Research Methods in Education (EDRM 3211)

Unit 4: Sampling and Data Collection Methods

4.1. The concept of Sampling

4.2. Defining the population and sample
4.3. Characteristics of a good sampling design
4.4. Types of Sampling
4.5. Sampling errors and sampling bias
4.6. Sample size determination
4.7. Data gathering tools
4.7.1. Questionaries
4.7.2. Interview
4.7.3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
4.7.4. Observation
4.7.5. Document Analysis
4.7.6. Tests and Inventories

4.1. The concept of Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger defined target group of
elements such that the information gathered from the small group will allow judgments to be made about
the larger groups.
ELEMENTS OF SAMPLING
A single unit of study is referred to as an element of population. When we select a group of elements for the
purpose of study of a particular phenomenon, we refer to that group of elements as a sample. The aggregate of
all the elements that conform to some defined set of definitions is called population.
RATIONALE FOR SAMPLING
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLE SURVEY There are important advantages of a sample survey over a complete
enumeration - or census method. Some of these advantages are mentioned below
. i) Practicability Sometimes, a census may not be practicable due to the enormity of the task required in the
collection of data of a large population In such a situation, a sample survey may be quite practicable.
ii) Speed This may be an important advantage, particularly, when the information is urgently needed.
iii) Accuracy In any survey, census or sample, the required information is obtained by filling in the questionnaires.
It has been observed that more accurate results are achieved when the investigators~~ themselves fill in the
questionnaire instead of the respondents filling it.
iv) Cost It is obvious that a sample survey results in less expenditure than a complete enumeration. After all, in a
survey only part of the population is involved. The cost components of an inquiry are: a) Overhead cost of the
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organization conducting the survey, b) Cost of collecting the data, c) Cost of processing and tabulating the data,
and d) Cost of publication of results of the survey.

QUALITIES OF GOOD SAMPLING

A good sampling plan carries the assurance that our sample estimates will not differ from the corresponding true
population parameters by, say, more than 5 percent; or the estimates will be correct within the limit of 5 per cent
(commonly known as "margin of error" or "limit of accuracy") or 95 percent of the time (commonly termed as
the "probability" or "confidence level"). Alternatively, we'can say that a good sampling procedure is one, which
produces results within the limits of one per cent 99 per cent of the time.

4.2. Defining the population and sample

Population and Census

We have a collection of units relevant to a particular inquiry. A unit, in this connection, is an entity on which we
can make observations according to a well-defined procedure. The entire collection of such units is called a
population or universe. Thus, we may have a population of human beings, cattle, trees, prices, production, etc. You
can make out that a population can be finite or infinite. If the number of units is finite, it is a finite population and
if the number of units is infinite, it is an example of an infinite population. Usually in practice, we are concerned
with a finite population. When an inquiry is based on obtaining information from all the units of a population, the
procedure is known as the complete enumeration method or the census method.
Sample and Sample Survey
When we have a collection of a part or section of the population, it is called a sample. A census, as we have seen
earlier, is based upon obtaining information hm every member of the population. However, to obtain information
about certain characteristics of the population, we need not always resort to a census. In practice, we get quite
satisfactory results by studying an appropriate sample from the population. The procedure of obtaining a sample
is known as a sample survey. In the case. Of a census, we examine the entire population; on the other hand, when
we take a sample, we consider a representative fraction of the population and use the sample information to infer
about the entire population.

4.3. Characteristics of a good sampling design

1. Representative Samples good sample design should ensure that the sample is representative of the
population. The sample should accurately reflect the characteristics of the population, such as age, gender,
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income, and education. A representative sample ensures that the research findings are generalizable to
the population.
2. Adequate Sample Size
A good sample design should have an adequate sample size to ensure that the research findings are
reliable and accurate. The sample size should be large enough to minimize the risk of sampling error and
ensure that the research findings are generalizable to the population.
3. Random Sampling
Random sampling is a crucial aspect of a good sample design. Random sampling ensures that every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. Random sampling
reduces the risk of sampling bias and ensures that the research findings are generalizable to the
population.
4. Sampling Frame
A good sample design should have a well-designed sampling frame. The sampling frame is a list of
individuals or units in the population. The sampling frame should be complete, up-to-date, and accurate.
A well-designed sampling frame ensures that the sample is representative of the population.
5. Appropriate Sampling Technique
A good sample design should use appropriate sampling techniques that are relevant to the research
question and objectives. The sampling technique should be appropriate for the population, sample size,
and research methodology. Appropriate sampling techniques, such as stratified sampling, cluster
sampling, or simple random sampling, ensure that the research findings are reliable and accurate.

