notes

gogoi ankurx
February 2025

(a) Which experiment established the fact that electric charge is quantized?
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment established that electric charge is quantized.
(b) What is the unit of mobility?
The unit of mobility () is m²V¹s¹ (meter² per volt-second).
(c) The force acting between two parallel wires of length 10m carrying a
current of 1A through each of them and placed 1m apart in a vacuum will be?
Using the formula:
F = µ0 I1 I2 2πd×L
F = 4π10−7 11 2π110
= 2 × 10−6 N
(d) Fill in the expression: Wb = m
Weber (Wb) = Tesla (T) × m²
(e) If the radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom is m, what is the radius
of the third orbit?
The radius of an orbit in a hydrogen atom is given by:
rn = n2 r1
r3 = 32 × 5.3 × 10−11
= 4.77 ×10−10 m
(f) State Snell’s law of refraction of light.
Snell’s law:
It states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction is constant.
(g) How is a wavefront defined?
A wavefront is an imaginary surface connecting all points that vibrate in
phase with the same wave disturbance.
(h) ICs can be grouped into two categories. What are they?
Analog ICs and Digital ICs.
—
2. (2 × 10 = 20 Marks) (Each answer in 2 marks)
(a) State two basic properties of electrostatics.
1. Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
2. Electric charge is conserved, meaning the total charge in a system remains
constant.
(b) What is the electric polarization vector? Define electric susceptibility.

1
 Electric polarization vector (P): It is the dipole moment per unit volume of
a dielectric material.
Electric susceptibility (): It is a measure of how easily a dielectric becomes
polarized when placed in an electric field.
(c) What is a potentiometer? Would you prefer a voltmeter or a potentiome-
ter to measure EMF?
Potentiometer is a device used to measure potential differences accurately.
A potentiometer is preferred over a voltmeter as it does not draw current
from the circuit, giving an accurate EMF reading.
(d) Derive the expression for the magnetic force acting on a current-carrying
straight conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field and express it in vector
form.
Formula:
F = I (L ×B)
Derivation: (Detailed 5-mark derivation in question 4.)
(e) What is alternating current? Describe.
Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that reverses direction peri-
odically.
Its general form is:
I = I0 sin ωt
(f) Establish the lens maker’s formula for a biconvex lens.
Formula:
1 1 1


f =(n−1) R1 −R
2
Derivation: (Detailed 5-mark derivation in question 4.)
(g) What determines the intensity of light in the photon picture of light?
The number of photons per unit area per second determines the intensity of
light.
(h) State two laws of photoelectric emission.
1. The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of inci-
dent light.
2. There exists a threshold frequency below which no photoemission occurs.
(i) Discuss conductors and insulators in terms of the energy gap.
Conductors: Have a small or negligible energy gap between the valence and
conduction bands, allowing free electron flow.
Insulators: Have a large energy gap, preventing electron movement.
(j) What is nuclear fission and fusion? Name one moderator used in nuclear
reactions.
Nuclear fission: Splitting of a heavy nucleus into smaller nuclei with energy
release.
Nuclear fusion: Combining of lighter nuclei into a heavier nucleus with en-
ergy release.
Moderator: Graphite or heavy water.
Here are the answers to your 3-mark questions, following the correct format.
—

