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 5T
H
ED
“Unlike all the other books that start at the beginning, this one

IT
IO
will get you to the good stuff, fast. Jennifer will explain every

Whether you’re a beginner or bringing your skills up to date, this book gives you a solid footing in

N
step you need, including some very advanced concepts.”

modern web production. I teach each topic visually at a pleasant pace, with frequent exercises
—JEN SIMMONS, MOZILLA AND W3C CSS WORKING GROUP

to let you try out new skills. Reading it feels like sitting in my classroom! —Jennifer Robbins
Learning
Web Design
A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO HTML, CSS,
JAVASCRIPT, AND WEB GRAPHICS

Jennifer Niederst Robbins



Form Layout and Design................................................................ 206

Test Yourself.................................................................................. 208
Element Review: Forms.................................................................. 209

10. Embedded Media........................................................... 215

Window-In-A-Window (iframe)..................................................... 215
Multipurpose Embedder (object).....................................................218
Video and Audio............................................................................ 219
Canvas........................................................................................... 228
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 233
Element Review: Embedded Media................................................. 234

Part III. CSS FOR PRESENTATION

11. Introducing Cascading Style Sheets............................... 239

The Benefits of CSS........................................................................ 239
How Style Sheets Work.................................................................. 240
The Big Concepts........................................................................... 246
CSS Units of Measurement............................................................. 253
Developer Tools Right in Your Browser.......................................... 256
Moving Forward with CSS............................................................. 258
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 259

12. Formatting Text............................................................. 261

Basic Font Properties...................................................................... 261
Advanced Typography with CSS3................................................... 277
Changing Text Color...................................................................... 280
A Few More Selector Types............................................................ 281
Text Line Adjustments................................................................... 287
Underlines and Other “Decorations”.............................................. 290
Changing Capitalization................................................................. 291
Spaced Out.................................................................................... 292
Text Shadow.................................................................................. 293
Changing List Bullets and Numbers............................................... 296
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 299
CSS Review: Font and Text Properties............................................ 301

vi Contents
 

13. Colors and Backgrounds................................................ 303

Specifying Color Values.................................................................. 303
Foreground Color............................................................................311
Background Color.......................................................................... 312
Clipping the Background.................................................................314
Playing with Opacity...................................................................... 315
Pseudo-Class Selectors....................................................................316
Pseudo-Element Selectors............................................................... 320
Attribute Selectors.......................................................................... 323
Background Images.........................................................................324
The Shorthand background Property.............................................. 338
Like a Rainbow (Gradients)............................................................ 340
Finally, External Style Sheets.......................................................... 348
Wrapping It Up.............................................................................. 351
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 352
CSS Review: Color and Background Properties............................... 354

14. Thinking Inside the Box................................................. 355

The Element Box............................................................................ 355
Specifying Box Dimensions............................................................ 356
Padding ......................................................................................... 361
Borders.......................................................................................... 366
Margins..........................................................................................376
Assigning Display Types................................................................. 380
Box Drop Shadows......................................................................... 382
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 384
CSS Review: Box Properties........................................................... 384

15. Floating and Positioning................................................ 387

Normal Flow.................................................................................. 387
Floating ......................................................................................... 388
Fancy Text Wrap with CSS Shapes ................................................ 399
Positioning Basics........................................................................... 405
Relative Positioning........................................................................ 407
Absolute Positioning....................................................................... 408
Fixed Positioning.............................................................................416

Contents vii


Test Yourself...................................................................................417
CSS Review: Floating and Positioning Properties.............................418

16. CSS Layout with Flexbox and Grid.................................. 419

Flexible Boxes with CSS Flexbox.....................................................419
CSS Grid Layout............................................................................ 447
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 478
CSS Review: Layout Properties....................................................... 482

17. Responsive Web Design................................................. 485

Why RWD?.................................................................................... 485
The Responsive Recipe................................................................... 486
Choosing Breakpoints.................................................................... 495
Designing Responsively.................................................................. 499
A Few Words About Testing........................................................... 512
More RWD Resources.....................................................................514
Test Yourself...................................................................................516

18. Transitions, Transforms, and Animation........................ 517

Ease-y Does It (CSS Transitions)......................................................517
CSS Transforms............................................................................. 527
Keyframe Animation...................................................................... 536
Wrapping Up................................................................................. 542
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 542
CSS Review: Transitions, Transforms, and Animation.................... 545

19. More CSS Techniques..................................................... 547

Styling Forms................................................................................. 547
Styling Tables................................................................................. 551
A Clean Slate (Reset and Normalize.css)......................................... 554
Image Replacement Techniques...................................................... 556
CSS Sprites..................................................................................... 557
CSS Feature Detection................................................................... 559
Wrapping Up Style Sheets.............................................................. 564
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 564
CSS Review: Table Properties......................................................... 566

viii Contents
 

20. Modern Web Development Tools.................................... 567

Getting Cozy with the Command Line........................................... 567
CSS Power Tools (Processors)......................................................... 572
Build Tools (Grunt and Gulp)......................................................... 578
Version Control with Git and GitHub............................................. 581
Conclusion..................................................................................... 588
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 589

Part IV. JAVASCRIPT FOR BEHAVIOR

21. Introduction to JavaScript............................................. 593

What Is JavaScript?........................................................................ 593
Adding JavaScript to a Page............................................................ 597
The Anatomy of a Script................................................................. 598
The Browser Object........................................................................ 612
Events............................................................................................ 613
Putting It All Together.....................................................................616
Learning More About JavaScript.....................................................617
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 619

22. Using JavaScript............................................................ 621

Meet the DOM............................................................................... 621
Polyfills.......................................................................................... 630
JavaScript Libraries........................................................................ 632
Big Finish....................................................................................... 637
Test Yourself.................................................................................. 637

Part V. WEB IMAGES

23. Web Image Basics.......................................................... 641

Image Sources................................................................................ 641
Meet the Formats........................................................................... 644
Image Size and Resolution.............................................................. 657
Image Asset Strategy...................................................................... 660
Favicons......................................................................................... 665

Contents ix


Summing Up Images...................................................................... 668

Test Yourself ................................................................................. 668

24. Image Asset Production................................................. 671

Saving Images in Web Formats....................................................... 671
Working with Transparency........................................................... 676
Responsive Image Production Tips................................................. 680
Image Optimization....................................................................... 691
Test Yourself...................................................................................701

25. SVG ............................................................................... 703

Drawing with XML........................................................................ 705
Features of SVG as XML................................................................ 713
SVG Tools...................................................................................... 718
SVG Production Tips...................................................................... 721
Responsive SVGs............................................................................ 724
Further SVG Exploration................................................................ 731
Test Yourself ................................................................................. 731
And...We’re Done!.......................................................................... 733

