UV radiation can alter the time of flowering, as well as
the number of flowers.
Plant growth can be directly affected by UV-B radiation. Despite mechanisms to
reduce or repair these effects, physiological and developmental processes of
plants are affected.

Another observation is an increase in the ozone present in the lower atmosphere

due to the decrease in the ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone present in the lower
atmosphere is mainly regarded as a pollutant and a greenhouse gas, that can
contribute to global warming and climate change. However, studies have pointed
out that the lifespan of lower atmospheric ozone is quite less, compared to
stratospheric ozone. At the same time, increase in the level of ozone in the lower
atmosphere can enhance the ability of sunlight to synthesize vitamin D, which can
be regarded as an important beneficial effect of ozone layer depletion.

Practice Questions

Pollution is the introduction of a _____ into a natural environment, usually by

humans.
a) contamination
b) contaminant
c) pollutes
d) dirts

Ozone is a _____ form of oxygen (O3), found in the Earth’s atmosphere

a) diatomic
b) monoatomic
c) triatomic
d) hexatomic

One of the following is not a cause of water pollution

a) Increased sediment from soil erosion
b) smoke from chimney
c) Improper waste disposal and littering
d) Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies

One of the following is not an impact of ozone depletion on humans

a) hampering of growth
b) skin cancer
c) eye damage
d) aging of skin

As ozone depletes in the stratosphere, it forms a _____ in the layer

a) hole
b) space
c) base
d) line

One of the following is not a cause of air pollution.

a) Exhaust Gases of Vehicles
b) Smoke from chimney
c) Acid rain
d) Sewage

________ are unwanted sounds that are carried by the air, have an irritating and
detrimental effect on humans and other animals.
a) air pollution
b) pollutants
c) smoke
d) noise pollution

One of the following is not a control measure for pollution

a) anti-litter campaigns can educate people against littering
b) organic waste can be dumped in places far from residential areas
c) littering of the streets with dirts
d) inorganic materials such as metals, glass and plastic, but also paper, can be
reclaimed and recycled.

______ is the degradation of the Earth’s land surface through misuse of the soil
by poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and
indiscriminate disposal of urban wastes.
a) Land pollution
b) Soil pollution
c) Water disposal
d) Air pollution

_______ is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical, physical, or

biological material that degrades the quality of the water and affects the
organisms living in it.
a) Rain pollution
b) Sea pollution
c) Water pollution
d) Pollution

EVALUATION

1. Water pollution may be controlled by (a) making a good suck-away pit (b)
repair of leakages in our roofs (c) Sweeping our room’s regularly (d) Regular
disposal of refuse
2. Define Water Pollution
3. Name six water pollutants
4. State five major causes of water pollution
5. Explain the effect of water pollution on:
(a) the environment
(b) human beings
(c) the economy
6. Write a full report of your visit to polluted water site, describing the causes, the
effects of life in the community and most possible control measures.

WEEK 2

Ways of reducing pollution risk

Protection of our environment is one of our major responsibilities and a natural

way of caring for self and for our future generations. There are several factors
that would help reduce the impact of our consumption habits. Beneath are some
of the practical ways that can be implemented in our daily life to reduce pollution.

Choosing a Transportation Facility

Avoid using a car for short-distance travel, instead, you can make use of a bicycle
which will be beneficial in terms of health as well as in the reduction of air
pollution.
Food Choices

As transporting the food across various parts of the country would lead to
consumption of considerable fuel, we can minimize the consumption of
excessive fuel by choosing food products that have been grown locally and
naturally using viable methods. Hence reducing air pollution.

Energy choices

Ensure that you switch off the lights and other electrical appliances when you are
not in the room. Unplugging them when not in use would also help to save
energy. Use energy-efficient light bulbs.

Usage of Chemicals

Make use of eco-friendly chemicals because these are what we use for washing
utensils, cars and homes get washed down into the sewage system that would, in
turn, get collected as groundwater.