2
 (a) A parallel plate capacitor has plate separation ”d” and the area of each
plate is ”A”. The space between the plates is completely filled with a dielectric
of constant K. Derive the expression for the capacitance of the parallel plate
capacitor.
Definition:
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is defined as the charge stored
per unit potential difference applied across the plates. When a dielectric medium
of dielectric constant is introduced, the capacitance increases.
Derivation:
For a parallel plate capacitor with plate area and separation , the capacitance
in vacuum is given by:
C0 = ε0dA
When a dielectric medium with dielectric constant is introduced, the per-
mittivity becomes . Therefore, the new capacitance is:
C = K ε0 A d
Since , we see that the capacitance increases when a dielectric is present.
Explanation:
The dielectric material increases the ability of the capacitor to store charge.
The higher the value of , the greater the capacitance.
—
(b) Apply Gauss’s law to derive the expression for electric field intensity due
to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire. What is the direction of
the field intensity if it is positively charged?
Definition:
Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is
equal
H to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space:
E · dS = qenc
ε0
Derivation:
Consider an infinitely long straight wire with a uniform charge density
(charge per unit length). We use a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius and
length . The total charge enclosed by the surface is:
qenc = λl
By
H Gauss’s λllaw:
E · dS = ε0
Since the electric field is radial and symmetric, for a cylindrical surface, the
total surface area is , so:
E(2πrl) = ελl0
Cancelling from both sides:
E = λ 2πε0 r
Direction of Field:
If the wire is positively charged, the field intensity points radially outward.
If the wire is negatively charged, the field intensity points radially inward.
—
(c) In the meter bridge, the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm from
A. When a resistance of 12 is connected in parallel with S, the null point shifts
to 48.1 cm from B. Determine the values of R and S.

3
 Given Data:
First balance point: 33.7 cm from A
Second balance point: 48.1 cm from B
Parallel resistance: 12
Step 1: Use the Meter Bridge Formula
For a meter bridge:
R l1
S= 100−l
1
For the first case:
R S= 33.7 = 33.7
100−33.7 66.3
For the second case (when 12 is in parallel with S, effective resistance ):
S’ = 12S 12+S
The new ratio is:
R S ′ = 48.1 = 48.1
100−48.1 51.9
Step 2: Solve for and
Solving these two equations will give the values of R and S.
—
(d) Describe the action of a transistor as a switch with the help of a circuit
diagram.
Definition:
A transistor switch operates by switching between cutoff mode (OFF state)
and saturation mode (ON state). It is widely used in digital circuits and micro-
controllers.
Working Principle:
1. Cutoff Region (OFF State):
The base-emitter voltage is less than 0.7V (for silicon transistor).
No current flows, and the transistor acts as an open switch.
2. Saturation Region (ON State):
The base-emitter voltage is greater than 0.7V.
The transistor conducts fully, acting as a closed switch.
Circuit Diagram:
(Diagram of a transistor switch circuit where a transistor controls a bulb or
LED based on the base input voltage.)
Explanation:
When the base current is supplied, the transistor switches ON and allows
current through the collector-emitter path.
When the base current is removed, the transistor switches OFF.
—
(e) Draw the ray diagram for the formation of an image by a compound
microscope. What is its magnification?
Definition:
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses:
Objective lens (short focal length, placed near the object).
Eyepiece lens (magnifies the image formed by the objective).
Ray Diagram:

4
 (Diagram showing the objective lens forming a real, inverted image near the
focal point of the eyepiece, which then magnifies the image.)
Magnification Formula:
The total magnification of a compound microscope is:
M = Mo × Me
where,
Mo = uvoo , Me = fDe
where and are object and image distances for the objective, and is the focal
length of the eyepiece.
—
(f) In an orbit of radius R, an electron moves around a proton with uniform
circular velocity. Derive the gyromagnetic ratio of the electron and define Bohr
magneton.
Definition:
The gyromagnetic ratio is the ratio of the magnetic moment to the angular
momentum of a charged particle in motion.
Derivation:
The magnetic moment of an electron orbiting in a circular path is given by:
µ = evR2
The angular momentum is:
L = me vR
Dividing both, the gyromagnetic ratio is:
µ e
γ=L = 2m e
Bohr Magneton:
The Bohr magneton is the smallest unit of magnetic moment, given by:
eh̄
µB = 2m e
where is the reduced Planck’s constant.
Here are the remaining 3-mark answers in the correct format:
—
(g) (i) In a circuit, current decreases from 5A to 0A in 0.1s. If the average
induced e.m.f is 200V, calculate the self-inductance of the circuit and write its
unit.
Formula Used:
The induced e.m.f. in a circuit due to self-inductance is given by:
E = -L dI dt
where,
(induced e.m.f.),
(change in current),
(time taken).
Calculation:
5
200 = L × 0.1
L = 200 ×0.1 5
L = 4H
Answer:
The self-inductance of the circuit is 4 henry (H).
—