Part VI. APPENDICES

A. Answers......................................................................... 737

B. HTML5 Global Attributes................................................ 753

C. CSS Selectors, Levels 3 and 4......................................... 755

D. From HTML+ to HTML5................................................... 759

INDEX . . ............................................................................................................ 767

x Contents
FOREWORD
BY JEN SIMMONS

If you travel to Silicon Valley and navigate between the global headquarters
of some of the world’s most famous internet companies, you can head to
the Computer History Museum. Wander through the museum, past the
ancient mainframes and the story of the punch card, and you’ll eventually
find yourself at the beginning of the Wide World Web. There’s a copy of the
Mosaic browser on a floppy disk tucked in a book of the same name, a copy
of Netscape Navigator that was sold in a box, and something called “Internet
in a Box,” the #1 best-selling internet solution for Windows. Then there are
the websites. Some of the earliest, most notable, and most important websites
are on permanent display, including something called the “Global Network
Navigator,” from 1993. It was designed by none other than the author of this
book, Jennifer Robbins. Long before most of us had any idea the web existed,
or even before many of you were born, Jen was busy designing the first com-
mercial website. She’s been there from the very beginning, and has watched,
taught, and written about every stage of evolution of the web.
Learning Web Design is now in its 5th edition, with a gazillion new pages and
updates from those early days.
I am constantly asked, “What are the best resources for learning web technol-
ogy?” I learned by reading books. Blog posts are great, but you also need an
in-depth comprehensive look at the subject. In the beginning, all books were
beginner books, teaching HTML, URLs, and how to use a browser. When
CSS came along, the books assumed you’d already been using HTML, and
taught you how to change to the new techniques. Then CSS3 came along,
and all the books taught us how to add new CSS properties to our preexist-
ing understanding of CSS2. Of course there were always books for beginners,
but they were super basic. They never touched on professional techniques for
aspiring professionals. Each new generation of books assumed that you had
prior knowledge. Great for those of us in the industry. Tough for anyone new.

xi
Foreword

But how in the world are you supposed to read about two decades of tech-
niques, discarding what is outdated, and remembering what is still correct?
How are you supposed to build a career from knowledge that’s so basic that
you have no idea what real pros code in their everyday jobs?
You can’t. That’s why today when people ask me for a book recommendation,
I have only one answer. This book.
This book you are reading now doesn’t require any prior knowledge. You
don’t need to have made a web page before, or to have any idea where to get a
code editor. It starts at the very beginning. And yet, unlike all the other books
that start at the beginning, this one will get you to the good stuff, fast. Jen will
explain every step you need, including some very advanced concepts. She’s
packed this book full of cutting edge, insider knowledge from top experts.
I honestly don’t know how she does it. How can someone teach the basics
and the advanced stuff at the same time? Usually you’ll learn those things
years apart, with lots of struggling in the dark in the meantime. Here, Jen
will lift you up from wherever you are in your journey, and take you farther.
Every one of us—myself included, and I’m on the CSS Working Group (the
group of people who invent new CSS)—can learn a lot from this book. I do
every time I pick it up.
Pay attention to the notes in the margins. Read the websites she recommends,
watch the videos. Jen is giving you a shortcut to a professional network.
Follow the people she mentions. Read the links they suggest. These might
be your future colleagues. Dare to dream that you will meet them. They are,
after all, only a tweet away. It is a small world, full of real people, and you can
become part of it all. This book will get you started.
—Jen Simmons
Designer and Developer Advocate at Mozilla
Member of the CSS Working Group
April 2018

xii Learning Web Design

PREFACE

Hello and welcome to the fifth edition of Learning Web Design!

ONLINE RESOURCE
I’ve been documenting web design and development in books like this one
for decades, and it continues to fascinate me how the web landscape changes The Companion Website
from edition to edition. This fifth edition is no exception! Not only is this Be sure to visit the companion
version nearly 200 pages longer than the last one, but there are also some website for this book at
significant updates and additions worth noting. learningwebdesign.com.
It features materials for the
First, some technologies and techniques that were brand new or even experi- exercises, downloadable articles,
mental in the last edition have become nicely settled in. HTML5 is the new lists of links from the book, contact
normal, and CSS is moving ahead with its modular approach, allowing new information, and more.
technologies to emerge and be adopted one at a time. We’ve largely gotten our
heads around designing for a seemingly infinite range of devices. Responsive
Web Design is now the de facto approach to building sites. As a result, RWD
has earned its own chapter in this edition (Chapter 17, Responsive Web
Design). Where in the last edition we pondered and argued how to handle
responsive image markup, in this edition, the new responsive image elements
are standardized and well supported (Chapter 7, Adding Images). I think we’re
getting the hang of this mobile thing!
I’ve seen a lot of seismic shifts in web design over the years, and this time,
Flexbox and Grid are fundamentally changing the way we approach design.
Just as we saw CSS put table-based layouts and 1-pixel spacer GIFs out of
their misery, Flexbox and Grid are finally poised to kick our old float-based
layout hacks to the curb. It is nothing short of a revolution, and after 25 years,
it’s refreshing to have an honest-to-goodness solution for layout. This edition
sports a new (and hefty!) chapter on proper page layout with Flexbox and
Grid (Chapter 16, CSS Layout with Flexbox and Grid).
Although knowledge of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript is at the heart of web
development, the discipline has been evolving, and frankly, becoming more

xiii
Preface

complicated. I would be shirking my duty if I didn’t at least introduce you

to some of the new tools of the trade—CSS processors, feature detection, the
command line, task runners, and Git—in a new chapter on the modern web
developer toolkit (Chapter 20, Modern Web Development Tools). Sure, it’s more
stuff to learn, but the benefit is a streamlined and more efficient workflow.
The biggest surprise to me personally was how much web image production
has changed since the fourth edition. Other than the introduction of the
PNG format, my graphics chapters have remained essentially unchanged for
20 years. Not so this time around! Our old standby, GIF, is on the brink of
retirement, and PNG is the default thanks to its performance advantages and
new tools that let even smaller 8-bit PNGs include multiple levels of transpar-
ency. But PNG will have to keep its eye on WebP, mentioned in this edition for
the first time, which may give it a run for its money in terms of file size and
capabilities. The biggest web graphics story, however, is the emergence of SVG
(Scalable Vector Graphics). Thanks to widespread browser support (finally!),
SVG went from a small “some day” section in the previous edition to an entire
“go for it!” chapter in this one (Chapter 25, SVG).
As in the first four editions, this book addresses the specific needs and con-
cerns of beginners of all backgrounds, including seasoned graphic designers,
programmers looking to expand their skills, and anyone else wanting to learn
how to make websites. I’ve done my best to put the experience of sitting in my
beginner web design class into a book, with exercises and tests along the way,
so you get hands-on experience and can check your progress.
Whether you are reading this book on your own or using it as a companion
to a web design course, I hope it gives you a good head start and that you
have fun in the process.

HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED

Learning Web Design, Fifth Edition, is divided into five parts, each dealing with
an important aspect of web development.
Part I: Getting Started
Part I lays a foundation for everything that follows in the book. I start off
with some important general information about the web design environ-
ment, including the various roles you might play, the technologies you
might learn, and tools that are available to you. You’ll get your feet wet
right away with HTML and CSS and learn how the web and web pages
generally work. I’ll also introduce you to some Big Concepts that get you
thinking in the same way that modern web designers think about their craft.
Part II: HTML for Structure
The chapters in Part II cover the nitty-gritty of every element and attri-
bute available to give content semantic structure. We’ll cover the markup
for text, links, images, tables, forms, and embedded media.

xiv Learning Web Design

 Preface

Part III: CSS for Presentation

In the course of Part III, you’ll go from learning the basics of Cascading
Style Sheets for changing the presentation of text to creating multicolumn
layouts and even adding time-based animation and interactivity to the
page. It provides an introduction to Responsive Web Design, as well as the
tools and techniques that are part of the modern developer’s workflow.
Part IV: JavaScript for Behavior
Mat Marquis starts Part IV out with a rundown of JavaScript syntax so
that you can tell a variable from a function. You’ll get to know some ways
that JavaScript is used (including DOM scripting) and existing JavaScript
tools such as polyfills and libraries that let you put JavaScript to use
quickly, even if you aren’t quite ready to write your own code from scratch.
Part V: Web Images
Part V introduces the various image file formats that are appropriate for
the web, provides strategies for choosing them as part of a responsive
workflow, and describes how to optimize them to make their file size as
small as possible. It also includes a chapter on SVG graphics, which offer
great advantages for responsive and interaction design.
Part VI: Appendices
Part VI holds reference material such as test answers, lists of HTML global
attributes and CSS Selectors, and a look at HTML5 and its history.

TYPOGRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS
Italic
Used to indicate filenames and directory names, as well as for emphasis.
Colored italic
Used to indicate URLs and email addresses.
Colored roman text
Used for special terms that are being defined.
Constant width
Used to indicate code examples and keyboard commands.
Colored constant width
Used for emphasis in code examples.
Constant width italic
Used to indicate placeholders for attribute and style sheet property values.
→
Indicates that a line of code was broken in the text but should remain
together on one line in use.

Preface xv
Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Once again, many smart and lovely people had my back on this edition.
I want to say a special thanks to my two amazing tech reviewers. I am quite
indebted to Elika J. Etemad (fantasai), who, as a member of the W3C CSS
Working Group, helped me make this edition more accurate and up-to-date
with standards than ever before. She was tough, but the results are worth it.
Petter Dessne brought his computer science expertise as well as valuable per-
spective as a professor and a reader for whom English is a second language.
His good humor and photos of his home in Sweden were appreciated as well!
I am also grateful for this roster of web design superstars who reviewed
particular chapters and passages in their areas of expertise (in alphabetical
order): Amelia Bellamy-Royds (SVG), Brent Beer (developer tools), Chris
Coyier (SVG), Terence Eden (audio/video), Brad Frost (Responsive Web
Design), Lyza Danger Gardner (developer tools), Jason Grigsby (images), Val
Head (animation), Daniel Hengeveld (developer tools), Mat Marquis (respon-
sive images), Eric Meyer (CSS layout), Jason Pamental (web fonts), Dan Rose
(images), Arsenio Santos (embedded media), Jen Simmons (CSS layout),
Adam Simpson (developer tools), and James Williamson (structured data).
Thanks also to Mat Marquis for his contribution of two lively JavaScript
chapters that I could never have written myself, and to Jen Simmons for writ-
ing the Foreword and for her ongoing support of Learning Web Design.
I want to thank my terrific team of folks at O’Reilly Media: Meg Foley
(Acquisitions Editor), Jeff Bleiel (Developmental Editor), Kristen Brown
(Production Editor), Rachel Monaghan (Copyeditor), Sharon Wilkey
(Proofreader), and Lucie Haskins (Indexer). Special thanks go to InDesign
and book production expert Ron Bilodeau, who turned my design into a tem-
plate and a set of tools that made book production an absolute joy. Special
thanks also go to Edie Freedman for the beautiful cover design and half a
lifetime of friendship and guidance.
Finally, no Acknowledgments would be complete without profound apprecia-
tion for the love and support of my dearest ones, Jeff and Arlo.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Jennifer Robbins began designing for the web in 1993 as the graphic designer
for Global Network Navigator, the first commercial website. In addition to
this book, she has written multiple editions of Web Design in a Nutshell and
HTML5 Pocket Reference, published by O’Reilly. She is a founder and orga-
nizer of the Artifact Conference, which addresses issues related to mobile web
design. Jennifer has spoken at many conferences and has taught beginning
web design at Johnson and Wales University in Providence, Rhode Island.
When not on the clock, Jennifer enjoys making things, indie rock, cooking,
travel, and raising a cool kid.

xvi Learning Web Design

 Preface

HOW TO CONTACT US
Please address comments and questions concerning this book to the
publisher:
O’Reilly Media, Inc.
1005 Gravenstein Highway North
Sebastopol, CA 95472
800-998-9938 (in the United States or Canada)
707-829-0515 (international or local)
707-829-0104 (fax)
We have a web page for this book, where we list errata, examples,
and any additional information. You can access this page at bit.ly/
learningWebDesign_5e.
To comment or ask technical questions about this book, send email to
bookquestions@oreilly.com.
For more information about our books, courses, conferences, and news, see
our website at www.oreilly.com.
Find us on Facebook: facebook.com/oreilly
Follow us on Twitter: twitter.com/oreillymedia
Watch us on YouTube: www.youtube.com/oreillymedia

Preface xvii
 I
GETTING STARTED
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
hunt through the first, which is 1234, letter (a); then through the
second, which is 1243, letter (b); then also through the third, which is
1423, letter (c). In which manner it being hunted through the rest of
the twenty four changes, will produce the 120 on five. And then the
figure 6 being hunted through each of those sixscore changes will
produce the 720 changes on six. And the figure 7 being hunted
through each of those 720 changes, will produce the 5040. In which
manner also the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth, being
successively hunted through each Peal in the aforesaid order, will at
length produce the compleat number of changes on twelve. Wherein
’tis observable, that all the figures, except two, have a hunting
motion; which two may properly be term’d the Center, about which
the rest do circulate. By these methods it is evident, that every
hunting figure hath a certain number of figures assigned, through
which tis constantly to hunt: as in the aforesaid Example on twelve,
where the 1.2 are assigned for the figure 3 to hunt through, as
appears in the six changes before. And in like manner, 123 are
assigned for the figure 4 to hunt through; 1234 are assigned for the
figure 5 to hunt through; 12345 for 6 to hunt through, &c. Now the
figure 3 hunts as many times through the 1.2. as those two make
changes, that is, two times wherein it makes twice three changes,
that is, six, as before appeareth. The figure 4 hunts as many times
through the 123, as those three figures make changes, that is, six
times; wherein it makes six times four changes, which amounts to
twenty four. The figure 5 hunteth as many times through the 1234, as
those four figures make changes, that is, twenty four times; wherein
it makes twenty four times five changes, which amounts to 120. The
figure 6 hunts as many times through the 12345, as those five make
changes, that is 120 times, wherein it maketh 120 times six changes,
which amounts to 720. And in like manner the figure 7 hunts 720
times through 123456, wherein it maketh 720 times seven changes,
which amounts to 5040. The eighth hunteth 5040 times through
1234567, wherein it makes 40320 changes. The 9th hunteth 40320
times through 12345678, wherein it makes 362880 changes. The
tenth hunteth 362880 times through 123456789, wherein it makes
3628800. The eleventh hunteth 3628800 times through
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10. wherein it makes 39916800. And lastly, the
twelfth hunteth 39916800 times through 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.
wherein it makes 39916800 times twelve changes, which amounts to
479001600, being the compleat number on twelve. By which ’tis
evident, that every hunting figure hunts as many times through its
assigned number of figures, as those figures are capable of making
changes, which in short comprehends the summe and substance of
this method, which is universal from two, to all greater numbers
whatsoever.
(a) 12345
12354
12534
15234
51234

