T U G T P P

F B

Y 7-D G T S P
E C W H -O E
T U C O
© Copyright 2023—All rights reserved.
The content contained within this book may not be reproduced,
duplicated or transmitted without direct written permission from the
author or the publisher.
Under no circumstances will any blame or legal responsibility be held
against the publisher, or author, for any damages, reparation, or
monetary loss due to the information contained within this book, either
directly or indirectly.
Legal Notice:
This book is copyright protected. It is only for personal use. You
cannot amend, distribute, sell, use, quote or paraphrase any part, or
the content within this book, without the consent of the author or
publisher.
Disclaimer Notice:
Please note the information contained within this document is for
educational and entertainment purposes only. All effort has been
executed to present accurate, up to date, reliable, complete
information. No warranties of any kind are declared or implied.
Readers acknowledge that the author is not engaged in the rendering
of legal, financial, medical or professional advice. The content within
this book has been derived from various sources. Please consult a
licensed professional before attempting any techniques outlined in this
book.
By reading this document, the reader agrees that under no
circumstances is the author responsible for any losses, direct or
indirect, that are incurred as a result of the use of the information
contained within this document, including, but not limited to, errors,
omissions, or inaccuracies.
Table of Contents

Preface
For the Readers
Writing Conventions
Unveiling Python: From Its Origins to Global Prominence
What is Python? A Brief History
Why Should You Choose Python as Your First Programming
Language
Easy to Learn
Easy to Read and Write
Syntax Is Simple
Abundance of Resources
Open-Source and Free
In-Demand
Large and Supportive Community
How Python Differs From Other Languages
Python vs. JavaScript
Python vs. Node.js
Python vs. Java
Python vs. Ruby
Python vs. PHP
Python vs. R
Python vs. C++
Python vs. C#
Where Does Python Stand Today
The Pros and Cons of Python
Pros
Cons
Introduction
But Why Python?
Chapter 1: Python Fundamentals
Getting Started
 Before You Do—Installing Python the Smart Way
For Windows
For Mac
For Linux
Instal Python
Installing Python on Windows
Installing Python on Mac
Installing Python on Linux
Installing Your IDE
IDLE
PyCharm
Visual Studio Code
Sublime Text 3
Atom
Other IDEs and Code Editors
Your First Step to Code
Python Variables
How to Name Your Variables the Right Way
The Data Types in Python
Integers
Float
String
Boolean
List
Dictionary
Tuple
Set
Exercises
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Chapter 2: Python Basic Operations and Input/Output
Basic Operations in Python
Arithmetic Operations
The Arithmetic Operators
 Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Modulus
Exponentiation Operator
Floor Division
String Concatenation
Using the + Operator
Using the * Operator
Using the join() Method
Using % Operator
Using format() Function
F-string Method
Python User Input and Output
Comments
Exercises
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Chapter 3: Control Structures and Data Collections
Conditional Statements
Comparison and Logical Operators
Logical Operators
Loops and Iterations
For
While
Break
Continue
Pass
Lists and Dictionaries
List Operators
Diving Deeper Into Dictionaries
Exercises
Chapter 4: Python Functions and Modular Programming
 Introduction to Functions
The Syntax of a Function
Parameters and Return Values
Functions With No Parameter
Scope and Variable Lifetime
Exercise
Simple Calculator
Chapter 5: Advanced Data Structures in Python
Tuples
Accessing Items Inside a Tuple
Sets
Modifying Sets
List Comprehension in Python
Set Operations
Set Union
Set Intersection
Set Difference
Set Symmetric Difference
Exercise
Chapter 6: The Basics of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Using
Python
Basics of Python OOP
Classes and Objects
Objects
Creating Class Methods
Inheritance and Polymorphism
Extending Classes
Method Overriding
Exercise
Chapter 7: Error Handling and Debugging in Python
What Is Error Handling in Programming?
What Is Debugging?
Understanding Exceptions
Types of Exceptions
 NameError
TypeError
ValueError
IndexError
IndentationError
ZeroDivisionError
ImportError / ModuleNotFoundError
AttributeError
KeyError
Python Debugging Techniques
Using the Print Statements
Using Python Debugger
Using the Logging Module
The Try and Except Statements
Recommended Workflow of Debugging for Beginners
Exercise
Chapter 8: Python File Operations and Data Storage
Reading and Writing Files
File Access Modes on Python
Opening Files
Closing Files
Writing
Reading
Appending
Working With CSV Data in Python
Opening a CSV File
File Modes
Closing a CSV File
Reading a CSV File
Writing on CSV Files
Read CSV File Into Dictionaries
Writing CSV File From Dictionary
Handling Errors
Working With JSON Data in Python
 JSON Serialization
Deserialization
Exercise
Bonus Challenge
Chapter 9: Fundamentals of Python Web Development
Introduction to Python Web Development
The Basics of Framework—Flask
Step 1—Installing the Virtual Environment
Step 2—Creating an Environment
Step 3—Activating the Environment
Step 4—Installing Flask
Step 5—Testing the Development Environment
Building a Simple Python Web App
Routing
Flask HTTP Methods
Using Templates
Exercise
Chapter 10: Introduction to Python Game Development
Project Overview
Preparing for the Project
Pros
Cons
The Right Option
PyGame Tutorial
Import and Initialize
Create a Game Window
Updating Games Using Loops
Drawing Graphics
Creating a Working Game: Circle Escape Challenge
Importing Modules and Initializing Pygame
Setting Up the Display Window and Display Variables
Define Colors, Shapes and Player variables
Game State Control
Create the fonts for the Score and Instructions
 Display Functions
Game Loop
Full Code - Circle Escape Challenge
Code Challenge
Conclusion
Preface

For the Readers

Hey there, fellow Python enthusiast! In the pages ahead, we’re
about to dive deep into the Python universe - its history, its quirks,
and how it stacks up against other programming languages. But
here’s the deal: if you’re raring to start coding right this moment,
you’re in the right place!
The history stuff is awesome, no doubt about it. Python’s got a
fascinating story, and you’ll want to soak it all in eventually. But, if
you’re itching to get hands-on with Python right now, flip on over to
the Introduction section. There, we’ll walk you through the process
of installing Python and getting your coding groove on.
Think of the history as the ‘bonus content’ in this Python saga. It’s
like the deleted scenes on a DVD - cool, but not essential for your
main feature experience. So, let’s kickstart your coding adventure
first, and you can always circle back to the history whenever you’re
in the mood for a bit of programming nostalgia.
The Python history is like a trusty old friend - it’ll be right here
waiting whenever you’re ready to catch up. So, dive into the
Introduction, and let’s fire up your Python journey!
Before you move on, the exercise files from the book can be
downloaded at the following link:
https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fo/9wu4uh8oeccbagdxtzkjv/h?
rlkey=pbd0uwdtl2i52uhx9yih6gikm&dl=0
Writing Conventions
Code samples are presented in a special monospaced font with a shaded
background to set them apart from regular text. This formatting is designed
to make the code stand out and easy to distinguish within the text.
Output examples, which showcase the results of executing code, are also
presented in a monospaced font without a shaded background to make them
 readily identifiable

Command line instructions, which guide you through tasks

in a terminal or command prompt, are usually displayed in a
bullet point. This helps you differentiate them from regular
text and code