Avoid Flushing your Medication

Medicines with high dosage when end up in the sanitation system, are very
difficult to isolate from the water system and would cause an adverse effect on
people who would consume this water.

Conservation of Water

Avoid excess unwanted usage of water. Some of the simple ways to prevent
wastage of water include, to make use of water-saving apparatus, fixing leakage
of taps and avoid washing utensils with running water.

How to Create Awareness?

There are several ways that you could educate people on environmental
pollution. Do some research online and get to know about the causes of pollution
in your area. Share with many people as much as possible so that they are aware
of the severity of pollution and the ways to prevent it. One can also create
awareness by creating an environmental group.
WEEK 3

Topic: Air Pollution

Meaning of Air Pollution

Air pollution is the process of making air unsuitable for breathing by both plants
and animals.

Air-borne solids that pollute the air include, dust released by industrial process,
lead dust e.g. lead (II) bromide is released from the exhaust pipes of moving
engines using leaded petrol. The release of poisonous gases such as sulphur (IV)
oxide, carbon (II) oxide, hydrogen sulphide from exhaust pipes of engines causes
air pollution. In our homes, we use firewood, coal, etc. as fuel. Gases are released
from these fuels into the air causing pollution.

Sources of Air Pollution

The main air pollutants include:

Tiny solids/dust particles.

Oxides of carbon from burning coal-smoke.

Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen-from burning coal, crude oil.

Gaseous hydrocarbon and chlorofluorocarbons.

Noise / sound from blaring of loudspeakers.

Consequences of Air Pollution

Pollutants and their effects include:

Kinds of Air Pollutants Effects on Plants and Animals

 When inhaled, they damage respiratory
Smoke, soot and dust from
organs-lungs. They are also harmful to
burning of coal and firewood
plants.

If inhaled, it accumulates in the body and

Lead dust becomes toxic to the body. Also destroys
farm produce.

Smog (Mixture of air and It reduces visibility and causes respiratory

smoke) diseases in animals.

Reduce the amount of oxygen carried by

blood to the body causing brain damage at
Oxides of carbon, especially
high concentration. Plants make use of
carbon (II) oxide and carbon (IV)
carbon (IV) oxide and water in the presence
oxide
of sunlight to manufacture carbohydrate in a
process known as photosynthesis.

When dissolve in rain water forms acid rain

which is harmful to plants and animals. They
Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
also cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat
and respiratory tissue.

Hydrocarbons found in exhaust

It can cause cancer.
pipes of cars

Control of Air Pollution

Air pollution can be controlled by using anti-pollution devices by motor vehicles,

aircraft, ships, etc.

Producing more efficient combusting fuel.

Educating people on the dangers of air pollution.

Enacting laws that will punish organizations and individuals whose activities
pollute water.
ASSESSMENT

Define Air Pollution?

List FIVE sources of Air pollution?

List FOUR control of Air Pollution?

WEEK 4

ECOLOGY

Introduction

An ecosystem is a basic functioning unit in nature. It is made up of living

organisms (plants and animals) and their non-living environment. The biotic or
living components such as the producers and consumers interact in their
environment resulting in the ecosystem being a functional unit.

Autotrophs, Heterotrophs and Decomposers

Autotrophs

Autotroph is an organism that serves as a primary producer in a food chain.

Autotrophs obtain energy and nutrients by harnessing sunlight through
photosynthesis (photoautotrophs) or, more rarely, obtain chemical energy
through oxidation (chemoautotrophs) to make organic substances from inorganic
ones. Autotrophs do not consume other organisms; they are, however, consumed
by heterotrophs.

Energy Production

Autotrophs produce their own energy by one of the following two methods:

Photosynthesis – Photoautotrophs use energy from sun to convert water from the
soil and carbon dioxide from the air into glucose. Glucose provides energy to
plants and is used to make cellulose which is used to build cell walls. E.g. Plants,
algae, phytoplankton and some bacteria. Carnivorous plants like pitcher plant use
photosynthesis for energy production but depend on other organisms for other
nutrients like nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous. Hence, these plants are
basically autotrophs.