(b) 51243
15243
12543
12453
12435

(c) 14235
14253
14523
15423
51423
If we consider the multitude of different words, wherewith we
express our selves in Speech, it may be thought almost impossible
that such numbers should arise out of twenty four Letters; yet this
Art of variation will produce much more incredible effects. To give an
instance thereof, I will shew the numbers of every quantity of Letters
from two to twelve, that may be produced out of the Alphabet. The
generality of Words consisting of these quantities, (viz.) two letters,
three letters, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve
letters. There are 10626 times four letters to be produced out of the
twenty four letters of the Alphabet, and not twice four all the same
Letters. There are likewise 42504 times five letters, 134596 times six
letters, 346104 times seven, 735471 times eight, 1307504 times nine,
1961256 times ten, 2496144 times eleven, and 2704156 times twelve.
Now each quantity being varied by the rules of this Art, will produce
incredible numbers. First the 10626 times four letters, being
multiplied by 24, which are the number of ways to vary each four
letters, will produce 255024 that is to say, four letters may be
produced out of the Alphabet to stand together after this manner (a b
c d) two hundred fifty five thousand and twenty four times, and not
twice alike. And in like manner, the 42504 times five Letters, being
multiplied by 120, which are the number of ways to vary each five,
will produce 5100480. The 134596 times six letters, being also
multiplied by 720, will produce 96909120. The 346104, being
multiplied by 5040, will produce 1744364160. The 735471, being
multiplied by 40320, will produce 29654190720. The 1307504, being
multiplied by 362880, will produce 474467051520. The 1961256,
being multiplied by 3628800, will produce 7117005772800. The
2496144, being multiplied by 39916800, will produce
99638080819200. And lastly, the 2704156 time twelve letters, being
multiplied by 479001600, will produce 1295295050649600, which
products being all added together, as also 12696 which are the
numbers consisting of two and three letters, the whole will amount
to 1402556105125320, wherein there are not two alike, nor two
letters of one sort in any one of them; which being written or printed
on large Paper in folio, allowing 5000 to a sheet, they would take up
561022442 Reams of Paper and upwards, reckoning 500 sheets to a
Ream: which Paper all the Houses in the City and Liberties of
London would not contain; and in quantity doubtless infinitely
exceeds all the Books that ever were printed in the world, reckoning
only one of each Impression. And at the rate of five shillings the
Ream, the Paper would cost 140255610.5 Pounds sterling; which is
above four times as much as the yearly Rent of all the Lands and
Houses in England amounts to. And all the people both young and
old in the City and Suburbs of London (admitting they are five
hundred thousand) could not speak the like numbers of words under
forty years and upwards, each of them speaking 15000 every hour,
and twelve hours every day. These prodigious numbers are the more
to be admired, considering that the greatest number of letters in any
of them, exceeds not twelve, neither are two letters of one sort in any
one of them: but by producing and varying all the greater quantities,
and placing two or more letters of one sort, or two of one sort and
two of another, with all variety of the like nature that commonly
happens in words, the numbers arising thereby would infinitely
exceed the former; And if all the numbers of every quantity of letters
from one to twenty four, together with all the variety as aforesaid,
were methodically drawn out and varied according to the rules of this
Art; which might easily be performed in respect of the plain and
practical method of doing it; but the infinite numbers of them would
not permit a Million of men to effect it in some thousands of years: it
would be evident, that there is no word or syllable in any language or
speech in the world, which can be exprest with the character of our
Alphabet, but might be found literatim and entire therein; and more
by many thousands of Millions than can be pronounced, or that ever
were yet made use of in any language.
I will here give one instance of another kind, shewing the
admirable effects of this Art, and so conclude. A man having twenty
Horses, contracts with a Brick-maker to give him one hundred
pound Sterling; conditionally that the Brick-maker will deliver him
as many Loads of Bricks, as there are several Teams of six Horses to
be produced out of the aforesaid twenty to fetch them, and not one
Team or Sett of six Horses to fetch two Loads. The Brick-maker
might be thought to have made a very advantageous bargain, but the
contrary will appear. For there are thirty eight thousand seven
hundred and sixty several Teams of six Horses, to be produced out of
twenty, and not twice six the same Horses; then the Brick-maker
must deliver as many Loads as there are Teams, and each Load
consisting of five hundred Bricks, the whole would amount to
19380000, which being bought for one hundred pounds as aforesaid,
would not cost above five Farthings a thousand; and at the rate of
thirteen shillings and four pence the thousand, they amount to
twelve thousand nine hundred and twenty pounds Sterling. But
should a contract be made with the Brick-maker to deliver as many
Loads of Bricks, as there are Teams of six Horses in each, to be
produced out of the aforesaid twenty, which shall stand in the Cart in
a differing manner; that is to say, although there may be the same
Horses in several Teams, yet their places shall be so changed, that
they shall not stand twice alike in any two Teams. On this account
the Brick-maker must deliver seven hundred and twenty times as
many as before; for there are 38760 several Teams as before I have
shewed: then each Team may be placed 720 ways in the Cart, and not
twice alike, which is to be done according to the methods whereby
the 720 changes on six Bells are rung. So that 38760, which are the
number of Teams, multiplied by 720, which are the number of ways
to vary the six Horses in each Team, the product will be 27907200,
which are the compleat number of Teams; and every Team carrying
one Load, consisting of five hundred Bricks, the Whole will amount
to 13953600000 Bricks. And after the proportion of a hundred and
fifty thousand of Bricks to a House, they would build ninety three
thousand and twenty four Houses; which are above six times as
many as the late dreadful fire in London consumed. And at the rate
of thirteen shillings and four pence the thousand, they are worth
6976800 pounds Sterling, which is at least four hundred Waggon-
loads of money, as much as five Horses can ordinarily draw.
 AN
INTRODUCTION
To the Practice of
RINGING