File names are typically displayed in italics. This style indicates that
the text represents a suggested file name you might encounter in
your programming journey.
NOTE: E-Readers will not always display these differences. In our
testing, code does highlight with a different background color. Other
text such as variable names, output and even command line
instructions may not have the same format as shown in the print
version of the book.
Unveiling Python: From Its Origins to Global
Prominence
Learning any language is an exciting prospect. While most people
learn languages that they rarely use, programming languages are
slightly different. Programming is about being creative, thinking out
of the box, and doing something different. It grants you the power
to create something, and the great feeling of knowing you can do
that is just incredible.
Ever since Python was invented, it has gone on to attract the
attention of the world, and the programming community at large,
and it continues to draw a lot of attention. While its simplicity is the
leading reason why everyone wants to learn Python, the rise of AI
and machine learning are two other driving reasons.
If that wasn't enough, almost every leading business school today
teaches Python and some of its libraries to business graduates. You
might wonder how the two relate, and you wouldn't be wrong to
assume that a business graduate has nothing to do with
programming. However, Python proves to be a vital piece in their
academic journey. Using Python, business analysts can filter, refine,
and extract data. They can work up charts, export data into files, and
simplify everything for them and their clients.
Python continues to make a case for itself, and it is safe to assume
that Python is here to stay. With all the technological
advancements, such as AI and machine learning, knowing Python is
becoming a skill garnering a lot of attention and demand. Therefore,
let's understand exactly what Python is, where it came from, and
why it has become so popular.
What is Python? A Brief History
For years, there have been many programming languages that have
been created for a variety of purposes. Each of them boasts an
advantage while also lacking in some departments, and it's easy to
see why that was the case.
The first language, invented by Ada Lovelace, surfaced in 1843. She
created the entire language on paper because computers had not yet
been invented. Her programming language was best described as a
machine algorithm.
After a century, between the years 1944–45, the first actual
programming language was invented by Konrad Zuse. This
programming language was called Plankalkül (better known as
Plain Calculus). What this language did was to allow the creation of
procedures. Procedures were chunks of recallable code that could be
used to carry out various operations. Sure enough, it caught on.
Around 1949, just a few years after Zuse's language, another
language made itself known to the world: the assembly language.
For those who may not know, programming languages have levels,
high and low. The low-level languages are generally system-level
programming. These are difficult to read and, for someone who has
never programmed before, almost impossible to comprehend. Low-
level languages create the basic structures for software that
eventually interact with hardware.
The assembly language remains the first low-level language, was
popularly used, and is still under use today. Of course, this was hard
to learn, meaning that it was only natural someone would come up
with something slightly better and more understandable. Besides, a
low-level language could only carry out limited operations.
During the same year, Shortcode was also introduced. Unlike the
assembly language, Shortcode was the first high-level programming
language that John McCauley invented. A high-level language is
what some of the most popular programming languages are, such as
Python. You can use high-level languages to carry out various tasks,
operations, and more.
Three years later, in 1952, Alick Glennie developed Autocode, a
language he created for use on the Mark 1 computer at the
University of Manchester. What truly made Autocode a hit was that
it was the first-ever compiled language. Unlike any other language
before it, this was the first language ever where a compiler would
translate the code into binary code, a series of zeros and ones that
the computer understands, without needing to do that manually.
This saved a lot of time and allowed programmers to do so much
more than before.
Next came the FORTRAN in 1957, which stands for Formula
Translation. It was created by John Backus, and it remains the
oldest high-level programming language still in use today. This
programming language could easily perform scientific, statistical,
and mathematical operations.
The world of programming language was now populating faster than
ever before. Every bright mind was developing some new and
ingenious way to compute and create programs. In the ten years
since FORTRAN was invented, four additional languages were
invented. These were:

1. ALGOL—Algorithmic language, a joint venture between

American and European computer scientists. This language
reserves the honor of laying the foundation for some of the
most redefining and successful programming languages
 ever created, including C, Pascal, C++, and the popularly
used Java.
2. LISP—List processor, a language invented by John
McCarthy within the walls of Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). This was the first language intended
purely for the use of artificial intelligence and is still in use
today. Even though it is somewhat complex, it is seen as a
great alternative to Python and Ruby. Some popular
companies that continue to use LISP include Boeing,
Acceleration, Genworks, and more.
3. COBOL—Common Business Oriented Language. As the
name implies, this programming language was created
solely for processing transactions and is the language of
choice for many credit card processors, telephones, ATMs,
and even traffic signals. Dr. Grace Murray Hopper was the
mind behind this revolutionary language. This language
remains the go-to language of major financial and banking
institutions and even the gaming industry.
4. BASIC—Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.
Quite a mouthful. However, this is where everything
changed. A group of students at Dartmouth College created
this programming language. The goal was to create a
language for students who weren't the strongest at
mathematics or computers. This language, however, went
on to catch the attention of one bright mind named Bill
Gates. Using this language, Gates and his partner Paul Allen
created the world's most popular graphic-based operating
system, Windows, which cemented Microsoft's authority in
the world of computers.

After Microsoft's massive success at the start, the race to find better
programming languages took a new turn. From there, the world
went on to welcome PASCAL, a language that was quickly favored
by another tech company named Apple. The language was easier to
use, offered more flexibility, and was something Apple preferred
using for all its projects.
In 1972, Smalltalk made its debut. While this wasn't such a
phenomenal hit, it was still fascinating that you could modify code
on the fly. Many of the programming languages of today, such as
Python, owe their success to Smalltalk. Even today, companies like
Logitech and Leafly continue to use Smalltalk for their tech stacks.
In the same year, the world was also greeted by arguably the most
significant programming language phenomenon of its kind: C.
Dennis Ritchie developed it at the prestigious Bell Telephone
Laboratories. He developed this language to be used with a Unix
operating system. By now, A and B, two more programming
languages, already existed, but they were not even close to being as
powerful and effective as C.
C gave the world an opportunity that it so desperately needed.
Because of C, many other off-shoots or derivatives came to life.
These included:

1. C#
2. Java
3. Perl
4. Python
5. PHP
6. JavaScript

It was a huge success and, believe it or not, continues to impress

many tech giants even today. People at Meta (formerly Facebook)
and Google continue to use C. Even Apple switched from PASCAL to
C.
With all of these programming languages emerging, a gap was
created within the market. With so much data to process, people
needed a way to access, modify, alter, or delete databases. While this
could be done by manually going into the directories, opening the
file, modifying entries, and so on, it was not the most efficient way.
Therefore, the same year, IBM researchers Donald Chamberlain and
Raymon Boyce developed another programming language that
specialized in database modification and management. They called
it SEQUEL, which later went on to become SQL.
We cannot even start to name the number of companies that
continue to use SQL today. The fact is that it became an instant hit
because it addressed a significant need within the market. Thanks to
SQL, database management became extremely easy and efficient.
However, after 1972, there was a noticeable downward trend in the
number of programming languages that emerged. It seemed the
entire tech world had hit the ceiling and was now losing interest.
The next programming language took almost a decade before it was
created. In 1981, Ada was created for a US Department of Defense
project. It was a structured, imperative, statically typed, object-
oriented, high-level programming language that became the
worldwide choice language for air traffic management systems.
Even space projects use Ada to carry out complex computations
effectively and efficiently.
Two years later, C++ was introduced as a modified version of C.
C++ is an extension to C for all intents and purposes as it offers
additional classes, functions, and other useful templates. The same
year also saw Objective-C emerge, a language used to design and
create the software behind Apple's wonderful iOS and macOS.
A few years later, Perl made its mark, too. It was initially intended
to be a high-level programming language for text editing, but these
days, it is mainly used for CGI, system administration, and some
database applications.
By now, computers had become more advanced. Older languages
were too system-resource-heavy or too inefficient. Some of the
languages were disappearing, and some were far too hard to
understand. This is where Guido Van Rossum developed a project
that would address those issues through a single high-level
language. It would draw its inspiration from all the popular
languages, such as C and others, to create a far simpler syntax that
almost anyone could understand. Van Rossum came up with what
now is the second-most popular programming language on earth
and decided to name it after his favorite British comedy troupe,
Monty Python. In 1991, the world greeted Python: a language for
everybody.
Today, Python is used by Google, Spotify, Yahoo, Pinterest, Quora,
Instagram, Uber, and Amazon; the list goes on and on. They all use
Python for some solid reasons: it's easy to type, it's highly memory
efficient, it's fast, reliable, and it is very flexible.
Think about Python; it is a more mature and robust version of all
the popular programming languages. To make things even more
attractive for programmers, it is object-oriented, something we will
learn more about later.
Python was meant to be a language that could be used for
everything and by everyone. Arguably, this is one of those few
languages that achieved its goal. From the examples we highlighted
above, it shows that Python can be used in a variety of ways. It is the
perfect language to learn and master if you aim to seek a career in:

Web development
Cybersecurity
Software development
Game development
Data Analytics

Speaking of data analytics, there is no denying that this is the era of

data analytics and data sciences. Anyone who aims to utilize this
time and make an impact in the world, find a great paying job, or
even set up their consultancy would need to learn Python. That is
because Python sits at the center of all data sciences. Python is the
go-to language for data scientists because of its flexibility. Not only
is it a great language to use for your projects, but it is also able to:

Connect with databases

Carry out complex mathematical operations
 Work on servers with ease
Create workflows
Access, read, and even modify files
Handle big data