Chemosynthesis – Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical reactions to make

food. The chemical reactions are usually between hydrogen sulfide/methane with
oxygen. Carbon dioxide is the main source of carbon for Chemoautotrophs. E.g.
Bacteria found inside active volcano.

Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs are organisms that survive by feeding on organic matter produced

by or available in other organisms. It is an organism that consumes other
organisms in a food chain, hence, they are called consumers. In contrast to
autotrophs, heterotrophs are unable to produce organic substances from
inorganic ones. They must rely on an organic source of carbon that has originated
as part of another living organism. Heterotrophs depend either directly or
indirectly on autotrophs for nutrients and food energy.

Decomposers

Decomposers are organisms that feed on dead organisms and other decaying
organic materials. Fungi and bacteria are decomposers in energy transformation
in an ecosystem. They are responsible for breaking down the complex organic
compounds into simple nutrients. There are different types of decomposer
organisms, which are responsible for returning simpler nutrients to the soil to be
used by plants — and so the energy transformation cycle continues.

Food Chain and Food Web

Every organism needs to obtain energy in order to live. For example, plants get
energy from the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other

animals.

food web (in an aquatic habitat)

Food Chain

A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an
ecosystem) to obtain nutrition. In other words, food chain is defined as a feeding
relationship involving the transfer of energy through food from producers to
consumers. A food chain starts with the primary energy source, usually the sun.
The next link in the chain is an organism that makes its own food from the
primary energy source — an example is photosynthetic plants that make their
own food from sunlight (using a process called photosynthesis) and
chemosynthetic bacteria that make their food energy from chemicals in
hydrothermal vents. These are called autotrophs or primary producers.
Some eat the autotrophs; these organisms are called herbivores or primary
consumers — an example is a grasshopper that eats grass.

The next link in the chain is animals that eat herbivores – these are called
secondary consumers — an example is a rat that eat grasshopper.

The next link in the chain is animals that eat the secondary consumers – these are
called tertiary consumers – an example is a snake the eat rat

In turn, these animals are eaten by larger predators — an example is an owl that
eats snakes.

The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers — an example is a

hawk that eats owls. Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no
natural enemies (like an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

The arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy, from the sun or
hydrothermal vent to a top predator. As the energy flows from organism to
organism, energy is lost at each step.

Trophic Levels

The trophic level of an organism is the position it holds in a food chain.

Primary producers (organisms that make their own food from sunlight and/or
chemical energy from deep sea vents) are the base of every food chain – these
organisms are called autotrophs.

Primary consumers are animals that eat primary producers; they are also called
herbivores (plant-eaters).

Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. They are carnivores (meat-eaters)

and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants).

Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers.

Quaternary consumers eat tertiary consumers.

Food chains “end” with top predators, animals that have little or no natural
enemies.

When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures, worms
and crabs) and broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the
exchange of energy continues.

Some organisms’ position in the food chain can vary as their diet differs. For
example, when a bear eats berries, the bear is functioning as a primary consumer.
When a bear eats a plant-eating rodent, the bear is functioning as a secondary
consumer. When the bear eats salmon, the bear is functioning as a tertiary
consumer (this is because salmon is a secondary consumer, since salmon eat
herring that eat zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, that make their own energy
from sunlight).

A network of many food chains is called a food web. Food web is defined as a
complex feeding relationship among organisms in the same environment with
two or more inter-related food chains.

Numbers of Organisms:

In any food web, energy is lost each time one organism eats another. Because of
this, there have to be many more plants than there are plant-eaters. There are
more autotrophs than heterotrophs, and more plant-eaters than meat-eaters.
Although there is intense competition between animals, there is also
interdependence. When one species goes extinct, it can affect an entire chain of
other species and have unpredictable consequences.