Important points to sampling design

 While developing a sample design, the researcher must pay attention to the following
points.
Type of universe:
 The first step in developing any sample design is to define the universe. The universe can
be finite or infinite.
 In finite universe, the number of items is certain.
 Examples can be the population of a city, the number of workers in a factory, etc.
 In infinite universe, the number of items is infinite.
 Examples for an infinite universe can be listeners of a specific radio program, number of
stars in the sky, etc.

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Sampling Unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample.
 Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as district, kebele, village, etc.,
 A social unit such as family, school, etc., or it may be an individual.
Source list: It contains the names of all items of a universe (for finite universe). A source list
should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.
Size of sample:
 The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
 A researcher must take in to consideration
 the size of population variance,
 the parameter of interest in the research study, and
 budgetary constraint.
Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of
the specific population parameters which are of interest.

The characteristics of a good sample design to ensure that the sample is representative of the population
and that the research findings are generalizable to the population.

4.4. Types of Sampling/ Sample designs/

Sample designs are basically of two types:
1. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection,
There are two methods of sampling: probability and non-probability. Probability refers to the "chance " of being
included in the sample.
 The essential characteristic of probability sampling is that one can specify for each population element the
chance of being included in the sample. In the simplest case, each of the elements has the same probability
of being included, but this is not a necessary condition. Each element must have some specific chance that
it will be included.
 Major types of probability sampling are: simple random sampling, systematic random sampling , stratified
random sampling and cluster sampling.
a) Simple Random Sampling
 Simple Random sampling needs a ‘sampling frame’ or a ‘sampling unit’, i.e. complete and
up-to-date list of all members of the population.
 Simple random sampling gives: each element in the population has an equal probability of
getting into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another
 each possible sample combination has an equal probability of being chosen.
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Example If a finite population consists of 4 elements (say a, b, c, d) i.e. N=4.

 Suppose that we want to take a sample of n=2 from it.
 Then there are possible distinct samples of the required size, and they consist of the
elements ab, ac, ad, bc, bd, and cd.
 If we choose one of these samples in such a way that each has a probability 1/6 of being
chosen,
 we will then call this a random sample.
 With regard to how to take a random sample, we can use a lottery method. This verifies our
earlier calculation.
 Another method of selecting random samples is to use random number tables.

(b) Systematic Random Sampling

 An element of randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. The following steps will help:
a) Assign a sequence number to each member of the population.
b) Determine the skip interval by dividing the number of units in the population by the
sample size. I=P/S where I is skipping interval, P is population size, and S is sample size.
c) Select a starting point in a random digit table (it must be between 1 and I).
th
d) include that item in a sample and select every i item there after until total sample has
been selected.
Example
 if we want to take 20 samples from a population of 100 members,
 our skip interval is 5 (i.e 100/20).
 Our starting point must be selected randomly from the interval 1 to 5.
 Then every fifth item will be our sample.
 If our starting point is 2, then our sample must include members with sequence numbers of
2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 25, …, 97.

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 The advantage of this sampling technique is the samples will spread evenly over the entire
population. It is also an easier and less costly method of sampling and can be conveniently
used even in case of large populations.
( c ) Stratified sampling:
 If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling is generally applied.
 The basic steps for stratified sampling are:
 Divide the population to be surveyed in to strata of similar study units or into areas with
which similar social, environmental, or economic conditions exist.
 Make a separate and complete list of the stratum and from each stratum draw a separate
random sample of study units using these lists.
 A similar survey is then done on the sample of study units in each of the strata i.e. the same
questionnaire is used.
Advantages of stratified sampling are:
 (i) more reliable information is obtained for the same sample size if the population is
stratified than they are for the population as a whole.
 (ii) Comparisons between strata are easy. This is so because a separate but similar survey is
done in each stratum.
Example

Suppose we want to take a sample of size n=30 to be drawn from a population of size N=800 which
is divided into three strata of size N =400, N =240, and N =160. (Proportionate Sampling design)
1 2 3

The sample size for stratum with N =400 is n =30(400/800) =15.