Why Should You Choose Python as Your First

Programming Language
That is a very valid question. Of all the programming languages that
you can learn from, why Python? There must be something truly
unique and rewarding about Python that makes it that much more
appealing. Well, there are many, as we shall now see.
Easy to Learn
Python is considered the most beginner-friendly programming
language on earth. Whether you're someone migrating from one
programming language to another or someone who has never
worked with any programming language, it is a great language to
start with. Why? Let me show you an example.
We'll use three different programming languages to see and
compare how easy or otherwise it is to read the code. We will be
using C, C++, and Python. For this example, we'll ask the
programming language to print "Hello World." It is a simple
program and requires no real skill.
C
// C showing
// how to print Hello World
// on screen
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("Hello World");
return 0;
 }
"Oh My...." I know. Hard, isn't it? Let's see how C++ fares.
C++
// C++
// code showing how to
// print Hello World
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "Hello World";
return 0;
}
"That's just worse." Okay, let's find out how Python differs.
P
print("Hello World")
"Wait... is that it?" That is quite literally how you write in a code
that asks Python to print the words "Hello World" and write it so
that you can practically read it like English. Here is another example
to show just how simple things are with Python. This time, we will
ask our user to input two values as first number and second
number. We will then ask the program to add the two and print the
result.
C
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, b, c;
printf("first number: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("second number: ");
 scanf("%d", &b);
c = a + b;
printf("Hello World\n%d + %d = %d", a, b, c);
return 0;
}
That's... complicated. Let's see if C++ is any easier.
C++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a, b, c;
cout << "first number: ";
cin >> a;
cout << endl;
cout << "second number: ";
cin >> b;
cout << endl;
c = a + b;
cout << "Hello World" << endl;
cout << a << "+" << b << "=" << c;
return 0;
}
"That makes absolutely no sense." Exactly. For someone who has
never coded before, that's just gibberish. However, let's not be quick
and see if Python is as easy as they claim.
P
a = int(input("first number: "))
b = int(input("second number: "))
 c=a+b
print("Hello World")
print(a, "+", b, "=", c)
"Well, it kinda makes some sense." It certainly does. Typing code in
Python is straightforward because it is the only programming
language closest to English, making reading codes in Python much
easier. While you may still not get some of that code right away,
don't worry. That's only because we are not used to understanding
the syntax. We will do that later on in the book. Once done, you can
revisit this code and see if it makes sense. You'd be surprised at just
how easy of a code this turns out to be.
Easy to Read and Write
From the previous example, it is clear that Python is significantly
easier to write and certainly easier to read. It may use some odd
quotation marks at times, but even that is understandable enough
to the untrained eye.
You cannot deny Python is a thousand times easier to read and
make sense of as compared to:
printf("Hello World\n%d + %d = %d", a, b, c);
That is the beauty of Python. That is precisely what Guido Van
Rossum had in mind: Simplicity. It is this simplicity that has gone
on to attract people from all walks of life to learn and adopt Python
as their go-to language.
While other languages made before Python were aimed to be
"general purposes" languages, Python is one that truly lives up to
that title. It virtually allows even an untrained professional to read
and make sense of the code.
What truly makes it unique is how it is written. You do not have to
worry about special symbols at the end of the line, such as in the
examples above. You type your line, hit the "Enter/Return" key, and
move on to the following line.
Syntax Is Simple
Syntax is the basic structure, the skeletal system of a language.
Syntax determines how you write code in any given programming
language.
In the above examples we borrowed from C and C++, you can see
that they had semi-colons at the very end of every line. These serve
as something called terminators. Terminators tell the compiler and
the computer, "Hey, this is where the line ends."
Python, on the other hand, does not require any of that. The
compiler does not need explicit instructions to determine where the
line ends. "Don't worry! I've got you." That's probably what the
compiler says because it is smart enough to know when the line
ends, making our jobs easier.
It isn't just that, either. As we go deeper into this book, you will
learn how simple the entire syntax is. From declaring a variable to
recalling values, from taking inputs from users to passing them
through lists and dictionaries, everything is done in an easy-to-read-
and-write way.
Abundance of Resources
Arguably, Python's most significant selling point is its plethora of
resources for all levels of programming. Whether you're a beginner
or a veteran programmer, Python offers resources to help you
quickly understand and overcome all challenges.
The resources of Python are available for free. You can also request
fellow programmers from around the world to help you with custom
problems you may be facing with your code. There are places like
Stack Overflow, Reddit, GitHub, and many others where you can
post your questions and find out exactly what you're looking for.
If you do not find the answer, post your code and request assistance.
Someone within the active community will offer their solution,
which generally does the trick for everyone.
Open-Source and Free
Another unique selling point for Python is that it is 100% free of
cost. Not just that, it is open-source, meaning anyone in the world
can modify the original code and add their contribution to improve
the language functionality.
Open-source software and languages have massive communities
that are constantly helping languages, users, and the software
improve in terms of functionality and ease of use.
An open-source language allows you to stay up-to-date and secure
because you're not the only one using Python. Many large
organizations also rely on Python to make things work. This means
that the language is constantly under supervision. It also means
that there will always be programmers constantly working on
finding bugs, fixing them, updating the language, and ensuring that
it offers efficiency and security.
In-Demand
Python is relatively young, especially when compared to other
languages like C and BASIC. It is a language that has only recently
seen a massive spike in terms of demand. This is because large
corporations and organizations like Google use Python to make
things work.
Large and Supportive Community
We touched on that before, but did you know the community is very
supportive? Many new programmers feel intimidated by posting a
basic question and then find themselves at the receiving end of
giggles and laughter. That is not the case with the Python
community.
The Python community is caring and respectful and fully
understands the needs and requirements of new programmers.
Whether you're posting on some official Python forum or places like
Stack Overflow, you're bound to be greeted and assisted in the
kindest ways possible. You can ask for an explanation of confusing
codes. You can ask fellow programmers to write code doing a certain
thing and even post your projects to seek reviews and optimization.
The possibilities are endless, and the community members are
always on hand to assist you through your endeavors.
How Python Differs From Other Languages
Earlier, we looked into how you write code using C, C++, and
Python, but those aren't the only languages in question. The fact is
that there are many other languages out there, some even more
popular, that people continue to use. Therefore, it is only fair to
compare Python with those languages and find out what makes
Python the language of choice.
Python vs. JavaScript
As it turns out, JavaScript is the most popular programming
language, but this will soon change as Python overtakes that crown.
This, therefore, poses a bit of a problem. Comparing these two
giants of the programming world isn't that easy.
Both of these languages offer essential features, and both of them
handle fundamental aspects. Think about these languages like
brushes. Some artists may prefer using a particular type of brush,
while others may prefer an entirely different one.
That said, programmers don't use a single language to handle the
entire project. A good software, for example, may have more than
one language. A part of the software may use JavaScript to load the
elements of the app's home screen, while the moment you log in,
Python may come in to handle integrating your progress with
servers.
If you aim to do web apps and work a lot as a front-end developer,
JavaScript is your go-to language. You stick to Python if your
operation involves a lot of CPU-intensive operations. Let's say
you're aiming to do a project on machine learning where you need
to train a model to solve a problem most effectively; that's where
you'll need Python. If you want to advertise your project on a
website and showcase its power, you'll need JavaScript along with
HTML and CSS to do that for you.
Therefore, to simplify things, the key differences are:

1. JavaScript is better if you aim to work on the front end.

 2. Python is great for all back-end and server-side operations.
3. JavaScript is faster than Python.
4. Python saves time in writing code.
5. Python is significantly better for data analytics, artificial
intelligence (AI), and machine learning when compared to
JavaScript.
6. Python is much easier to manage, understand, and modify
than JavaScript.

Python vs. Node.js

Node.js is another programming language primarily used for web
application development7. However, unlike JavaScript, which is
complicated compared to Python, Node.js is significantly more
advanced to understand, let alone work with.
Node.js, an advanced programming language, has some advantages
over Python. These include:

1. A less opinionated ecosystem—Most of the packages of

Node.js are very simple, and most of these are designed for a
particular purpose. This simplifies the entire project as
programmers only use what they need to. However, it also
poses a challenge as programmers will need to work out
beforehand what packages they need throughout the
project, which can often take time.
2. Coding in JavaScript—Using Node.js, you can practically
code in both the front and back end using JavaScript.
Remember, Node.js is essentially a higher level of
JavaScript, not an entirely different language.
3. Large community—Like Python, Node.js also has a huge
community willing to help, assist, and guide Node.js users
and developers.