5
 (g) (ii) A coil of area 5m² and number of turns 100 is placed perpendicular
to a magnetic field of 10T. The flux passing through it is Wb. If the coil is
removed from the field in 0.1s, calculate the induced e.m.f.
Formula Used:
The induced e.m.f. is given by Faraday’s Law:
E = -N dΦ dt
where,
(number of turns),
Wb (change in flux),
(time interval).
Calculation:
−3
E = -100 × 5×10 0.1
E = -5V
Answer:
The induced e.m.f. is 5V.
—
(h) Define electric dipole and dipole moment. Derive an expression for the
electric field intensity at a point on the axial line of an electric dipole.
Definition:
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges separated by a
small distance .
The dipole moment is given by:
p = q ·2a
It is a vector directed from negative to positive charge.
Derivation of Electric Field on Axial Line:
Consider a dipole placed along the x-axis with charges and separated by
distance . The field at a point P at distance from the center is given by:
E = 1 4πε · 2p
0
r3
where is the dipole moment.
Conclusion:
The field on the axial line is inversely proportional to .
The field of a dipole decreases faster than a single charge ().
—
(i) What is the basic principle of a moving coil galvanometer? Derive an
expression for the current flowing through the galvanometer in terms of steady
angular deflection of its coil.
Principle:
A moving coil galvanometer works on the principle that a current-carrying
coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque that causes it to rotate. The
deflection of the coil is proportional to the current passing through it.
Derivation:
A coil of N turns and area A carrying current I in a magnetic field experiences
a torque:
τ = N BAI
The restoring torque due to the suspension wire is:

6
 τrestoring = Cθ
where is the torsional constant and is the deflection.
At equilibrium,
NBAI=Cθ
Solving for current:
I = C θ N BA
Conclusion:
The deflection is directly proportional to the current , making the galvanome-
ter useful for measuring small currents.]1. (1 × 8 = 8 Marks) (Each answer in
1 mark)
(a) Which experiment established the fact that electric charge is quantized?
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment established that electric charge is quantized.
(b) What is the unit of mobility?
The unit of mobility () is m²V¹s¹ (meter² per volt-second).
(c) The force acting between two parallel wires of length 10m carrying a
current of 1A through each of them and placed 1m apart in a vacuum will be?
Using the formula:
F = µ0 I1 I2 2πd×L
F = 4π10−7 11 2π110
= 2 × 10−6 N
(d) Fill in the expression: Wb = m
Weber (Wb) = Tesla (T) × m²
(e) If the radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom is m, what is the radius
of the third orbit?
The radius of an orbit in a hydrogen atom is given by:
rn = n2 r1
r3 = 32 × 5.3 × 10−11
= 4.77 ×10−10 m
(f) State Snell’s law of refraction of light.
Snell’s law:
It states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction is constant.
(g) How is a wavefront defined?
A wavefront is an imaginary surface connecting all points that vibrate in
phase with the same wave disturbance.
(h) ICs can be grouped into two categories. What are they?
Analog ICs and Digital ICs.
—
2. (2 × 10 = 20 Marks) (Each answer in 2 marks)
(a) State two basic properties of electrostatics.
1. Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
2. Electric charge is conserved, meaning the total charge in a system remains
constant.
(b) What is the electric polarization vector? Define electric susceptibility.