As the original design of casting Peals of Bells was in order to make

pleasant Musick thereon; so the Notes in every Peal are formed apt
for that end and purpose, every Peal of Bells being tun’d according to
the principles of Musick; for in a Peal of six Bells are the six plain
Song-Notes, whereupon all Musick consists, namely, la sol fa mi re
ut. But in regard that in ringing of them the Notes cannot be had at
command, as the Notes of other Instruments may; therefore, as the
Practitioners in ancient time found some necessity to cause all the
Notes to strike successively after one another, so likewise they
thought fit in ringing them to place the Notes in this following order.
The least note to lead or strike first, then the Note which is the next
degree deeper or flatter, and so the rest of the notes to strike after
each other according to their degrees, the flattest striking last; in
which order the notes were successively reiterated both at fore-
stroke and back-stroke, from the beginning to the end of each Peal.
And at this day the same order is also observed in raising, ceasing,
and ringing them at a low compass; wherein each note being confin’d
to strike in a certain place, therefore had they their terms of First,
Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, &c. given them, to denote their order
and places of striking; from whence also the Bells derive those terms
of distinction by which they are now known. Although the ringing of
a Peal of Bells in the aforesaid order, (which is commonly term’d
Round-ringing) is in it self Musical; yet the Notes may be so placed
in ringing, that their Musick may be rendred much more pleasant:
for in Musick there are Concords, which indeed may be term’d the
very life and soul of it, that renders all Musick exceeding pleasant:
the principal are Thirds, Fifths, and Eights; Thirds are 1 3. 2 4. and
such like: Fifths are 1 5. 2 6. &c. Eights are 1 8. 2 9. 3 10. &c. each
Concord consisting of two notes. They may well be termed Concords,
in respect of their agreement and harmony; for the two notes (as if it
were by mutual consent) being struck together at one instant, or else
immediately after one another, affords delightful melody to the ear;
in which respect, a peal of five Bells are capable of making better
Musick than a peal of four; six better than five; and more especially
will ten or twelve make more excellent Musick than any lesser
numbers can possibly do, there being greater variety of Concords
therein, and especially of Eights. For this Musical end were changes
on Bells first practised, changes being nothing else but a moving and
placing of the Notes in ringing, whereby variety of pleasant Musick is
made; and as the manner of moving the notes, is, for two notes to
change places with each other, therefore are they called Changes.
The methods of changes being somewhat intricate, I have therefore
penn’d the following Treatise as a Clue to guide the Practitioner
through the Labirinth of them, wherein I have made use of figures to
represent the notes of Bells, the manner thus. In a peal of five Bells
there are five several notes, which with figures are thus exprest, 1 2 3
4 5: the figure 1 represents the least or sharpest note, which is term’d
the First, because its place in round ringing is to lead; this note is
most commonly called the Treble. The figure 2 represents the note
which is the next degree deeper or flatter, and is term’d the Second,
because it strikes in the second place. And in like manner 3
represents the note of the third Bell, 4 the note of the fourth Bell, and
5 the note of the Fifth or Tennor. In which manner, the figures in all
the following methods do likewise represent the notes of Bells.
Since the ringing of changes requires the peal of Bells, on which
the changes are to be rung, to be first raised up to a set Pull, which
compass is most proper for the ringing of them; therefore the
Learners first practice must be to raise a Bell true in peal, to ring it at
a low compass, and also to cease it true in peal, wherein consists the
chief grounds of this Art, which depends on the Ear, and therefore
much judgment is required therein. And to speak the truth, most
practitioners are in these days somewhat deficient herein; the
ringing of changes having generally diverted the Learners fancy from
the practice of raising, round-ringing, and ceasing, by which means
we have in a manner lost one Excellency in the pursuit of another.
Therefore I could wish that the Practitioners of this Art would set a
greater esteem on true Ringing in general, since the only excellency
as well in the ringing of Changes as Rounds, depends thereon: the
keeping of time being as essential to render all kinds of ringing
pleasant to the ear, as ’tis to render any other kind of Musick;
therefore the practitioner ought to have a Musical eare, and to have
some judgment in beating time, without which he can never ring his
Bell true in its place. A prospect of true ringing at any certain
compass under the Sett, may thus be taken; for Instance, in ringing a
peal of 5 Bells; from the fore-stroke of every note to the next fore-
stroke of the same note, there ought to be eleven punctums or Beats
of time, which are all supposed to stand at Æquidistances: now in ten
of these punctums, the five notes ought exactly to strike at the fore-
stroke and back-stroke, and the eleventh stands as a Cypher to guide
the Treble-note at fore-stroke to a double proportion of time from
the Tennor-note at back-stroke: which blank punctum must also be
beaten in the same place by every note, to render its fore-stroke
answerable to that of the Treble. For example; the third note having
struck at fore-stroke, it must beat eleven punctums of equidistance
unto its striking there again. The first punctum is that of the 4th note,
the second 5, the third 1, the fourth 2, the fifth 3, the sixth 4, the
seventh 5, the eighth 0, the ninth 1, the tenth 2, the eleventh its own
place of striking again at fore-stroke. These punctums or Beats of
time, must be proportioned either wider or closer, according to the
compass of the Treble: therefore first the Treble must fix its compass
certain and true at fore-stroke, which ought to be proportionate to
what the number of the notes, and compass of the peal of Bells, may
according to judgment permit; and then from one fore-stroke of it to
the next, if there are five notes; there ought to be eleven punctums of
equidistance assigned, wherein the notes should exactly strike
(except the blank) as before. From hence ’tis, that the most judicious
Ringer ought to be put to the Treble; for that bell cannot possibly be
rung true by any other means than by beating of its own time; and
although the exactness of true ringing requires the like in every note,
when once the compass is fixed, yet the leading note being rung true,
may be a guide to the rest of the notes, which may tolerably take
their measures of time from the Treble-note: but for every note to
take its measure of time solely from the next preceding note, must
needs be very erronious; for thereby they implicitely lead one
another out of the way. Or else in the ringing of five bells, from the
fore-stroke of every note to the next fore-stroke of the same note,
there may be one and twenty punctums or beats of time assigned, to
stand at equidistances; and the five notes, as they follow one another,
at the fore-stroke and back-stroke to strike in every second punctum,
except the Treble-note at fore-stroke, which must strike in the third
punctum from the Tenor at back-stroke; so that then there will be
two of those spaces betwixt every note, and three betwixt the note of
the Tenor at back-stroke and the note of the Treble at fore-stroke,
which possibly by some may be held a better compass than the
former: but quot homines tot sententiæ. Every Practitioner, that has
judgment to beat his own time, has the advantage of ringing his bell