With that said, it is worth knowing that you'll need to know

JavaScript properly first to be able to use Node.js. Without that,
learning Node.js can be extremely tough and tricky, as most things
will not make sense.
It is also worth noting that Node.js struggles to handle and execute
multiple tasks simultaneously. Then, there is the fact that if your
code isn't written with quality in mind, you may end up ruining your
app's performance, and it will work slowly.
Make no mistake, as Python can also run into the same problem.
However, some Python frameworks, such as Django, allow users to
take advantage of the built-in solutions. These solutions ensure that
the code is well-optimized and that operations continue as smoothly
as possible. That's yet another reason why Python is the go-to
language for all.
Python vs. Java
Java and JavaScript are two different programming languages. They
may sound like they are related, but they aren't. JavaScript is used
for front-end development, whereas Java is used primarily in
application development.
Python is a language that is interpreted and dynamically typed. On
the other hand, Java is a compiled language that is statically typed.
On one hand, Python code requires no compilation before running
the program. On the other hand, we have Java, which requires the
code to be compiled into binary code that the machine can
understand before executing it.
Then, there's the fact that Java is yet another advanced language. It
has steep learning curves, and ideally, you have previous
programming knowledge to fully understand the workings of the
language. It takes a lot of time to master the language, too.
Regarding stability, something that matters a lot to big corporations,
Java takes the edge ever so slightly. This is because it has a lot of
libraries that can help keep the software stable and intact. Make no
mistake, though, as Python boasts an ever-growing library that can
outperform Java and other languages in many other aspects,
especially Financial Technology.
Stability aside, it all boils down to three things:

1. Speed to develop
2. Resources for the language
3. Trends in the industry

As it turns out, Java can take a long time to develop an application

and bring it to its Most Viable Product (MVP) stage. Also, Java
projects will often require more developers on board, which can
easily offset the budget and the project's overall cost. Python, on the
other hand, doesn't suffer from any of that.
Resource-wise, and I do not mean the resources you need to learn
from, Java will demand a lot of time, energy, and money before fully
satisfying you with its results. Python, on the other hand, is
significantly less expensive. If you develop a project, Python will
help you save a fortune.
Finally, the trend. Python easily takes the cake here because of its
ever-growing popularity, incredible ease of use, and versatility. Java
is far from being the trending programming language. This means
that if you learn Python now, you stand a good chance of finding
some lucrative opportunities ahead.
Python vs. Ruby
Ruby is younger than Python but is still a great language to learn, as
both languages allow experts and developers to find very similar
results, especially if they are developing web applications.
Ruby is primarily aimed at web development, and, unlike Python, it
is usually restricted to that domain most of the time. On the other
hand, Python can be used in various situations.
Regarding popularity, both of these languages are polar opposites of
each other. Ruby is seen as a language that has a declining number
of users, whereas Python is a language that has skyrocketed in
popularity.
Both languages can handle server-side and scripting. Both languages
are dynamically typed, can be used cross-platform, and are both
general-purpose languages. The differences, on the other hand, are
apparent.

1. Popularity—There is no denying that Python is significantly

more popular than any other language, including Ruby.
2. Philosophy—Ruby and Python both approach problems in
their own unique ways. Python offers a more
straightforward and somewhat singular solution, while
Ruby offers multiple ways to solve the same problem.
3. Flexibility—Python's syntax is straightforward, easy to
understand, and uniform. Ruby's syntax is flexible. This is
why Ruby users need to find creative ways to solve
problems.

Python vs. PHP

PHP is another open-source language that has become quite
popular with web developers. Soon, it became the default language
of almost every web server technology out there. Around 80% of all
the web servers in existence today use PHP.
PHP can be used for other purposes, but that is rarely the case.
However, quite like Python, PHP is also very easy to learn. With
that said, it goes into very advanced territory, something beginners
may struggle to cope with.
When comparing the two, it is easy to see that Python is
significantly more versatile, offers a better and easier structure, and
has immense popularity.
On the other hand, PHP has many features right out of the box.
Even though Python can match that, the fact is that you'll need to
rely on importing additional libraries, and that can be a bit of a fuss.
Installing Python is easy, but installing PHP is significantly easier in
almost every case except if you're using Linux.
Python vs. R
R is yet another programming language for those who may not
know. R and Python are used for data sciences, a field that has
garnered much attention recently. Both of these languages are
flexible, and both of them are open-source. Both languages come
with significant community support, bringing their unique benefits
into the mix.
R has 12,000 packages that make it exceptional for reporting.
Whatever analysis you aim to carry out, you'll always be able to find
a package that does that for you. Then, there's the fact that the
output R generates is un-matchable by any other language, thanks
to its vast variety of tools.
On the other hand, you go for Python if your project involves
machine learning, artificial intelligence, and server-side work.
Python, too, can handle almost everything that R can, but what truly
makes it stand out is its code's simplicity and strength. While R is
used for smaller projects, Python is what people use for large-scale
projects.
Python vs. C++
C++ is a high-level and general-purpose programming language. It
is also object-oriented. An Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
language uses objects to carry out programming. Through object-
oriented programming, you can use real-world entities such as
hiding, inheritance, and polymorphism, although these may be too
advanced to look into at the moment.
In fairness, Python is also an OOP language, meaning it can do
almost everything C++ or any other OOP language can do. However,
learning C++ can be quite challenging as its syntax isn't the easiest
to understand right away.
Regarding speed, C++ takes the edge because it has a superior
memory management system compared to Python. However, that
also means that when you use up memory, it must be de-allocated,
as failure to do so in C++ will lead to memory leaks and crashes.
C++ does not have a built-in garbage collection or dynamic memory
management system, meaning you will need to work out when and
where your variables are no longer needed. Once you do that, you
must de-allocate these variables and free up memory.
Python has a built-in garbage collecting and dynamic memory
management system. This means you do not need to explicitly work
out when or where a variable is no longer required. It will be able to
work that out for you and ensure that it manages memory
utilization at its optimum level automatically.
It is also worth noting that Python requires an interpreter to be
active during code compilation. For that very reason, it is called an
interpreted language. C++, on the other hand, is a pre-compiled
language, and that means it does not require you to have an
interpreter.
C++ has a very complex syntax, and that makes reading code quite
tricky. Python, on the other hand, offers a significantly simpler
syntax. This is why most courses offer Python as the first language
to learn. It is a perfect way to get a feel of what it's like to write code,
make algorithms, etc.
Finally, when it comes to declaring variables, in C++, you will need
to declare what type of variable you want to create, followed by the
name of the variable and then the value that you wish to assign to
the variable.
For Python, however, things are much more manageable. You type
in a name and assign a value. The system will work out what kind of
variable you will use.
Python vs. C#
Also known as C Sharp, C# is a popular language that is a hit with
the game development community. Just like Python, it is an object-
oriented programming language. However, it is a language that is
native to Microsoft. It is the optimal programming language to build
some products using Microsoft-based platforms.
With that said, if you are already familiar with any variation of C,
you'll be right at home with C#. If you've never programmed before,
C# may be slightly more challenging.
Where Does Python Stand Today
Python has been around since 1991, or 32 years (when writing this
book). During these years, it has become the most popular
language. Yes, it is straightforward to use, extremely easy to
understand, and very versatile, but what truly makes it stand out is
the number of fields and applications where it shines.
At the time of writing this book, Python is used widely in the
following sectors and industries:

1. Data sciences
2. Research
3. Game development
4. Software engineering
5. Marketing and advertising
6. Ethical hacking and cybersecurity
7. Data analysis
8. Business reporting
9. Data extraction and filing
10. Web development
11. Machine learning
12. Artificial intelligence
13. Biology and bioinformatics
14. Computer vision
15. Image processing
16. Neuroscience
17. Psychology

Some of the major companies that continue to use Python include,

and are not limited to:

1. Google
2. Intel
 3. YouTube
4. PayPal
5. Facebook (Now known as Meta)
6. Amazon
7. Spotify
8. Dropbox
9. Netflix
10. Disqus
11. Pinterest
12. Uber
13. Reddit
14. Instagram
15. Instacart
16. IBM
17. JP Morgan Chase
18. Stripe

The Pros and Cons of Python

Of course, Python isn't the holy grail of programming languages, but
it is certainly one that comes closest to claiming that title. While
Python is a very, very practical language, it does have some
drawbacks and shortcomings that you must take into consideration.
This is important because it will help you understand whether you
can take on a particular project in the future while using Python or
not.
Pros
Easy to read.
Easy to write.
Easy to understand.
Massive learning resources.
Massive libraries for additional functionality.
 Large, active, and very supportive community.
Robust.
Secure.
Easy to maintain.
Wide variety of functionality and use cases.
Has a built-in memory management system.

Cons
Not as fast as C or Java.
Memory intensive.
Does not support multithreading.
Can be misused or overly used.