1 1

The sample size for stratum with N =240 is n =30(240/800) =9.

2 2

 The sample size for stratum with N =160 is n =30(160/800) =6.

3 3

 In cases where strata differ not only in size but also in variability and is considered
reasonable to take larger samples from the more variable strata and smaller samples from
the less variable strata,
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( d ) Cluster sampling:
 If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample can
be taken is to divide the area in to a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then to
randomly select a number of these smaller areas (clusters), with the ultimate sample
consisting of all units in these small areas or clusters.
 In cluster sampling, the total population is divided into a number of relatively small
subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of these
clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample.

Example
 For illustration, consider the following are the number of departmental stores in 10 cities:
35, 17, 10, 32, 80, 18, 26, 19, 26, and 57. If we want to select a sample of 8 stores, using
cities as clusters and selecting within clusters proportional to size, how many stores from
each city should be chosen?
 (Use a starting point of 8)
Comparison of probability sampling designs

Design Random selection Other characteristics

Simple random Sample members Each population element has an equal chance of being
sampling individually from the selected
population Disadv.-requires a listing of population elements, -is
expensive, and requires more time to implement

Systematic The initial sample Designation of the initial sample member determines the
sampling member is individually entire sample.
selected Disadv. –periodicity within the population may skew the
sample and the results

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Stratified Sample members All strata are represented in the sample most frequently by
individually within proportional allocation
each of the Disadv. –creating strata on the population is expensive
subpopulations or strata
Cluster Clusters of members All members of a selected cluster are included in the sample
sampling selected from the larger Not all clusters are included
population of clusters Disadv. –often lower statistical efficiency (more error) due to
subgroups being homogeneous rather than heterogeneous

2. Non- Probability Sampling techniques

 If the economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied,
 A few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle
that they can be representative of the entire state.
 Thus, the judgment of the organizers of the study plays an important part in this sampling
design.
 In such a design, the personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of
the sample.
 Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias, great
or small, is always there.
a) Judgment (purposive) sampling –

The researcher uses his judgment to select people that he feels are representative of the population
to have a particular expertise or knowledge that makes them suitable.
b) Convenience (accidental) sampling -
 the most convenience population is chosen, which may be the researcher's friends, work
colleagues, or students from a nearby college. This method is often used to save time and
resources.
c) Quota sampling - The researcher selects a predetermined number of individuals from different group
(i.e. based on age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status. Etc).
 This is perhaps the most popular non-probability sampling method used.

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 Quota sampling is useful when a particular group or characteristic is relatively rare in the
population.
 For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal
representation, with a sample size of 100, he may select 25 1st year students, another 25
2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students.
d) Snowball (Referral) Sampling: this is a non-probability sampling technique which utilizes some form
of referral, wherein respondents who are initially contacted are asked to supply the names and addresses
of members of the target population.

Combinations of Probability and Non-probability Sampling

If sampling is carried out in a series of stages, it is, of course, possible to combine probability and non-probability
sampling in one design. That is, one or more of the stages can be carried out according to probability sampling
principles and the balance by non-probability principles.