true, whilst the rest of the notes commit faults; for the compass being
once fixed, as many bells as do either rise or fall from thence commit
errors.
The truest way of raising a peal of bells according to the best of
modern practice, is, as quick as may be; every Ringer taking
assistance to raise his bell, according as the going of it requires. In
raising of them, the lesser bells as the Treble &c. ought at the first
pull to be swayed very deep, and held down in the sway by strength
of armes as much as may be, to delay the time of their first striking,
by which means the bigger bells, which carry a large compass, may
have space to come in; and the raising of the smaller bells to be
continued with a strong pull, giving them scope over head (for the
aforesaid reason) untill they come up Frame-high, or thereabouts,
and then the pull to be slacken’d, and the bells leisurely to be raised
to the intended height or pitch. The bigger bells of the peal, as the
Tenor &c. must in their first raising be checkt or pinch’d over head,
by which means the notes of all the bells may be made to strike
round in their due place and order from the beginning; and observe,
that at the first pull all the bells must follow one another as close as
may be. A peal of bells may thus be ceased: the falling of the bells
from a Sett-pull must gradually be done, by checking them only at
Sally, until the low compass renders the Sally useless; and when they
are ceased so low, that they scarce strike at back-stroke for want of
compass: then he that rings the Treble, may give notice (by stamping
on the ground) that the next time the bells come to strike at the fore-
stroke, they may be checkt down so low as to cease their striking at
the back-stroke, yet their striking round at the fore-stroke may be
continued, until they are brought into a chime, which is a graceful
conclusion of a peal.
In raising of a peal of bells, all the notes ought to strike round at
one pull: but mistake me not, I do not mean at the first pull; for at
small bells ’tis usual to sway them all round at the first pull without
striking; at the second pull to strike them at the fore-stroke, and at
the third pull at back-stroke. In raising of a peal of more weighty
bells, ’tis usual to strike them double at the fourth pull, because the
extraordinary weight and large compass of the hind-bells permits it
not to be done sooner. In the first raising of a peal of bells, one bell
ought not to strike before the rest, or to miss striking when the rest
go round: neither ought any bell in ceasing to strike after the rest, or
to leave striking before the rest; all which, according to the strictness
of true ringing, are accounted great faults.
The peal of bells on which the changes are to be rung, must first
be raised up to a Sett-pull, which compass is most proper for the
ringing of changes; for then the notes of the bells may be had at
command. Therefore before the young Practitioner can be capable of
ringing changes, he must be extraordinary well skill’d in the
managing of a bell at a Sett-pull, which is absolutely requisite, for
this reason: In the ringing of changes, his mind will be so busied and
wholly taken up with the consideration of the course and method of
them, and his eye continually wandring about to direct his pull in the
following of the other bells; that unless he has extraordinary skill in
the managing of his own bell, and can set it in a manner hood-winkt,
he will be apt either to drop or overturn it; or else on the other hand,
for want of skill, his eye and mind will be so fixed on his own rope
and bell to guide the managing of it, that he cannot at the same time
mind the course of the changes, and then no wonder if he is in a
wood, which consequently follows; and indeed hence partly ’tis, that
the Learners in their first practice do oftentimes toil and moil
themselves to so little purpose. Therefore ’tis not enough that the
young Practitioner can set a bell it may be half a score times together,
when ’tis an even wager that he either drops or overturns it in those
ten-pulls: but he must be so perfectly skill’d, as that he might
adventure to lay ten to one, that he can set it thirty or forty times
together, both fore-stroke and back-stroke, without dropping or
overturning it, and without looking directly either on his hands or
rope whilst he sets it. Therefore in his practice of setting a bell, he
may cast his eye about on the other bell-ropes whilst he manageth
his bell, whereby he may accustom himself to manage it as the
ringing of changes requires.
The ringing of changes is performed, partly by the ear, and
partly by the eye; the ear informs when to make a change, the eye
directs the pull in the making of it, but then again the ear guides the
striking of the note true in its place according to time. So that the ear
and eye have each of them its proper object in the ringing of changes,
and therefore ought at the same time to be absolutely free from all
others whatsoever, the notes of the bells being the object of the ear,
and the bell-ropes the object of the eye. Now these two Senses in the
time of ringing do each of them thus perform its office. First, the ear,
as a Sentinel, discovers the near approaching change, and also the
place wherein his note lies, that is, whether before or behind the note
wherewith ’tis to make a change, and gives present information to
the eye, to perform its part accordingly in the making of it; but then
again the eye refers it to the ear, to place the note true in striking. But
questionless (by the bie) the truest ringing of changes is to be
performed only by the ear; but then the Practitioners must be
capable to judg of time, and to beat it true, which must be the only
direction to guide their pull; and then it must be performed at a peal
of bells that may be managed with ease: and being so fitted in all
respects, the changes may doubtless be rung more true, with greater
pleasure to the Practitioners, and much more free from mistakes and
forgets, only by the ear, than by making use of the eye to direct their
pull. But in regard that either the ill going of the bells, or want of fit
accomplishments in the practitioners, may render it unfit for
common practice; therefore the surest way is to ring both by the eye
and ear, as I said before. Now to render the eye and ear rightly useful
in the ringing of changes, five things ought by the young Practitioner
to be well understood. First, he must be able to distinguish the notes
of a peal of bells, and to know one from another in the time of
ringing. Secondly, he must apprehend the places of the notes.
Thirdly, the precedency of notes. Fourthly, the manner of making a
change in ringing. Fifthly, a general prospect of the manner of
putting the four preceding notions into practice.
 Observation 1. The Learner must be able to distinguish the notes
of a peal of bells one from another, and to know them asunder; as the
Treble-note from the Second, the Second from the Third, &c. which,
tis true, may readily be done in round ringing, because each note
may be known by the place wherein it constantly strikes; but in
ringing of changes it is more difficult. For admitting that six bells
should strike in this order, 5.3.6.1.4.2. it might puzzle an unskilful
ear to judg which is the Treble, or which the Second note, especially
whilst any other note strikes betwixt them: and the like difficulty
might happen in distinguishing the rest of the notes, as the 2d from
the 3d, &c. To remove this difficulty, he must endeavour to acquire
some skill in tuning the notes of a peal of bells, with his voice, which
he may do by imitating the notes of the bells when he hears them
ring: or else any person that has skill in singing, will presently direct
him therein, and also how to take the true pitch of any notes with his
voice, which will be the only means to distinguish them asunder.