With all said and done, it all comes down to one question: should
you use Python? The answer to that is "Yes!" You should choose and
learn Python as your first, third, or even the 10th programming
language. The fact is that Python's popularity is on the rise, and
almost every other major firm is switching towards Python. Then,
there is the fact that Python can be used for various reasons and
projects, which means that you'll probably end up using Python for
the project you've been considering.
Learning Python is significantly more beneficial if the entire
emergence of artificial intelligence and data sciences inspires you.
Python is the go-to language for all these projects, so you will also
need to learn Python to make the most of the opportunity. Besides,
you may not be willing to spend 3 to 4 years learning a single
language and may be in a bit of a hurry to get into the world of
programming. Python, as it happens to be, is your quickest entry
into programming. It's easy to learn, doesn't take much time, and is
very easy to use.
Introduction

Things have changed for everyone in recent years, especially after

the lockdown. There was a time when you'd work your day job, and
things would be pretty easy to manage. As time went on, things
changed. The lockdown only sped up the process.
Today, many professionals realize they may not be making enough
money to lead a good life. They may not save fast enough to ensure
they have enough for retirement. Besides, the need for career
switching and side gigs is higher. It is safe to say that if you are
working a daytime job, you'd want to change things around to find
better opportunities for yourself and your future.
There was a time when you'd be required to go through years of
study and have a proper academic background to find jobs. Today,
all you need are skills, making things easier for us all.
Not long ago, a stay-at-home mom had a four-year-old kid to look
after and raise. At the same time, she was enrolled in a Masters
degree program in media studies. She aimed to ensure that she
would then be able to find better opportunities to ensure the
household was taken care of easily.
During this time, she decided to learn coding. This was partly due to
her studies and partly because everyone talked about how coding
experts made good money. Besides, she was a freelancer and was
more used to working from home. This allowed her to spend
enough time with her child and still be able to study at the same
time. Little did she know that she'd learn a skill that would allow
her to attract significant opportunities. To make things more
interesting, she chose to learn and work with Python.
Today, she's a successful freelancer, a wonderful mom, and a
Masters degree holder. She uses her newly acquired skills to assist
clients and customers worldwide through her mastery of the
language and its application. Needless to say, it worked out well for
her.
That is the power of learning a new skill, more specifically, a
programming language. While there are so many programming
languages, most may require a lot of time, months, or even years of
practice, and some may only be learned through degree programs.
That's not the case with Python.
Python has gone on to become a go-to language for programmers
and experts all around the world, second only to JavaScript. Python
is known for being one of the easiest programming languages to
learn. You do not need any specialized education, prior
programming experience or knowledge, or any of that. You only
need a system to work with, time, and interest.
What truly makes this programming language so popular is its use
and application. Whenever you learn a language, you must do so
with the end results in mind. You must know what that language
will allow you to do. Just like Python, there are many other
programming languages. However, almost every programming
language offers different functionality, versatility, and efficiency.
Some programming languages are great for web applications. Some
are renowned for mobile app development. Some are great for those
who wish to work with games, and some are almost exclusive to
things like web development, styling, and more. So, where does
Python stand, you ask?
Python is one of the most popular languages in existence today.
When writing this book, it is the second most popular language, just
behind JavaScript. What truly makes Python so popular is its
usefulness.
Python is the go-to programming language for:

Data scientists,
Data mining,
Web applications,
Games,
Machine learning,
 Artificial intelligence,
Deep learning,
Hacking and cybersecurity.

If Python was a person, that's one impressive resume.

"But how long does it take for me to learn Python?"
Frankly, Python is unlike any other language out there. It is the
most straightforward language to learn partly because it does not
involve annoying rules that other languages have but mostly
because it looks like English. It feels like you are reading out of a
book instead of a cryptic message.
"I get it, but why should I choose this book if Python is so easy?"
Great question. You see, beginners have no idea how to get started
properly and how to structure their learning. They may start with
loops, but they should start by understanding the syntax. Some go
on to learn about something called dictionaries without actually
understanding lists or tuples.
Therefore, to ensure you learn Python in the best way possible, we
have put together this book. This book offers a step-by-step guide to
help you cover all the bases and learn Python the way it's meant to
be learned. Not just that, we will go through many examples and
exercises to ensure all concepts are reinforced and appropriately
understood.
You do not need any prior programming experience to learn Python;
you'll see why that's the case. Whether you're aiming to pick up a
new skill, explore a new hobby, or switch careers, Python is a great
way to get started in the world of programming. To truly make the
most of this book, be sure to practice along. Programming is all
about practicing. Be sure to practice all the basics as you go along.
The more you do, the easier it will become for you to advance your
skills.
But Why Python?
It is a valid question. We have heard many beginners and
experienced programmers asking what makes Python unique. There
must be a reason why it is ranked as the second most popular
language. The way things are going, it is soon expected to take over
the crown and become the most popular language of all time.
Well, there are many, many reasons. Keeping the technical features
aside, the most defining feature of the language is its simplicity.
Throughout the book, we will use a variety of code snippets.
Throughout, you will notice that Python looks almost identical to
English. It is like you can literally read it as sentences. If not, you'll
still be able to understand the code easily.
How easy a programming language is does not dictate how
functional or otherwise a language can be. Python, despite the easy
learning curve, is a very powerful language. How? Think about
what's making rounds these days that everyone's talking about -
Artificial Intelligence. Most of the artificial intelligence that you see
uses Python to function.
Then, there is machine learning, a field that amazes programmers
and consumers. The entire field of machine learning sits on top of
Python. Think of Python as the very foundation of machine
learning. You remove Python and end up with nothing but an idea
that just can't work.
If that wasn't enough, data scientists use Python to analyze data to
create incredibly detailed files, charts, and visuals. The scope of
Python continues to expand wider and wider.
If you really wish to work in cybersecurity, look no further. Most of
the tools and scripts you will use require you to know both
JavaScript and Python, the two most popular languages. Without
these, you will be struggling to do much.
We can go on and on about just how useful, practical, easy to
understand, and easy to learn Python happens to be, but that's not
the point of this book. The goal of this book is simple: To help you
learn Python.
This book won't be diving into extreme details, but it aims to
empower you with enough knowledge to get started correctly. We
will walk you through some scenarios, encourage you to use your
intellect to work out solutions, offer situations requiring users to
think matters through, and help you understand the codes. Not just
that, we will also be offering some unique projects and exercises.
We highly recommend that you pay attention to the steps and
details. You'd be surprised how easy they are if you pay close
attention to the tiniest things.
How quickly and how much you will go on to master Python or any
other programming language entirely depends on how much you
practice once you've learned the basics. Ideally, you'd want to
practice your code daily and learn more from other resources, such
as YouTube, Coursera, Udemy, edX, and any other book that helps
you understand more complex and advanced topics. Practice these
as much as possible. Check out communities and platforms where
other programmers share their codes. These will help you to gain
inspiration and learn more.
With that said, it is time to get started, get to the bottom of "Python
is easy to learn," and find out if that is the case. At any point, if you
feel stuck or unable to understand something, be sure to retrace
your steps and learn what you may have skipped. Alternatively, use
additional resources to learn from different perspectives.
Chapter 1: Python Fundamentals
"Learning to code is learning to create and
innovate." –Enda Kenny
Getting Started
Now that you have decided to start your programming journey with
Python, it is time to learn how to set things up. To help you set
things up nicely, below is a step-by-step guide that will help you
install Python, an integrated development environment, and more
so that you're ready to start coding your first program.
Before You Do—Installing Python the Smart Way
There are a few pro tips that we'd like to share with you before you
go on to install anything on your system. These will help you make
the most efficient install and will allow you to use Python more
effectively.
For Windows
Be sure to install your Python in a higher directory. This means that
you will want to target a directory or disk drive that's higher in
value. Therefore, if you have C, D, and E, you'd ideally want to
install it in the C drive. Furthermore, you'd want to ensure that you
install it in C instead of C:/Folder/Sub-Folder/Python. Make it
easier for you to access Python. This will prove to be helpful when
you are going to connect Python with the IDE of your choice.
Be sure to use the correct installer as well. You can install Python in
many ways, but it is recommended that you stick to the official
website and download Python to install using the installation files
provided. This will ensure that you do not end up with a version of
Python that's unofficial or has bugs in it. You will also want to
download the latest version of Python to take advantage of all the
latest features and functions.
When installing Python, you'll need to know whether your system
runs a 32-bit (x86) version or a 64-bit (x86-64) version. This is
crucial to ensure a correct and functional installation.
"How do I find that out?"
To find out what version of Windows your system is running, you
can do the following:

1. Press the Windows key.

2. Type "Run" (without quotation marks) and press
Enter/Return.
3. In the new dialogue box, type "dxdiag" (without quotation
marks) and hit enter/return.
4. You should now be able to see the version next to
"Operating System."

Once you know your version, you can go to Python.org to download

Python. There, you'll be presented with several options.

1. Executable installer—This is your typical .exe file you can

download and open. The file will execute, and the installer
will carry out the rest. This is the default choice that all of
us generally go for.
2. Web-based installer—This is essentially the same as the
above. The only difference is that this separately downloads
all the bits you need to install. This is a good option if you
want to save space, as it significantly reduces the installer's
size. For this option, you'll need an active internet
connection.
3. Embedded zip file—The third option involves downloading a
zip file containing all the files needed to install a minimal
version of Python. Use this if you only aim to use Python
once, perhaps for learning. If you want to stick with Python,
this may not be the option to go for.

For Mac
Mac users also have a few options, just like Windows users do.
However, before you go ahead and install Python on your Mac, it is
good to consider the following:

1. Keep your base installation as clean as possible—You don't

want to grab everything you can get and go for a massive
installation. You can always add libraries and other
functionalities individually if you need them later.
2. Be sure not to use the pip command to install directly into
your system.
3. After installation, set up individual directories for each
project. This helps organize everything and helps prevent
confusion later on, especially if you are working on multiple
projects.
4. Before installing Python, it is recommended that you install
Python virtual environments first.