Equilibrium

As the number of carnivores in a community increases; they eat more and more
of the herbivores, decreasing the herbivore population. It then becomes harder
and harder for the carnivores to find herbivores to eat, and the population of
carnivores decreases. In this way, the carnivores and herbivores stay in a
relatively stable equilibrium, each limiting the other’s population. A similar
equilibrium exists between plants and plant-eaters.
The number of organisms in a food chain can be represented graphically in a
pyramid. Each bar represents the number of individuals at each trophic level
(feeding level) in the food chain.

In this example a large number of caterpillars living in a single oak tree provide
food for several blue tits, which in turn are consumed by a sparrowhawk.

The pyramid of numbers usually shows that the number of organisms at each
trophic level gets smaller towards the top. This particular case is an exception –
one tree provides food for many caterpillars.

Pyramid of Biomass

A pyramid of biomass is a more accurate indication of how much energy is passed

on at each trophic level.

Biomass is the mass of living material in each organism multiplied by the total
number of organisms in that trophic level. This makes it easier to compare the
food value of a small number of large organisms with a large number of small
organisms. Pyramids of biomass usually are a true pyramid shape.

The biomass in each trophic level is always less than the trophic level below. This
is because biomass is a measure of the amount of food available. When animals
eat, only a small proportion of their food is converted into new tissue, which is
the food for the next trophic level. Most of the biomass that animals eat is either
not digested, or used to provide the energy needed for staying alive.

Processes of Ecosystems

The diagram with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main
ideas about how ecosystems function: ecosystems have energy flows and
ecosystems cycle materials. These two processes are linked, but they are not
quite the same.

Energy Flows and Material Cycles

Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed

into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including
photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This
energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it
cannot be recycled. Without the continued input of solar energy, biological
systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with respect
to energy.

Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a

variety of ways. Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water,
or soils. Animals may also obtain elements directly from the physical
environment, but usually they obtain these mainly as a consequence of
consuming other organisms. These materials are transformed biochemically
within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or
decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state. Often bacteria complete
this process, through the process called decomposition or mineralization.

During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the earth is a
closed system with respect to elements. The elements are cycled endlessly
between their biotic and abiotic states within ecosystems.

ASSESSMENT.

Define the term “Ecosystem”.

Explain the following terms; Autotrophs, Heterotrophs and Decomposers.

What is a “Food chain”?

Draw an illustration of a food chain.

WEEK 5

Topic: Changes In Matter

Learning Objectives: By the end of the Lesson, The learners should be able to:.

Define the term matter;

State and explain the types of changes in matter;

Give examples of each type of change.

CHANGES IN MATTER

The term “matter” can be defined as anything that has mass and can occupy
space. Matter generally exists in three states: solid, liquid, or gas.

Matter can be living or non-living. Matter can also undergo changes when
exposed to heat, air, light, water or pressure. Matter can also undergo natural or
artificial changes. The changes which matter undergoes can be classified as
either temporary or permanent changes or physical and chemical changes. In this
lesson, you will learn the different types of changes in matter, their
characteristics, examples and causes.

TYPES OF CHANGES IN MATTER

Matter can change when exposed to light, heat, air, water and pressure. When a
substance is heated, the substance could change completely to another
substance. For example, when a piece of wood is burnt, it changes completely to
form charcoal or ash. Similarly, when a green plant is exposed to light, some
reactions occur in the leaves by the process of photosynthesis in which water and
carbon dioxide in the presence of chlorophyll react to form sugar and
oxygen. These changes above are changes which cannot be reverted. They are
called permanent changes. Other examples of permanent changes include:

Yellowing of plant leaves

Decaying of plant and animal body

Growth in plant and animal body

Iron rust

Burning of substances, etc.

On the other hand, there are changes which occur in some substances, but the
original substances can be recovered. These are referred to as temporary
changes. Temporary changes are changes that are reversible, that is they can be
reverted. Example include:

Water changes into ice.

Water and oil are mixed.

Skin or hair is bleached.

Iron rod is heated in flame.