┌──┬──┐

│ 1│2 │

├─┬┴┬─┤

│3│4│5│

└─┴─┴─┘
 Observ. 2d. The Learner must rightly apprehend the places of
the notes, which I think cannot better be done than by this means.
Considering that the notes of a peal of bells do all strike one after
another at the fore-stroke, and the like at back-stroke; it might be
requisite for him to imagine, that the notes in their striking do lie in
a direct line, that is, in a row at the fore-stroke, and the like again at
back-stroke; for then the places of the notes will much resemble the
places of the figures wherewith the changes are prickt: for as the
figures of every change do all stand in a row; so likewise the notes of
the bells, being imagined to strike in the like row, he may the more
readily apprehend the places of the notes, and consequently of
changing them. For the practick part of this Art, is performed by
means of imaginary, not real notions; which will thus manifestly
appear. This is the platform of a Frame, wherein five bells may be
supposed to hang in a Steeple, the figures therein representing the
places wherein the five bells hang. Now in the sixscore changes on
five bells, we will suppose the Treble to be the whole Hunt, and to
hunt up first over the Second, then over the Third, &c. Now the
Treble cannot really move out of the place wherein it hangs; but by
delaying its striking untill the Second Bell has struck, it may by that
means strike next after it; and again, by delaying its striking until the
Third has struck; it may also strike next after that, this being the true
manner of the changes; by which ’tis evident, that the bells have
neither really such places nor motion as is pretended, but is meerly
imaginary, and was at first feigned only as a Guide to direct the
Practitioner’s apprehension in the ringing of them. So that although
the art of changes is in it self a real thing, yet the notions by which
they are reduced to practice on bells, are not so. For which reason,
the several practitioners of this Art, before they can become expert,
are fain to form in their minds imaginary notions to guide them;
some after one manner, some perhaps after another, according to
their several fancies, yet all tending, to render the methods of
changes practicable on bells; and having once form’d in their minds
such imaginary helps, they become expert in short time: and then no
sooner do they understand the methods of changes prickt with
figures, which they commonly discover at first view; but they are
presently capable of ringing them readily on bells, which experience
daily testifies. And hence it is, that oftentimes the Learners, although
they perfectly understand the methods of changes prickt, and also
can perfectly manage a Bell; yet for want of a right apprehension of
the nature of changing the notes, which of themselves it may be they
cannot soon attain, are therefore much puzzled in their first practice
of ringing changes. Therefore as a guide, the Learner must first form
in his mind a fit representation of the places of the notes; which I
think cannot better be done, than by imagining each note to be a
figure; as the Treble-note to be the figure 1, the second note the
figure 2, the third note the figure 3, and the like of the rest. Then
whensoever he hears a peal of bells ring, let him by strength of
imagination conceit, that each note bears the shape of a figure; that
is, at the same instant of time that the note strikes, he may imagine
that it leaves the impression of the figure behind it, and that with the
eye of his imagination he perfectly sees it: and likewise as the notes
of the bells do all strike after one another at the fore-stroke, so he
may imagine that they lie in a row in the shape of figures; and the
like again at back-stroke. For instance: suppose that five Muskets
were charged with five bullets, and that each bullet bears the shape
of a figure; one Gun to be charged with the figure 1, another with the
figure 2, and the other three Guns with these three figures, 3. 4. 5.
Then supposing a straight line were drawn upon the wall, thus
—————————— and that the five Muskets were by five men
levell’d against the line, which is to be the mark for them to shoot at;
the figure 1 to be first shot off, then the figure 2, and so the rest in
order immediately after one another: now at the same instant of time
that the Guns are heard to go off, the five figures would appear in a