4.5. Sampling errors and sampling bias

While selecting a sampling procedure, the researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively
small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias.
Sampling Errors: are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population parameters
Sampling error includes systematic error and random error.
Systematic error occurs when the sample is not properly drawn (an error of the researcher).
Random error is the degree to which the sample is not perfectly representative of the population. Even
with the best sampling techniques, some degree of random error is expected
Systematic bias: results from errors in the sampling procedures.
A Systematic Bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:
a.. Inappropriate sampling frame
b. Defective measuring device \
c. non-respondents
d. Indeterminacy principle
e. natural bias in the reporting of data
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Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample The measurement of sampling error is usually
called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’.
–If we increase the sample size, the precision can be improved.
–But increasing the size of the sample has its own limitations viz., a large sized sample increases the cost of
collecting data and also enhances the systematic bias.
–Thus, the effective way to increase precision is usually to select a better sampling design which has a smaller
sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost.
4.6. Sample size determination
Sample size’ is a market research term used to define the number of individuals included in the research.
Researchers choose their sample based on demographics, such as age, gender, or physical location. The
term can be vague or specific.
Sample size determination is choosing the correct number of observations or people from a larger group
to use in a sample. The goal of figuring out the sample size is to ensure that the sample is big enough to
give statistically valid results and accurate estimates of population parameters but small enough to be
manageable and cost-effective.
Choosing the statistically significant sample size depends on several things, such as the size of the
population, how precise you want your estimates to be, how confident you want to be in the results, how
different the population is likely to be, and how much money and time you have for the study. Statistics
are often used to determine a sample size for a certain type of study and research question.

Sample Size Calculation- Population is infinite

 n: the desired sample size

 z: the standard normal deviate usually set at 1.96 (which corresponds to the 95%
confidence level)
 p: the proportion in the target population to have a specific characteristic. If
no estimate is available set it at 50% (or 0.50)
 q:1-p
d: absolute precision or accuracy, normally set at 0.05

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Sample size calculation when population is finite – Confidence level approach

If the target population is finite, to calculate the required sample size of respondents (n) from a target
population the researcher can use the formula n= N/1+N(e) ² at a significant level (e=5%) to determine
sample size as it was proposed by Israel (2009).
Where N= population size e= standard error (significant level usually 5%)
n= sample size

4.7. Data Gathering Tools

When choosing whether to collect quantitative or qualitative data, the following factors need to be
considered:
1. The purpose for which the data is required: quantitative data is necessary if one
requires a high degree of precision or wants to perform statistical analysis, while qualitative
data is useful for providing a detailed or vivid impression of the issue or characteristic
concerned.
2. The subject matter: some kinds of subject matter are relatively easily presented in
numerical form, while others tend to be more appropriately presented in qualitative form.
3. The method of data collection: the collection of quantitative data is based on statistically
designed survey procedures, while the collection of qualitative data relies primarily on
detailed observation or interview.
4. The method of data presentation: qualitative data can often be ‘translated’ into a
quantitative form if it can be ‘scaled’ in some way; for example, information on attitudes
can be grouped into categories (eg strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly
disagree) which can then be subjected to statistical analysis.

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Types of Data
 Primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time, and thus happen
to be original in character.
 Its advantage is its relevance to the user, but it is also likely to be expensive in time and
money terms to collect.
 Secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process.
 It is information extracted from an existing source, probably published or held on a
computer database.

4.7.1. Questionaries

This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions and prompts
to receive a response from the individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are designed to collect
data from a group.

For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn’t a survey, rather it forms a part of it. A survey
is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data collection methods, including a questionnaire.

On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale, and open-
ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of the research.

Pros of Questionnaire

 Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective.

 It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
 Easy to visualize and analyze.
 Questionnaires offer actionable data.
 Respondent identity is protected.
 Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic.
 Relatively inexpensive.
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Cons of Questionnaire

 Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway.

 Questionnaires can’t produce qualitative data.
 Questions might be left unanswered.
 Respondents may have n agenda.
 Not all questions can be analyzed easily

What is a good questionnaire?

1. A questionnaire should be such that it can be analyzed.

2. The questionnaires should begin with an effort to awaken the respondents’ interest.
Important target questions should be asked in the middle of the opinion survey.
3. Early questions should be simple in design, friendly, and easy to respond to; on the other
hand; they should convey the theme of the study to the respondent.
4. All the questions related to the personal information (name, income, phone, address, etc)
of the respondents should be either optional or asked in the last section of the questionnaires.
5. Open-ended questions should be placed in the later part of the questionnaire and
deliberately kept to the minimum.
6. A pilot test should be conducted to detect the weaknesses in the questionnaires designed.