A substance is dissolved in water

This chart below illustrates physical (temporary) change and chemical

(permanent) change

CAUSES OF CHANGES IN MATTER

Changes in matter do not just occur. They are usually caused by changes in the
condition around the matter. For instance, matter will remain in its liquid state if
there is no change in the temperature of its environment. Therefore, we can say
that the major cause of changes in the states of matter is temperature. There are
other conditions which lead to changes in matter. They include light, air, moisture
and pressure.

EVALUATION

1. Which of these statements is not correct about matter?

a. Matter is always a solid material
b. Matter can undergo temporary or permanent changes
c. Heat can affect matter
d. Matter can exist in three states
2. List the changes that may occur in matter and give five examples of each of the
changes
3. Differentiate between temporary and permanent change.
4. State factors that bring about temporary and permanent changes.
WEEK 6

Topic: Changes in Living Things (Growth and Development)

Learning Objectives: By the end of the Lesson, The learners should be able to:.

Define the terms growth and development;

Identify the growth and developmental changes in human;

State the features of each stage of growth and development in human.

Changes In Living Things (Growth And Development)

You would have noticed that a baby does not remain the same size after birth. As
the baby is fed with breast milk, there are noticeable changes such as increase in
the size of the body. When this is happening, we often say that the baby is
growing. As growth is taking place, other changes occur, leading to overall
physical development of the baby. With time, the baby develops from infancy to
childhood, to adolescence and then to adulthood as follows.
Baby (age 0-2 years)
Childhood (2-11 years)
Adolescence (11-18 years)
Adulthood (age 18 and above)

Can you imagine when you were a baby? Can you think of those changes that
have since then occurred in your body? In this chapter, you will learn about
growth and development as part of the changes that occurs in your body.

DEFINING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

One of the changes that are easily noticeable in a healthy baby some weeks or
months after birth is increase in height, size and weight. The food the baby eat is
important in helping the body to produce new body cells that will add to the body
size. The increase in size of an organism due to increase in size of cells is termed
growth. In growth, the body by itself makes its own flesh to add to existing one.
Growth may be measured by increase in height or weight.
Development is a series of orderly changes by which a living thing comes into
maturity. These changes are different from increase in size (growth).

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES

As you grow, the changes in your height and size is noticeable. If you compare
your height and weight last year with what you are now, you will notice you have
increased in both height and weight. The noticeable changes in the body size over
time is termed growth change.

Growth And Developmental Stages In Human

Growth change can be determined by measurement of height and weight at time

intervals while developmental changes can be observed by appearance of certain
characteristic features and capabilities. Development leads to transition from one
stage of life to another e.g. a baby develops from infancy to childhood, then to
adolescence and to adulthood. These stages are characterized by certain features.

EXAMPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN HUMAN BEINGS

Examples of Growth And Development in Human Beings

Developmental changes are progressive and moves from simple to complex.

CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Each of the developmental stages, i.e. childhood, adolescence and adulthood is

associated with some characteristics features.

1. Childhood

This is the stage from birth to puberty. It is characterize by light body weight,
small size, very rapid growth particularly in the first two years of life, very active
body and restlessness.

2. Puberty

Puberty is the transition stage from childhood to adolescence. It is the period

when the body of a school age child turns into that of an adolescent. During this
period, growth and development are observable. This stage is characterized by:
Development of secondary sexual characters such as facial hairs, mustaches,
broken voice in boys, breasts and rounded buttocks in girls and pubic hairs in both
boys and girls, etc;
Rapid gain in height and weight;
Well form bones i.e. bones become stronger
Very active body

3. Adolescence

Adolescence is the stage before adulthood and it’s characterized by:

No changes in height but there could be changes in weight or sizes;
Ageing indicated by appearance of grey hair, reduced elasticity of the skin,
gradual decline in body functions, including decline in reproductive capacity and
decline in functions of body organs e.g. the heart, the lungs and the sense organs.
The changes in adulthood are usually due to age but can include stress (anxiety)
or inadequate feeding.

TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT CHANGES IN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The development changes could either be temporary or permanent changes

when they occur. The permanent changes remain for life and they are not
reversible. Those features associated with each of the human developmental
stages of childhood, adolescence and adulthood are permanent changes.
There are however some temporary changes. Examples include growth of pimples
in male and female at adolescence, malnutrition or kwashiorkor, fatness,
enlargement of stomach after a meal or intake of water. These changes are
usually due to food intake and are temporary. Other examples of temporary
changes are:

Bed wetting

Sweating

Rise in body temperature

Temporary changes may naturally disappear after sometime. They can also be
corrected medically or by change in behavior, whereas permanent changes
remain with the individual throughout life.
Take a quick test for this lesson
1. Childhood is characterized by?
a. Development of secondary sexual features
b. Small size
c. Well formed reproductive system
d. Well formed bones
2. List any three growth changes in living things
3. List three examples of developmental changes in
Infancy
Adolescence
Adulthood
4. State the characteristics of growth and developmental changes
5. List any four changes in human growth and development and classify them as
permanent or temporary changes

WEEK 7

Topic: Changes Non-Living Things (Physical And Chemical Change)

Learning Objectives: By the end of the Lesson, The learners should be able to:

Explain changes in nonliving things;

Identify and explain the types of changes in non-living things;

Perform simple experiment on physical change and chemical change;

Examine the differences between physical change and chemical change.

Discussions

CHANGES IN NON-LIVING THINGS

You have learnt in our previous lesson that matter can be a living thing or non-
living thing. You have also learnt that matter exists in three states: solid, liquid,
gaseous states. Matter undergoes some changes when exposed to some
conditions like heat, light or air. Matter can change from solid to liquid state,
liquid to gaseous state and from gaseous to liquid state again, depending on the
temperature. Matter undergoes different types of changes.

In this lesson, you will learn about changes in non-living things, and the
characteristics of these changes.

TYPES OF CHANGES IN NON-LIVING THINGS

Non-living things do not grow, they do not move or feel. However, non-living
things can undergo changes. They can be made to change from one state to
another. They can be made to form new substances. They can combine with other
substances to form new substances. Changes in which new substances are
formed are referred to as chemical changes. The changes in which no new
substances are formed are called physical changes. The following activities will
help you to observe and identify these two types of changes in non-living things.

ACTIVITY 1: OBSERVING THE EFFECTS OF HEAT ON SUGAR SOLUTION

Materials Required

Sugar, evaporating dish, beaker, water, tripod, stand, burner, tablespoon, gauze.

PROCEDURE (Individual experiment)

Dissolve a tablespoon of sugar in 5cmᶟ of water beaker,

Record your observation,

Pour what is formed into an evaporating dish,

Heat gently over the burner until the water evaporates completely,

Record your observation,

What type of change do you observe?

Demonstration of Physical change

RESULT

You might have observed that first the sugar dissolved in water to form a solution,
but when heated the water evaporated and the sugar solidified again. No new
substances were formed in the evaporating dish.

ACTIVITY 2: HEATING SALT

Materials Required
Common salt, evaporating dish, beaker, water, tripod stand, burner, tablespoon

Procedure
As in activity 1 above
Record your observation

RESULT

As in activity 1, the common salt dissolved in water, and when heated, the water
evaporated leaving only the solid salt in the dish. No new substance were formed.

ACTIVITY: 3 HEATING PARAFFIN WAX

Materials Required
A piece of white paraffin wax, tripod stand, burner, gauze, evaporating dish.
PROCEDURE (INDIVIDUAL EXPERIMENT: YOU ARE TO DO THIS ALONE)

Place the piece of wax into your evaporating dish.

Place the evaporating dish on the gauze over the burner

Heat gently till there is a change in state

Record your observation

Keep the wax in the dish to cool for about five minutes

What do you observe?

RESULT

You might have noticed that what you observed is a little different from what you
observe in Activities 10.1 and 10.2. Whereas the substances in Activities 10.1 and
10.2 solidified when heated, the wax in Activity 10.3 melted into a liquid when
heated, but solidified again into a solid white wax when cooled. Again no new
substance was formed.