For Linux
Installing Python on Linux can be tricky, especially if you do not
know what you're doing. Unlike Windows and Mac, Linux has
distros or "flavors," which are essentially different versions of the
same OS. You will have a unique interface, a different package
manager, and so on, depending on your version.
If you
use a
Debian-
based
distro,
you
probably
use an
apt
package
 manager
. If you
use a
Red Hat
based
distro,
you'll
use
yum.

Once you know what distro-specific package manager you are using,
you can easily install Python into your system.

1. Use apt or yum to download Python into your system.

2. You can also use additional tools, such as asdf-vm and
Docker, to help you quickly manage your installation.

With that said, let's dive in and install Python, starting with
Windows.
Instal Python
Installing Python on Windows
To install Python on Windows, make sure your Windows is updated.
If you have any pending updates, use Windows' update manager
first. Once all updates are installed, open your favorite browser and
head to www.python.org.
Step 1
The first step is to decide which version of Python you'd like to
install on your system. For most, it will be the latest version.
However, experienced programmers may require specific and older
versions of Python. You can find those under the Downloads
section.
Step 2
Once you've decided which version you'd like to install, hover your
mouse to where it says "Download" and click the button underneath
"Download for Windows" to start the download process.
Alternatively, you can click on "Windows" underneath "Download,"
this will take you to a page where you can see all the various
versions available for your chosen operating system. Find the
version you need and click the "Download" button to start
downloading.
Step 3
Once the download is complete, click on the executable file that has
been downloaded earlier. This will start the installer and the
installation process.
Be sure to check both the boxes at the bottom before proceeding
with the installation.
Step 4
After the installation, click "close" to close the installer window.
Now, it is time to verify whether Python is installed successfully or
not. To check that,

1. Press the Windows key.

2. Type "cmd" and hit enter to open the command prompt.
3. There, type in Python and press enter/return.
 4. If you can see what version of Python is installed on your
system, that verifies that the installation was successful.

Step 5
Next, you want to verify that pip was installed successfully as well.
Pip is a very powerful and useful package manager that you can use
for Python packages. To check,

1. Press the Windows key.

2. Type "cmd" and press enter/return to open the command
prompt.
3. Type "pip -V" and press enter/return (note that 'V' is case-
sensitive).
4. You should be able to see your pip version, which confirms
that pip is installed.

Installing Python on Mac

For Mac, the installation isn't that complicated either. However,
before you go ahead, it is important to understand that some macOS
versions come with Python pre-installed. Therefore, the first thing
you'd want to do is to find out if your system has Python. You can
check whether you have Python and which version by doing the
following:

1. Open up terminal.
2. Type either "compgen -c python" or "python3 --version" and
hit enter.
3. You may also want to try "python --version" as your system
may have Python 2 installed.

In most cases, you'd probably have a Python version that is already

outdated unless you've recently bought your Mac system. Either
way, we will learn how to install the latest version of Python on our
systems. To do that, follow steps 1 to 3 from the Windows
installation. However, instead of Windows, you'll be choosing
MacOS. The website will also be able to detect your operating
system automatically and will provide you with the grey button that
directly downloads the .dmg file for your macOS. The installation
process will remain the same.
Once you have installed Python, check using the terminal and the
above commands to ensure your Python is updated and installed.
Installing Python on Linux
First, you want to find out whether your Linux distro already has
Python installed.

1. Press Ctrl + Alt + T to pull up terminal.

2. Type in:
3. Python --version (this is to check if you have Python 2).
4. Python3 --version (this is to check if you have Python 3).
5. Python3.x --version (replace x with the version you're
searching for to see if it is installed).

Once you've ensured that you do not have the latest version of
Python installed (which happens to be 3.12.0 at the time of writing
this book), do the following:

1. In most cases, you will need to use the following command

using your terminal window:
2. $ sudo apt-get install Python3.x (replace x with the latest
version number).
3. Press Y whenever prompted to allow installation to
continue.
4. Once the installation is complete, verify if Python is
installed by using your terminal window and entering the
command Python3.x (replace x for whichever version you
installed). It should execute and start Python.

With that, you should now install Python on whatever system you
use. However, we aren't done yet. To use Python properly, we need
an Integrated Development Environment (IDE), a software to help
you use and operate Python and other languages.
Installing Your IDE
For every programming language, you generally require an
integrated development environment. IDEs are what you'd call
software designed to help you harness the true power of any given
programming language that it supports.
Many IDEs these days come loaded with additional functionalities
and features. The goal of an IDE is to help you code better, debug
faster, and identify errors even before you execute a program to
ensure that your code doesn't crash. Sometimes, the IDEs can help
you learn how to code more efficiently by offering suggestions.
Furthermore, IDEs can help you keep track of your variables, which
is quite a good thing. In the past, most programming was done
either on Notepad or very old interfaces. All they offered was the
ability to code, compile, and export. Finding errors in a code would
be like finding a needle in a haystack. Today, all of that is done in
seconds.
Through the use of IDEs, you go on to improve your productivity by
using powerful features and functions built-in. It is also important
to note that not all IDEs can support Python, and not all IDEs
support other languages. Some are made exclusively to handle
specific types of programming languages, while others offer vast
support for various languages. Since we'll be using Python, it is a
good idea to familiarize ourselves with some of the most popular
and powerful IDEs for Python today.
IDLE
IDLE stands for Integrated Development and Learning
Environment. It is the default editor that comes with Python pre-
installed. IDLE is the go-to choice for those new to Python who
wish to get the hang of things.
You can use IDLE to learn Python, level up your skills, and even
work on initial projects before moving on to other IDEs. IDLE is
fully supported by Mac OS, Windows, and Linux, so installing IDLE
shouldn't be a problem. For this book, we will also be using IDLE.
PyCharm
PyCharm is an open-source, free-to-use IDE developed by JetBrains.
They are considered the masters of their craft, and that can be seen
in PyCharm, an IDE designed specifically with Python on their
minds. It is one of the most commonly used IDEs for Python today
and offers some of the most excellent and powerful tools known to
developers.
Now, you might be thinking, why not start with PyCharm if it is so
good? Well, the thing is that PyCharm is best suited for large-scale
Python projects. Since it has built-in support for JavaScript, CSS,
and TypeScript, it is best suited for those who know their way
around Python and would like to up their skills and projects to a
new level. Once you're done learning Python using IDLE, this is
where you need to go.
Visual Studio Code
Just like PyCharm, Microsoft created its own open-source and free
IDE. It is another great option for those using Python parallel to
other languages. It is lightweight and easy on the hard drive, too.
However, it stands out by offering many features that other IDEs
offer in their paid versions, and you get all of that for free.
Sublime Text 3
Sublime Text has been around for a while and is considered one of
the most popular code editors. With that, it is worth noting that
Sublime Text is a code editor and not exactly a full-fledged IDE. Its
goal is to help programmers code and edit codes. Because of its
niche focus, it offers lightning-fast development speeds and
reliability.
Atom
Atom is yet another popular open-source code editor that GitHub
develops. It is similar to Sublime Text and has almost the same
features you'd find in Sublime Text editor. Like Sublime Text editor,
it is also free to download.
Other IDEs and Code Editors
Jupyter
Sypder
PyDev
Thonny
Wing
Vim
GNU/Emacs
Eric
Dreamweaver
Visual Studio
Pyscripter
Rodeo

While we will be using IDLE for this book, it is a good idea to

explore these options as well, as you may find one that you'd like to
switch over to once you're done learning. With that out of the way,
we head straight into some good news. If you have just installed
Python on Windows or Mac, you have already installed IDLE. Linux
users, however, will need to install it using your distro's package
manager. To do that, type in the following command:

$ sudo apt-get install idle3 -y

Hit enter/return, and the rest will be done for you. After the
installation, you'll see IDLE on your desktop. For Windows and Mac
users, search for IDLE, and they should be able to find it easily. It is
time to click and open IDLE to get a taste of the interface and type
in our first code.
Your First Step to Code
Exciting, isn't it? You're just moments away from typing in some
code and seeing a response. As all great programmers have done
before, we will start with Hello World. This simple program asks
Python to print out the words "Hello" and "World." How do we do
that? Let's find out.
Open up IDLE if you haven't done so already. Once it is open, you
should see the version of your Python at the top, followed by some
other messages. Your cursor, by default, would be placed next to the
>>> signs. This is where you will be typing in the following code:
print("Hello World")
Remember, all codes that we will do are case-sensitive. This means
that if you type in Print instead of print, it won't work. Therefore,
getting used to this type of typing is a good idea.
Once you've entered the code above, press the enter/return key.
VOILA! You just did a thing. If things went well, which they did,
you'll be able to see Hello World written in blue. That's the output
of the command you just used.
Yes, it's probably not as exciting as you may have thought, but the
goal is to take things slowly and go step-by-step. You might also be
wondering what is print, why the parenthesis, and what's with the
quotation marks. To understand that, let's start learning the basics
of Python.
Python Variables
Variables are just like empty containers. When you create them,
they can store some form of value in them. They can hold on to that
value for as long as you want. Their values can be modified,
changed, altered, or removed altogether.
Every programming language uses variables to store and recall
values. They serve as the building blocks for any code of any
programming language. They come with a reserved memory
location where they can store values. If you recall, Python has a
built-in garbage collection feature that dis-allocates and frees up
memory as you go along. This means we don't have to worry about
using more memory than we need.
Unlike other languages, we can create new variables easily using
Python. To create a new variable in Python, you do not need to
declare the kind of variable you create. For example, if you created a
variable containing whole numbers, such as 10, we'd first need to let
the compiler know, "Hey! I want to create a variable with an integer
value of 10." Of course, that's not exactly how you'd do that.
However, we don't have to worry about that in Python. How? Let's
have a look.
In the example below, we will create two new variables, var1 and
var2. These variables will have random numbers as values, say 312
and 944, respectively. To do this, return to your IDLE screen and
type in the following code.
var1 = 312
var2 = 944
Now, let's see if these values were correctly stored, and for that, we
want the system to print out the values individually. You do that
using the print() function, as shown below.
print(var1)
print(var2)
You should now be able to see the values as a result. It does look
easy. That's because it is. With that in mind, there's something
every programmer, new or old, must know and practice: naming
convention.
How to Name Your Variables the Right Way
You don't want to name variables a, b, xyz, uhd, or any of that. While
no one's stopping you from doing that, it's considered bad practice.
Why? Let's say you're a developer and have been tasked to handle a
project that someone else coded. As you go through the codes, you
come across variables with names like:
alpha
beta
 var-z
tes1
None of these names will make any sense. You will never be able to
determine what exact purpose these variables serve unless you go
through hundreds or thousands of lines of code before you get an
idea. However, this can easily be avoided by correctly naming your
variables.
The name of your variables must make sense to any programmer of
any level. Therefore, if your variable is a character's name, it should
say something like char_name so that when you or any other
programmer sees it, they immediately know what this variable is
for. Similarly, if you are creating a variable for a high score, it
should say something like high_score or h_score.
Now that you have that in mind, it's time to learn how to type those
variables correctly using the correct naming convention.
To name a variable the correct way, you will need to do the
following:

1. The name of the variable must always start with either a

letter or an underscore:
A. _example
B. example
2. The name of the variable must not start with a numerical
value:
A. 1variable (wrong)
B. variable1 (right)
3. The name must only contain alphanumeric characters and
underscores:
A. my_variable
B. high_score
C. dogs_name
4. Names are case-sensitive:
A. variable is not the same as VARIABLE or Variable.
 5. Reserved words cannot be used as variable names:
A. while
B. if
C. print
D. and
E. while
F. for

With these rules in mind, let's look at how to type these names
properly. There are three types of conventions that you can use to
write your variable names. These are:

1. Camel Case
A. The first word must always be lowercase.
B. The first letter of every word that will follow is in
uppercase.
C. No space between words.
D. Example:
i. myNewVariable
ii. studentCount
iii. myNextLevel
2. Pascal Case
A. The first letter of every word is to be uppercase.
B. No spaces.
C. Example:
i. MyNewVariable
ii. StudentCount
iii. MyNextLevel
3. Snake Case
A. Add an underscore between each word.
B. No space between words.
C. Can use upper- and lower-cases at will.
 D. Example:
i. my_New_Variable
ii. Student_count
iii. my_next_level

Using these, you can now name your variables. It's best to name
your variable with a simple name that shows precisely what they
should do. This will always help you and other programmers who
may work on your code to know what these variables should do.
The Data Types in Python
Every programming language comes with its own unique data types.
A data type defines what kind of value a variable will be storing. For
example, in the previous example, we used the word "Integer"
instead of a number or a whole number. That is because an integer
happens to be a data type found in all programming languages.
When it comes to Python, there are eight data types:

1. Integers
2. Float
3. String
4. Boolean
5. List
6. Dictionary
7. Tuple
8. Set

Integers
Integers are the most basic types of data a variable can store. When
a variable stores a particular data type, it changes its type.
Therefore, if my_var holds the value of 10, it becomes an integer
variable. Of course, you will need to specify this in other languages.
On the other hand, Python is smart enough to figure that out
independently.
To create an integer variable, type the variable's name and assign it
a value.
my_var = 10
Float
Integers aren't just any numbers, though. Remembering that
integers are numbers without any decimal points is a good idea.
When you add a decimal point to the value, it is classified as a float.
To declare a float, type in a name for your variable and assign it a
value:
my_float = 10.0
A float is a data type that holds numeric values with decimals.
Therefore, 10 is an integer, but 10.0 is not. The latter is classified as
a float value. That makes sense, right? However, what if you want to
store letters or words as your values? Where do they go? For that,
you need a data type called string.
String
String is a data type that stores letters, words, and even sentences.
You can store even paragraphs and paragraphs into a single variable
as long as the memory allows. Creating a string variable is slightly
different from the previous two data types.
To create a string variable, you start as usual and name your
variable. After the assignment sign (=), you use double quotes
before and after the letters or words you want to store. This lets
Python know you're trying to create and store a string value.
Therefore, if you want to store the value of "I am a Programmer" in
the variable my_job, you'll need to type this:
my_job = "I am a Programmer"
Now, go ahead and print this variable to see how it works.
Boolean
This is an unusual but quite useful data type. Unlike any other data
type in Python, this data type can only store two values: True or
False. This data type makes your code behave a certain way using
logical inputs and outputs.
Programmers use Boolean (or Bool) to create conditions and check
conditions and outputs, which can help make the program more
responsive and intelligent. To declare a Boolean variable, you do the
following:
sit_A = True
sit_B = False
If you like, you can use the following code to verify the values.
sit_A = True
sit_B = False
print("sit_A =" , sit_A)
print("sit_B =" , sit_B)
This will print out the following:
sit_A = True
sit_B = False
Of course, that's not exactly how we will use Boolean values. We
will use these in more complex situations, but we'll do that later.
List
As the name suggests, a list holds a group of values. For example,
you would like to store three names in the variable name. To do
that, you will need to do the following:
name = ["Joey" , "Ross" , "Chandler"]
Now, a single variable has three different values stored in it. To
recall these values, ask Python to print names, and you will see all
the names printed.
Remember, to declare a list, you must use the square brackets [ ].
Lists are handy because you can access individual components and
values anytime. For example, if you were only aiming for Python to
print "Ross" as an output, you'd do the following:
print(name[1])
This will print out Ross. You might wonder why Ross was the
second value, not the first. However, we will learn more about why
that is the case when discussing indexing.
Dictionary
The dictionary works a lot like lists. The difference is that a
dictionary stores a group of values in pairs instead of just single
values. Let's say you have the following data that you must store:
item_1 = butter
item_2 = egg
fruit = banana
You'd probably store them in three different string variables in any
other circumstances. That will take up more memory than needed.
A much more efficient way to store these will be through a
dictionary. To do that, you'll need to do the following:
shopping_cart = {"item_1" : "butter" , "item_2" : "egg" , "fruit" : "banana"}
Now, if you were to ask Python to print shopping_cart, it will show
you the following results:
{'item_1': 'butter', 'item_2': 'egg', 'fruit': 'banana'}
Dictionaries are excellent if you want to store data regarding specific
things, such as employee name, ID number, role, etc. It is also
important to note that dictionaries use curly brackets unlike lists,
which use square brackets { }. Every group is defined by the use of
the colon (:) symbol. The comma (,) is used to separate one pair
from another.
Tuple
Tuples are also quite like lists and dictionaries. They, too, store
multiple values in them. However, these can store multiple types of
data in order. Once a tuple is created, you cannot alter its value,
something you can do with dictionaries and lists.
To create a tuple, you use the regular brackets ( ), as shown here:
Today_Date = ("Sunday", "29th", "October", 2023)
This will store both string and integer data type values in the
variable Today_Date.
Set
The set is exactly like a tuple. The only difference is that you can
modify the values of a set, something you can't do with a tuple. To
create a set, use the curly brackets minus the colons and double
quotation marks we use for dictionaries.
my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
Exercises
Now that you know how to create variables and store different
values, let's put that knowledge to the test before moving toward the
next chapter. I know this chapter was quite long, but now, you're
ready to move into the actual programming side.
Exercise 1

Create a variable named my_name and assign your name as

its value.
Create a second variable named my_age and assign it your
age as its integer value.
Print both variables using the print() function.

Exercise 2

Create a variable named x and give it a value of 10.

Create another variable named y and give it a value of 20.
Create a third variable named z and make it the sum of the
two variables x and y
print the value of z.