4.7.2. Interview

An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of collecting
relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. Interviews are of different types namely; Structured,
Semi-structured, and unstructured with each having a slight variation from the other.

Use this interview consent form template to let an interviewee give you consent to use data gotten from
your interviews for investigative research purposes.

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 Structured Interviews – Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In terms of

depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period. For speed and efficiency,
it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
 Semi-structured Interviews – In this method, there subsist several key questions which cover
the scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the researcher to explore
the subject matter.
 Unstructured Interviews – It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to collect a wide
range of information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the freedom it gives a
researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is more time-consuming.

Pros of Interview

 In-depth information
 Freedom of flexibility
 Accurate data.

Cons of Interview

 Time-consuming
 Expensive to collect.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Interviews?

For collecting data through interviews, here are a few tools you can use to easily collect data.

 Audio Recorder

An audio recorder is used for recording sound on disc, tape, or film. Audio information can meet the
needs of a wide range of people, as well as provide alternatives to print data collection tools.

 Digital Camera

An advantage of a digital camera is that it can be used for transmitting those images to a monitor screen
when the need arises.

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4.7.3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

The opposite of quantitative research which involves numerical-based data, this data collection method
focuses more on qualitative research. It falls under the primary category for data based on the feelings
and opinions of the respondents. This research involves asking open-ended questions to a group of
individuals usually ranging from 6-10 people, to provide feedback.

Pros of FGD

 Information obtained is usually very detailed.

 Cost-effective when compared to one-on-one interviews.
 It reflects speed and efficiency in the supply of results.

Cons of FGD

 Lacking depth in covering the nitty-gritty of a subject matter.

 Bias might still be evident.
 Requires interviewer training
 The researcher has very little control over the outcome.
 A few vocal voices can drown out the rest.
 Difficulty in assembling an all-inclusive group.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Focus Groups?

A focus group is a data collection method that is tightly facilitated and structured around a set of
questions. The purpose of the meeting is to extract from the participants’ detailed responses to these
questions. The best tools for tackling Focus groups are:

 Two-Way – One group watches another group answer the questions posed by the moderator.
After listening to what the other group has to offer, the group that listens are able to facilitate
more discussion and could potentially draw different conclusions.

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 Dueling-Moderator – Two moderators play the devil’s advocate. The main positive of the
dueling-moderator focus group is to facilitate new ideas by introducing new ways of thinking and
varying viewpoints.

4.7.4. Observation

This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered through observation.
The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a complete observer, an observer as a
participant, a participant as an observer, or as a complete participant. This method is a key base for
formulating a hypothesis.

 Observation is the most commonly used method of data collection especially, in behavioral
studies.
 This method could be used both for cross checking information obtained using other
methods and for understanding processes which are difficult to grasp in an interview
context.
 This method is useful when studying subjects who are not capable of giving verbal reports
of their feelings for one reason or another.

Types of observation:

 Structured observation: the observer has a clear definition of the units to be observed, the
style of recording the observed information, the selection of the pertinent data of
observation, etc.
 Non-structured observation: the opposite of what is mentioned under structured
observation
 Depending on the nature of the observer, we can classify observations into three basic
forms:
 Secretive - where the subjects of the study are unaware that they are being observed
 Non-participant: where the subjects of the study are aware that they are being observed
but the observer takes no part in the behavior being observed.
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 Participant: when the subject and the observer interact.

Pros of observation

 Easy to administer.
 There subsists a greater accuracy with results.
 It is a universally accepted practice.
 It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to administer a report.
 It is appropriate for certain situations.

Cons of Observation

 Some phenomena aren’t open to observation.

 It cannot be relied upon.
 Bias may arise.
 It is expensive to administer.
 Its validity cannot be predicted accurately.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Observation?

Observation involves the active acquisition of information from a primary source. Observation can also
involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The best tools for
Observation are:

 Checklists – state-specific criteria, allow users to gather information and make judgments about
what they should know in relation to the outcomes. They offer systematic ways of collecting
data about specific behaviors, knowledge, and skills.
 Direct observation – This is an observational study method of collecting evaluative
information. The evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment without altering
that environment.