ACTIVITY 4: BURNING WOOD

Materials Required
A small piece of dry wood that can burn easily, matches, a crucible and a tripod
stand.

PROCEDURE (CLASS EXPERIMENT)

Your teacher will provide a piece of wood and other materials

Place the piece of wood in the crucible
Place the crucible on a tripod stand
Strike the match and light the wood
Allow the wood to burn out
Record your observation
Demonstration of Chemical Change

Note that it is better to use a piece of wood that can burn by itself. The use of
kerosene or oil may introduce another element into the activity.

RESULT

You might have observed that the wood burnt out in a black substance (charcoal).
The original wood cannot be recovered.

ACTIVITY 5: BURNING OF MAGNESIUM

Materials required
A length of magnesium ribbon, a pair of tongs, burner

PROCEDURE (GROUP EXPERIMENT)

Your teacher will organize the class into groups,

Light the burner in your group,
Hold a length of the magnesium ribbon on a pair of tongs,
Hold the magnesium bearing tongs over the burner.
What do you observe?
Demonstration of chemical change: Burning of magnesium

RESULT

You might have observed that the magnesium burnt and turned into a white
substance called ash. The original magnesium ribbon cannot be recovered.

What Are The Difference Between Physical And Permanent Changes? The
differences can be deduced from their characteristics of which was observed
during the experiments.

Characteristics of Physical change

The original substance can easily be recovered

New substances are not formed

Change is temporary

Characteristics of Chemical change

The original substance cannot be easily recovered

New substances are formed

Change is permanent

EVALUATION

1. In __ changes the original substance easily be recovered (a) chemical (b) heat
(c) physical (d) solid
2. Give two examples of chemical and physical changes each.

3. List three differences between physical and chemical changes

WEEK 8

Topic: Crude Oil and Petrochemicals

Learning Objectives: by the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

Explain the terms crude oil and petrochemicals;

Describe the process of refining crude oil;

State the uses of crude oil and petrochemicals;

State the importance of crude oil to Nigeria;

Name examples of materials made from petrochemicals.

CRUDE OIL

Crude oil is a dark brown liquid substance found under the ground or sea. It is
locked up between rocks several meters under the ground. Crude oil cannot come
out of the rock on its own and cannot be seen from the surface of the earth.
That’s why some scientists are trained to search for oil. The search for oil is called
oil exploration. Oil companies do employ special scientists called geophysicists
who are experts in geology and physics.
During oil exploration, geophysicists make use of special equipment to send
signals to the rocks in the depth of the ground or sea to get some signals from the
depths. These signals are used by geoscientists to examine the structure of the
layers of the rocks which they used to identify the presence of crude oil. The
presence of oil is confirmed by drilling with the aid of equipment called drilling
rig. Strong pipes joined end to end are driven by the drilling rig down into the
ground to reach the oil. As the pipes touch the oil, natural gas comes out first
through the pipes. This is the gas used for cooking. Later, the main oil comes up
through the pipe. From the pipes, it is sent through other pipes to oil storage
tanks. The process of bringing out oil from the underground rocks is called oil
production. What comes out from oil drilling is called petroleum or rock.

Oil is found in many countries of the world such as Europe, America, Middle East
and Asia. Nigeria is one of the major producers of oil in the world. Oil is found in
many parts of Nigeria especially the Niger-Delta areas. I Nigeria, Oil was first
discovered in Oloigbiri oil field in Ogbia local government area of Bayelsa State.
Oil is the major source of income in Nigeria.

CRUDE OIL AND PETROCHEMICALS.

Definition

Crude oil can be defined as the liquid form of unrefined petroleum. It is a dark
brown or greenish flammable liquid. It consists of a complex mixture of various
hydrocarbons that differ in appearance, composition and purity. Crude oil also
contains small particles of minerals such as sulphur and metals. Other forms of
petroleum are natural gas which is stored in cylinders and used for cooking and
bitumen used for tarrying roads.