row upon the wall, thus. So in like manner

when he hears a peal of five bells strike after one another at the fore-
stroke, and again at back-stroke, he may imagine that at the very
instant of their striking their notes appear to his apprehension in the
shape of the five figures, and that they strike in a row, thus, 1 2 3 4 5,
as if each Bell were a Gun, and had shot out its note in the shape of a
figure. There being necessity that the young Practitioner must either
imagine each note to be a real figure, or else a representative: for as
the ear is to be his guide to direct when to make each change; so a
right apprehension of the motion and places of the notes, must be a
means to guide his ear. Now in regard that the changes are first
prickt with figures, from whence the notes of the bells derive their
course, therefore if in ringing he imagine each note to be a real
figure, then the same knowledge that guides the pricking, guides also
as readily the ringing of them, for then the note of his bell is
supposed to have the same course with that of a real figure. But if he
imagines that each note is not a real, but a representative of a figure;
then consequently it must only have the like, and not the same
course: by which means, whilst he is ringing of changes, his mind
must have frequent recourse to his Pocket, that is, to the changes
there prickt; from whence he must continually fetch instructions to
direct the course of his Bell, which is oftentimes the case of the
Learner: his thoughts in the time of ringing being commonly upon
the figures that are prickt, either upon paper, or else upon the
Steeple-wall, whilst it should be wholly intent upon the notes.
Therefore in a word, the Practitioner whilst he is ringing of changes,
must fix his mind fully and wholly upon the notes of the bells, and
not permit it in the least to wander from thence; for the notes are to
be the sole object of the thoughts in the time of ringing.
The notes being imagined to strike in a row as aforesaid, their
places will then soon be understood. The notes do take their places
according to their successive order of striking both at fore-stroke and
back-stroke; each succeeding note taking its place next to that which
preceds it: for whatsoever bell leads either at fore-stroke or at back-
stroke, its note lieth in the first place of the supposed row of notes;
and that which strikes next after the leading note, its note lieth in the
second place of the supposed row of notes, and so the rest in the like
order. As if five bells should strike thus after one another either of
fore-stroke or back-stroke, 5 4 1 2 3. here the 5th lieth in the first
place, because it was first struck; the 4th in the second place, because
it was second struck; the Treble in the third place, because it was
third struck; the 2d in the fourth place, because it was fourth struck;
and the 3d in the last place, because it was last struck; and the like of
the notes in every change.
 Observ. 3. The next thing to be understood by the Learner, is the
precedency of the notes. Now whereas in the ringing of changes, the
notes do all strike after one another at the fore-stroke, and again at
the back-stroke, therefore are they said to lie before or behind each
other, according to their places of striking. As if five men were
standing in a row, as these five figures represent, 1 2 3 4 5, the first
man to stand at the fig. 1, the second man at the figure 2, &c. and
that they stand with their faces all one way, that is, the first man
ready to lead, and the rest to follow him one behind another. Now
the first man stands before the rest, and the fifth man behind the
rest; the second man stands behind the first man, but before the
third; the third man stands behind the second, but before the fourth;
and the fourth stands behind the third, but before the fifth. In which
manner the notes being supposed to strike in the like row, may also
be laid to lie before or behind each other as the men did. For
whatsoever note leads either at fore-stroke or back-stroke, is said to
lie before the rest; and that which strikes last, to strike behind the
rest. The note which lieth in the second place, as on the one hand it
lieth behind the leading note, so on the other hand it lieth before the
note in the third place. As the note in the third place lieth behind the
note in the second place, so it lieth before the note in the fourth
place. And in like manner, every note is said to lie behind those that
strike before it, and before those that strike after it.
Observ. 4. A Change is to be made betwixt two notes, by moving
them into each others places; wherein ’tis to be observed as a general
Rule, That every change must be made betwixt two notes that strike
next to each other. As if five bells were ringing round in this order,
12345, the 1 and 2 may make a change, or 2 and 3, or likewise 3 and
4, or 4 and 5, because each two lie next each other; but the 1 and 3
cannot, because 2 strikes between them, much less may 1 and 4, &c.
The two notes which make every change, moves into each others
places in the making of it; wherein one note is said to move up, and
the other down. The reason why one of them is said to move up, is,
because he that rings that bell, in the making of the change must
hold it up at the Sett a little longer than ordinary, to delay its
striking, whereby ’tis made to follow the other note which before it
preceded; and because ’tis so held up, therefore ’tis said to make an
Up-change, or to move up: and on the contrary, the reason why the
other note is said to move down, is, because he that rings it, pulls
down the bell a little sooner than ordinary, to make it strike before
the note which before it followed; and because ’tis so pulled down,
therefore it is said to make a Down-change, or to move down. I will
here give a short though certain rule to know when an Up-change or
a Down-change is to be made: whensoever any note moves to strike
behind the note wherewith it makes a change, it makes an up-change
in doing it; and whensoever it moves to strike before the note, which
’tis to make a change with, it makes a down-change in doing it: so
that every note which moves fromward the leading-note, makes an
up-change; and when it moves toward the leading-note, it makes a
down-change. I will here shew the manner of making a change:
admitting that a peal of five bells were raised to a sett-pull, which is
the usual compass for ringing of changes; the notes are first
supposed to strike in this order, 12345. Now a change may be made
betwixt any two notes that strike next each other; I will here make it
betwixt the 3d. and 4th. which is to be done by moving them into
each others’ places. Now ’tis observable, that before the making of
the change, the 3d. note lies before the 4th. that is, it strikes next
before the 4th; and the 4th. lies behind the 3d. that is, it strikes
behind it: now in the making of the change, the 3d. must move to
strike behind the 4th: wherein it makes an up-change; and the 4th.
note at the same time must move to strike before the 3d. wherein it
makes a down-change; the change being made, the bells will strike
thus, 12435. All changes whatsoever are made in the aforesaid
manner: for as the 3d note made an up-change in moving to strike
behind the 4th, and the 4th at the same time a down-change in
moving to strike before the 3d; so in like manner the two notes that
make every change, must in the making of it move the one up, and
the other down, as the 3d and 4th here has done. The Learner may
take notice, that in ringing termes ’tis not usual to say, that a bell
makes an up-change, or a down-change; but in short, that it moves
up or down, which implies the former. When a note makes an up-
change, ’tis then said to move over the other note; and when it makes
a down-change, to move under it: as in the next preceding example,
where the 3d note is said to move up over the 4th, and the 4th down
under the 3d, in which manner the terms over and under are given
to the two notes that make every change.
Observ. 5. In the time of ringing changes, two things are by the
Practitioners to be well considered. First, to observe and readily to
know, which two bells are always to make the next succeeding
change: Secondly, if he is concern’d therein, to consider what bell he
is to follow in the making of it. Upon a right knowledge of these two
things, depends the Practick part of this Art. To make him expert
herein, he must before hand perfectly understand, and readily
remember the course and method of the changes prickt with figures,
wherein he ought to be so well skill’d, as to be able to prick them
down divers ways, that is, to make any figure a Hunt at pleasure;
which when he can readily and speedily do, without pausing to
consider of the course, then ’tis presumed that he understands the
methods throughly. But yet he will not be capable to put them in
practice, untill he understands the manner of making a change in
ringing; neither can he understand that, until he understands the
precedency of the notes; nor the precedency, until he understands
the places; nor the places, until he knows the notes one from
another. Therefore the four preceding observations being first
perfectly understood, and also the methods of the changes as before;
the Practitioner may then successfully proceed in the ringing of
changes; and as a further help therein I will here instruct him. There
are three bells concern’d in the making of every single change, except
only when ’tis made behind, and then but two: whensoever the note
of his bell is to make a change with any other note, his ear must then
inform him whether it lies before or behind the other note; if it lies
before, then in making the change it must move up behind it, that is,
to follow it; and consequently, he must draw down his bell next after
that which he makes a change with, which is called an up-change, as
I said before. But if the note of his bell lies behind the other, then in
making of the change it must move down to strike before it, and
consequently he must draw down his bell next after that which the
other before followed, this being a down-change. So that the making
of an up-change is very easie, because he must always follow that bell
which he makes a change with; but a down-change is more difficult,
because he cannot so readily apprehend what bell he is to follow; yet
there is a certain rule for it, which is this: to observe beforehand what
note strikes the next but one before his, which bell he must follow in
the making of the change. Whensoever the two notes, which strike
next before his note, are to make a change; he must consider, that
notwithstanding his note is to lie still in its place, yet he is concern’d
therein, because the bell which he followed before the making of the
change, must in the making of it move away down, and therefore he
must follow the bell that comes into its place.
The changes are to be rung, either by walking them, as the term
is; or else Whole-pulls, or Half-pulls. By walking them, is meant,
that the bells go round four, six, eight times or more in one change;
which way is very proper for young Practitioners, to introduce them
into a more ready way of Practice; for whilst the bells go round divers
times in one change, they have in the mean time leisure to consider
which two bells are to make the next following change, and also what
bell each of them is to follow in the making of it; and so by diligence
in practice they will by degrees acquire a more ready skill to enable
them to ring at whole-pulls. Whole-pulls, is, when the bells go round
at the fore-stroke and back-stroke in a change; and every time they
are pull’d down at Sally, a new change is made. Whole-pulls was the
general practice in former times; and indeed, considering the
manner of the hanging of the bells in those days, they could not well
be rung at half-pulls: but since the improvement of the Art of Bell-
hanging, that is, with round Wheels, trussing them up in the Stock,
and placing the Roll at right Angles with the Sole of the Wheel; the
bells go much better, and are managed with more ease at a Sett-pull
than formerly: therefore the changes are now generally rung at half-
pulls, that is, at the fore-stroke one change, at the back-stroke
another, and so throughout.
In ringing half-pulls, some peals of changes will cut compass,
wherein the whole Hunt comes always to lead at the back-stroke; to
prevent which, make the first change of the peal at the back-stroke.
In plain and single changes on six bells, to hunt (that is, whole Hunt)
the Treble, third, or fifth, down at the beginning of a peal cuts
compass, unless prevented as before. Also to hunt the second, fourth,
or sixth up at the beginning of a peal, cuts compass, unless prevented
as before. Which rules, leaving out the Tenor, serves in like manner
to prevent cutting compass on five bells.
’Tis convenient in ringing, to give notice of the extream changes,
and he that rings the slowest Hunt, may best do it. The manner of it
is, to say Extream, when the leading bell is pulling down, in order to
make the change next before the extream; by which means there will
be one compleat change betwixt the warning and the extream: longer
warning would be too much, and shorter too little.
 The divers kinds of changes on Bells may be comprehended
under two heads, viz. Plain Changes, and Cross Peals, which terms
are comparatively given: for as the first are plain and easie only in
comparison to the methods of the second; so consequently the
second cross and intricate in comparison to the methods of the first.
I will first shew in what respect they differ, and then proceed to the
methods. Plain changes (I mean compleat peals) are such as have
one universal method, wherein all the notes except three have a
direct hunting course, moving gradually under each other in one
plain and uniform order. But the methods of cross peals are various,
each peal having a course differing from all others: and although
most of them have Hunts, yet the Hunts have different kinds of
motions, and some very intricate. Moreover plain changes are also
term’d Single changes, because in the ringing of them there is only a
single change made in the striking of all the notes once round either
at fore-stroke or back-stroke; whereas in cross changes ’tis usual to
make as many changes as the number of notes will permit. For
example, supposing that a peal of 5 bells were raised, and rung at a
Sett-pull; the notes are supposed to strike round in this order, 12345:
now any two of the notes that strike next together may make a
change, therefore either a single or a double change may be made at
pleasure. The single change is made by changing only two notes; the
double change is made by changing four notes, that is, two to make
one change and two another, yet ’tis called one double change, and
not two changes, in regard ’tis made in the striking of the five notes
of the bells once round: as, admit the treble, second, third, and
fourth, should make a change, ’tis thus to be done, 21435, where the
Treble and Second made one change, and 3, 4 another; which we will
imagine to be made at the fore-stroke of the bells, and therefore ’tis
called one double change, and not two changes, because ’tis entirely
made in the striking of the five notes once round. So that this one
double change has effected that which would have required two
single changes to have done the like. For instance, there can but two
notes change their places at once in a single change, therefore the
Treble and Second shall first change their places thus, 21345; then
the third and fourth thus, 21435: so that here the five notes have
gone twice round to effect that, which in the double change was done
in going once round. And this is the nature of the difference between
Plain and Cross changes.