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4.7.5. Document Analysis

 Different Central Statistical Authority Publications;
 Different Publications by Regional Governments;
 Various publications by the different Ministries;
 Publications of the National Bank of Ethiopia;
 On-line and Electronic Data Bases;
 Reports and publications of various associations, business organizations, etc
 Various publications of international, multilateral and non-governmental Organizations;
 Report of research scholars and consultants;
 Historical documents, archives, maps, photographs, letters, biographies, autobiographies,
diaries, textbooks, periodicals)
 Popular media (Newspapers, magazines, Radio and television

4.7.6. Tests and Inventories

Tests
A test is a systematic procedure for observing a person’s behavior and describing it with the help of a numerical
scale. The test helps get quantitative data. It is essentially an objective and standardized measure of a sample of
behavior. Psychological tests that are available in research cells or departments are standardized. Teacher-made
tests are non-standardized tests. Types of Tests are classified in different ways based on their function, nature,
and procedure of administration and are presented here under.

A. Classification of the Tests as per their Function

(i) Educational Tests - Certain types of tests are developed for use in educational contexts. They include
achievement tests and diagnostic tests. Achievement tests are designed to measure the effects of a specific
programme of instruction or training. It measures the effects of relatively standardized sets of learning
experiences.
(ii) Personality Tests -These tests most often refer to measures of affective aspects of behaviors such as emotional
states, interpersonal relations, motivation, interests, and attitudes. A personality test could be a self-report
inventory, a situational test or another approach could be the application of projective technique.
(iii) Aptitude Tests -These measure the effects of learning under relatively (in comparison with achievement
tests) uncontrolled and unknown conditions. They include general intelligence tests, multiple-aptitude batteries,
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special aptitude tests (e.g. creativity tests) etc.

B. Classification of the Tests as per their Nature
(i) Speed Tests are those tests which contain such items which are of somewhat equal difficulty value. To solve
the tests the time limits are fixed. e.g. our usual school/college tests.
(ii) Power tests are those tests which contain items of different difficulty value arranged in increasing order of
difficulty value . For such tests time limit is not fixed, it is flexible.
(iii) Verbal Tests include question answer pattern in the form of ‘words’. Such verbal tests can be either paper
pencil (written) tests or oral tests. (iv) Non-verbal Tests necessarily contain items in the figural or symbolic
form i.e. other than ‘words’. Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test is a non-verbal test.
(v) Performance Tests require action on part of the respondent as his/her response. Bhatia’s Intelligence test is
a performance test.
(vi) Standardized Tests imply uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring the tests. Another
important aspect of standardized tests is the establishment of norms, reliability and the validity of the tests.
(vii) Criterion Referenced Tests have been contrasted with the usual normreferenced tests in which an
individual’s score is interpreted by comparing it with the scores obtained by others in the group on the same
test. Unlike in a norm-referenced test, in a criterion referenced test an individual’s score is interpreted by
comparing it with an external criterion.
C. Classification of Tests as per the Procedure of Administration
(i) Group Tests are designed as mass testing instruments. They permit the simultaneous testing/examination of
large groups. The instruction and administration procedures are simplified so as to demand a minimum of
training on the part of the test administrator/examiner
(ii) Individual Tests are those which can be administered to one individual at a time. In view of the testing
situation including response in the form of actual performance, the observer can record the entries in the
performance sheet for one candidate at a time
Inventories
An inventory is like a questionnaire. In the inventory, the statements are put in first person, for example, “I
think I am comparatively more sincere than others”. In the questionnaire, there is a question in a second person,
for example “Do you think you are more sincere than other persons?”
Advantages 1. Used in educational and vocational guidance.
2. Useful for teachers to find out the interest of learners/students.
3. Inventories are comparatively economic.
4. They are simple to construct.
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 Research Methods in Education (EDRM 3211)

5. Objectivity can be maintained.

6. Not much training is required to administer it.
Limitations 1. These instruments may be of limited value because of individuals’ inability or unwillingness to
report their own reactions accurately or objectively.
2. It is difficult to standardize inventories, which limits its usage

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