PETROCHEMICALS

Petrochemicals are chemical compounds which are derived from the refining of
petroleum. For example, methane is a refinery product which is used to produce
carbon black and gas. Other examples are ethane and propene, plastics such as
polythene, synthetic fibres (nylon), rubber, etc; detergent; chemicals used for
manufacturing of paints, medicine, insecticides, selective weed killers.
REFINING OF CRUDE OIL

We discussed earlier that crude oil produced from underground rocks is piped
straight into oil storage tanks. From the storage tanks, crude oil is transported
into its components. Since crude oil is a mixture, a physical method of separation
is used. This method is called fractional distillation.

The fundamental process in the refinery that separates crude oil into its
components is the fractional distillation. Reason being that crude oil components
have different boiling points. The refining process therefore involves fractional
distillation of crude oil fractions, purification and conversion of the fractions into
more useful products.

STEPS INVOLVE IN FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

Heating the crude oil in gas furnace at a high temperature of 500 degrees
centigrades to 600 degrees centigrade by passing it through heating pipes in the
gas furnace.

The vapour is passed into a tall fractionating tower, the temperature of which
varies from 400 Centigrades at the bottom to 40 degree centigrades at the top.

Fractions of the crude oil are collected from the different temperature levels in
the trays of the tower. Each tray contains several bubble caps through which the
vapour with similar boiling temperature pass and condense. The most volatile
components are found in the upper part of the tower, while viscous and solid
components are collected at the bottom of the tower.

PRODUCTS OR FRACTIONS OBTAINED AFTER FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF

CRUDE OIL AND THEIR USES

Crude oil is quite different from the petrol and oil used in vehicles. Petrol is just a
fraction obtained from crude oil. The following are fractions from crude oil:

Petroleum gas or refined gas. This fraction is obtained at the uppermost part of
the tower. It is the product with the least boiling point.

USES
a. It is sold as cooking gas

b. It serves as source of other chemicals.

2. Petrol or gasoline: This product is the second with relatively high temperature
range and a number of carbon constituent than the refinery gas.

USES: It is a major source of fuel for internal combustion engine.

3. Naphtha: This product has a higher number of carbon atams per molecules
than petrol and is usually further refined to get petrol.
USES:

a. It is used as chemical feed stock.

b. It is refined to give more gasoline.

4. Kerosene or paraffin oil: This product has higher viscosity than both gasoline
and naphtha. It also contains higher number of carbon than gasoline and naphtha.

USES:

a. It is used as heating and lighting oil.

b. It can also be used to produce gasoline.

5. Heavy gas oil: This is usually coloured and more viscous than light gas.

USES

a. It s used as fuel for slow speed engines such as diesel engine.

b. Can be used to produce gasoline.

6. Light gas: This include diesel oil or gas oil. It is a viscous product.

USES:

a. Used as heating oil.

b. It is used in high speed diesel engine.

7. Lubricating oil, fuel oil and bitumen: These are thick and nonvolatile products.
They are referred to as residues.
USES:

a. It serves as lubricant.

b. It is used in the production of candles and waxes.

c. It is useful in road surfacing.

d. It is also used for roofing.

USES OF PETROCHEMICALS

Petrochemicals are used as raw materials for industrial production of essential

materials such as:

Raw materials for the production of polymers (plastics); paints; synthetic rubber
and textiles.

Fertilizers

Pesticides

Good additives

Detergents

Cosmetics.

IMPORTANCE OF CRUDE OIL AND PETROCHEMICALS

They are sources of revenue

Sources of energy

Products and sources of industrial raw materials, thus making most industries
functional.

ASSESSMENT

Done studying? Use the questions below to test your learning progress!
1. What do you understand by the terms crude oil and petrochemicals.
2. Describe the process of refining crude oil.
3. State the uses of crude oil and petrochemicals.

4. State the importance of crude oil and petrochemicals to your country if you are
from oil producing country.
5. State the importance of crude oil to Nigeria.
6. Name examples of materials made from petrochemicals.