7
 Electric polarization vector (P): It is the dipole moment per unit volume of
a dielectric material.
Electric susceptibility (): It is a measure of how easily a dielectric becomes
polarized when placed in an electric field.
(c) What is a potentiometer? Would you prefer a voltmeter or a potentiome-
ter to measure EMF?
Potentiometer is a device used to measure potential differences accurately.
A potentiometer is preferred over a voltmeter as it does not draw current
from the circuit, giving an accurate EMF reading.
(d) Derive the expression for the magnetic force acting on a current-carrying
straight conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field and express it in vector
form.
Formula:
F = I (L ×B)
Derivation: (Detailed 5-mark derivation in question 4.)
(e) What is alternating current? Describe.
Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that reverses direction peri-
odically.
Its general form is:
I = I0 sin ωt
(f) Establish the lens maker’s formula for a biconvex lens.
Formula:
1 1 1


f =(n−1) R1 −R
2
Derivation: (Detailed 5-mark derivation in question 4.)
(g) What determines the intensity of light in the photon picture of light?
The number of photons per unit area per second determines the intensity of
light.
(h) State two laws of photoelectric emission.
1. The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of inci-
dent light.
2. There exists a threshold frequency below which no photoemission occurs.
(i) Discuss conductors and insulators in terms of the energy gap.
Conductors: Have a small or negligible energy gap between the valence and
conduction bands, allowing free electron flow.
Insulators: Have a large energy gap, preventing electron movement.
(j) What is nuclear fission and fusion? Name one moderator used in nuclear
reactions.
Nuclear fission: Splitting of a heavy nucleus into smaller nuclei with energy
release.
Nuclear fusion: Combining of lighter nuclei into a heavier nucleus with en-
ergy release.
Moderator: Graphite or heavy water.
Here are the answers to your 3-mark questions, following the correct format.
—

8
 (a) A parallel plate capacitor has plate separation ”d” and the area of each
plate is ”A”. The space between the plates is completely filled with a dielectric
of constant K. Derive the expression for the capacitance of the parallel plate
capacitor.
Definition:
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is defined as the charge stored
per unit potential difference applied across the plates. When a dielectric medium
of dielectric constant is introduced, the capacitance increases.
Derivation:
For a parallel plate capacitor with plate area and separation , the capacitance
in vacuum is given by:
C0 = ε0dA
When a dielectric medium with dielectric constant is introduced, the per-
mittivity becomes . Therefore, the new capacitance is:
C = K ε0 A d
Since , we see that the capacitance increases when a dielectric is present.
Explanation:
The dielectric material increases the ability of the capacitor to store charge.
The higher the value of , the greater the capacitance.
—
(b) Apply Gauss’s law to derive the expression for electric field intensity due
to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire. What is the direction of
the field intensity if it is positively charged?
Definition:
Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is
equal
H to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space:
E · dS = qenc
ε0
Derivation:
Consider an infinitely long straight wire with a uniform charge density
(charge per unit length). We use a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius and
length . The total charge enclosed by the surface is:
qenc = λl
By
H Gauss’s λllaw:
E · dS = ε0
Since the electric field is radial and symmetric, for a cylindrical surface, the
total surface area is , so:
E(2πrl) = ελl0
Cancelling from both sides:
E = λ 2πε0 r
Direction of Field:
If the wire is positively charged, the field intensity points radially outward.
If the wire is negatively charged, the field intensity points radially inward.
—
(c) In the meter bridge, the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm from
A. When a resistance of 12 is connected in parallel with S, the null point shifts
to 48.1 cm from B. Determine the values of R and S.

9
 Given Data:
First balance point: 33.7 cm from A
Second balance point: 48.1 cm from B
Parallel resistance: 12
Step 1: Use the Meter Bridge Formula
For a meter bridge:
R l1
S= 100−l
1
For the first case:
R S= 33.7 = 33.7
100−33.7 66.3
For the second case (when 12 is in parallel with S, effective resistance ):
S’ = 12S 12+S
The new ratio is:
R S ′ = 48.1 = 48.1
100−48.1 51.9
Step 2: Solve for and
Solving these two equations will give the values of R and S.
—
(d) Describe the action of a transistor as a switch with the help of a circuit
diagram.
Definition:
A transistor switch operates by switching between cutoff mode (OFF state)
and saturation mode (ON state). It is widely used in digital circuits and micro-
controllers.
Working Principle:
1. Cutoff Region (OFF State):
The base-emitter voltage is less than 0.7V (for silicon transistor).
No current flows, and the transistor acts as an open switch.
2. Saturation Region (ON State):
The base-emitter voltage is greater than 0.7V.
The transistor conducts fully, acting as a closed switch.
Circuit Diagram:
(Diagram of a transistor switch circuit where a transistor controls a bulb or
LED based on the base input voltage.)
Explanation:
When the base current is supplied, the transistor switches ON and allows
current through the collector-emitter path.
When the base current is removed, the transistor switches OFF.
—
(e) Draw the ray diagram for the formation of an image by a compound
microscope. What is its magnification?
Definition:
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses:
Objective lens (short focal length, placed near the object).
Eyepiece lens (magnifies the image formed by the objective).
Ray Diagram:

10
 (Diagram showing the objective lens forming a real, inverted image near the
focal point of the eyepiece, which then magnifies the image.)
Magnification Formula:
The total magnification of a compound microscope is:
M = Mo × Me
where,
Mo = uvoo , Me = fDe
where and are object and image distances for the objective, and is the focal
length of the eyepiece.
—
(f) In an orbit of radius R, an electron moves around a proton with uniform
circular velocity. Derive the gyromagnetic ratio of the electron and define Bohr
magneton.
Definition:
The gyromagnetic ratio is the ratio of the magnetic moment to the angular
momentum of a charged particle in motion.
Derivation:
The magnetic moment of an electron orbiting in a circular path is given by:
µ = evR2
The angular momentum is:
L = me vR
Dividing both, the gyromagnetic ratio is:
µ e
γ=L = 2m e
Bohr Magneton:
The Bohr magneton is the smallest unit of magnetic moment, given by:
eh̄
µB = 2m e
where is the reduced Planck’s constant.
Here are the remaining 3-mark answers in the correct format:
—
(g) (i) In a circuit, current decreases from 5A to 0A in 0.1s. If the average
induced e.m.f is 200V, calculate the self-inductance of the circuit and write its
unit.
Formula Used:
The induced e.m.f. in a circuit due to self-inductance is given by:
E = -L dI dt
where,
(induced e.m.f.),
(change in current),
(time taken).
Calculation:
5
200 = L × 0.1
L = 200 ×0.1 5
L = 4H
Answer:
The self-inductance of the circuit is 4 henry (H).
—

11
 (g) (ii) A coil of area 5m² and number of turns 100 is placed perpendicular
to a magnetic field of 10T. The flux passing through it is Wb. If the coil is
removed from the field in 0.1s, calculate the induced e.m.f.
Formula Used:
The induced e.m.f. is given by Faraday’s Law:
E = -N dΦ dt
where,
(number of turns),
Wb (change in flux),
(time interval).
Calculation:
−3
E = -100 × 5×10 0.1
E = -5V
Answer:
The induced e.m.f. is 5V.
—
(h) Define electric dipole and dipole moment. Derive an expression for the
electric field intensity at a point on the axial line of an electric dipole.
Definition:
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges separated by a
small distance .
The dipole moment is given by:
p = q ·2a
It is a vector directed from negative to positive charge.
Derivation of Electric Field on Axial Line:
Consider a dipole placed along the x-axis with charges and separated by
distance . The field at a point P at distance from the center is given by:
E = 1 4πε · 2p
0
r3
where is the dipole moment.
Conclusion:
The field on the axial line is inversely proportional to .
The field of a dipole decreases faster than a single charge ().
—
(i) What is the basic principle of a moving coil galvanometer? Derive an
expression for the current flowing through the galvanometer in terms of steady
angular deflection of its coil.
Principle:
A moving coil galvanometer works on the principle that a current-carrying
coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque that causes it to rotate. The
deflection of the coil is proportional to the current passing through it.
Derivation:
A coil of N turns and area A carrying current I in a magnetic field experiences
a torque:
τ = N BAI
The restoring torque due to the suspension wire is:

12
 τrestoring = Cθ
where is the torsional constant and is the deflection.
At equilibrium,
NBAI=Cθ
Solving for current:
I = C θ N BA
Conclusion:
The deflection is directly proportional to the current , making the galvanome-
ter useful for measuring small currents.

13