Once you're done, it's time to move forward to the next chapter and
get started with coding.
Chapter 2: Python Basic Operations and
Input/Output
"Good code is its own best documentation."
–Steve McConnell.
Now that we know the data types and how to create variables and
store values, it is time to start coding. Right away, we will start with
basic Python operations, such as arithmetic and concatenation, and
then move on to input and output. Once again, be sure to have IDLE
open and ready to go. If you previously have values stored, it's a
good idea to shut the application down properly and restart IDLE so
that you start with a clean slate.
Basic Operations in Python
Arithmetic Operations
Like any other programming language, Python can carry out large
arithmetical operations with efficiency and finesse. While we will
not be diving into super lengthy arithmetical operations for now, we
aim to understand what kind of arithmetic operations you can carry
out and how.
The Arithmetic Operators
When it comes to Python, you can use the following arithmetic
operators to carry out a variety of operations. Each symbol shown
below is called an operator and tells Python the exact kind of
arithmetic operation that must be carried out.

Operator Their Purpose

s
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division (float)
 // Division (floor)
% Modulus - Returns only the remainder of the
Division
** Power (exponent)
These are pretty easy to understand. However, there's something
called the arithmetic operator precedence that you must always
consider.
The fact is that if you are using multiple arithmetic operators, some
of them will always be solved first, while others will be given a
secondary priority. If you do not consider this, you may end up with
the wrong results.
The operator precedence is as follows (in order of precedence, top
being top priority):

Operato Purpose Associativit

r y
** Power (Exponent) right-to-left
%, *, /, // Modulus, multiplication, division, left-to-right
floor division
+, - Addition and subtraction left-to-right
As seen above, Python will always compute the power or
exponential operator first, followed by modulus, multiplication, and
division operators, and finally, addition and subtraction.
With that out of the way, let's look into each operator and see how
they work.
Addition
To add two variables or more, you use the + sign as shown below:
10 + 20
The result will show 30. You can also use variables with unique
values and add them to find the result. Alternatively, you can use
the resulting number to become a unique variable, as shown below:
 number_1 = 20
number_2 = 22
number_3 = number_1 + number_2
Now, number_3 will store the sum of the first two variables as its
value.
Subtraction
Subtraction works in the same fashion as addition does. Therefore,
to subtract two numbers, all you need to do is type in the numbers,
use the subtract operator, and be presented with the results.
20 - 10
10
Similarly, you can also create different variables, subtract those, and
store the answer in a separate variable, as shown below:
sub_1 = 25
sub_2 = 17
sub_3 = sub_1 - sub_2
Now, the resulting number will be stored as sub_3's value.
Multiplication
While we are used to calculators with the X symbol for
multiplication, things work differently in the programming world.
Instead of X, we use the asterisk (*) sign as our multiplication
operator. Just as before, to multiply two numbers, all you need to do
is the following:
100 * 21
2100
Here's a quick test. Without using code, what do you think the
answer to the following will be?
10 + 8 * 2 - 20
Common sense would dictate the answer will be 16, but that would
be wrong. Why? Because of the operator precedence. Here, Python
will first solve 8 * 2, which results in 16, after which it will carry out
the rest of the operations. The answer, therefore, will be 6. Try it
yourself.
Division
Once again, we are used to seeing the typical division symbol of ÷,
but that's not the case regarding programming. First, you can't type
that symbol using a standard keyboard. Second, programmers use
the / operator to carry out the division. How? Here's how:
x = 49
y=7
x/ y
7.0
Once again, if you are using multiple operators, be sure to factor in
the operator precedence.
Modulus
Now, this one is somewhat different. We don't have anything like
that in the usual textbooks. However, it isn't that complicated.
Let's say you want to divide 1,000 by 9 and find out the remainder
after all the successful divisions. Usually, you'd divide 1000 by 9 and
find that you can do that 111 times. That gives you 999. Now, you're
left with 1 as a remainder. Using the modulus operator, you can find
that out right away. How? Here's how!
1000 % 9
1
It's that simple. It may seem like an operator that won't make much
sense, but there are many cases where you will need to call upon the
modulus operator to help you sort the situation out.
Exponentiation Operator
Exponentiation operators are used in Python to raise the power of a
value by a certain number. For example, if you want to find out
what's 10 to the power of 10, you'd do the following:
 10 ** 10
10000000000
Floor Division
Floor division is done using the // operator. This is carried out to
find the floor of the quotient after the first value is divided by the
second one. In simpler words, you can find out how many times the
second number divides successfully before it is no longer possible to
divide without entering the decimal ranges.
Therefore, if you want to find out the floor of the quotient when 8 is
divided by 5, you do the following:
8 // 5
1
This is because 8 can only be divided by 5 once, leaving a remainder
of 3. Remember, the // will tell you how many times the second
number can divide, whereas the / operator will tell you the exact
number required to divide the first number successfully. If you were
to use 8 / 5, you'd get 1.6 as the answer.
String Concatenation
The next thing for us to learn is something called string
concatenation. We already know what a string is. It is essentially a
letter, word, or paragraph stored as a string value in a variable.
String concatenation essentially merges two separate strings into a
new one. For example, we have two string variables named msg_1
and msg_2, as shown below:
msg_1 = "I am learning "
msg_2 = "Python for Beginners"
If you were to print these, you'd need to print them separately. You
can concatenate these two into a single string to add both together.
We'll store this new value in msg_3.
msg_3 = msg_1 + msg_2
 print(msg_3)
Now, both strings will be concatenated, and you should be able to
see a singular print result.
I am learning Python for Beginners
With that, you might be wondering why on earth you would ever
need to concatenate strings together. Well, you may not be doing a
lot of that right away, but as you move further up into the world of
programming, you will come across many instances where you will
need to do just that.
To concatenate strings, you can use one of the few ways:
Using the + Operator
Just moments ago, we saw exactly how to do just that. You add up
two string variables to concatenate a string, and the result will
either be printed or stored, depending on how you want the output.
Using the * Operator
When you want to concatenate the same string multiple times, you
use the * operator.
print(msg_3 * 4)
This will concatenate the msg_3 string four times. The result will
look like this:
I am learning Python for BeginnersI am learning Python for BeginnersI am
learning Python for BeginnersI am learning Python for Beginners
See how that works?
Using the join() Method
While we haven't touched base on methods and functions, it is still
worth knowing that you can use a join() method. This will allow you
to join strings in Python and concatenate them together. This is
considered the most flexible way of doing things.
a = "My "
b = "Name "
c = "Is Cole"
 print("-".join([a,b,c]))
My -Name -Is Cole
Now, all the three will be joined together.
Using % Operator
You can also use the modulus operator to combine strings, as
shown below.
a = "Orange"
b = "Juice"
print("% s % s" % (a, b))
Orange Juice
Using format() Function
You can also use the format() function for string concatenation. This
is a powerful way to not only concatenate but also format strings.
Let's say that you have two variables named a and b, and they hold
the following values:
a = "Apple"
b = "Juice"
If you were to concatenate it regularly by using the + operator, you
will end up getting:
AppleJuice
However, to ensure you format it correctly and concatenate both
strings, you can use the following method:
print("{} {}".format(a, b))
Apple Juice
F-string Method
Finally, you can use the f-string literals, or formatted strings, to
concatenate strings. To do that, you will need two variables, say a
and b, with the same values as above, and then you will need to do
the following:
 a = "Apple"
b = "Juice"
print(f' {a} {b}')
Apple Juice
The goal is to understand how each of these methods works. While
you are free to use whichever method you prefer, it is still a good
idea to know these additional ones as there may be instances where
these may come in handy.
Python User Input and Output
So far, we've been providing values to variables. However, what if
you want your end user to provide that value for you? Just like
games and applications ask you for your name so that they can
address you later on, you too can use a variety of ways to take input
from users, store the input as a value, and then use that to carry out
other operations.
For this, Python comes with two built-in functions: input() and
print(). The input() function allows users to provide their input,
whereas the print() function prints out the values provided by the
users.
To use the input() function, the syntax is as shown below:
input("message")
For example, you want to ask your end-user, "Hey, You! What's your
name?" Then, you want the end-user to input their name, which is
stored in a variable called player_name. How do you think you can
achieve that? It is reasonably easy to figure out. Here's how to do
just that.
player_name = input("Hey, You! What's your name?")
Now, the end user will see "Hey, You! What's your name?" and they
will see a cursor blinking right at the end of the message. That is
where they can type in their names. Go ahead and type in your
name or any name. Once you're done, hit enter, and that will be
stored as a value for player_name. Let's see if that worked, and we do
that by using the print() function.
print(player_name)
You will now be able to see whatever you entered as an input. If you
want to greet the user, you can do something like this:
print("Hello, " + player_name)
Using the input() function is a great way to make your programs
more interactive and allow end-users to give their input. In most
cases, their input will help run the entire program smoothly.
Users can also input numerical values, which will be stored and
used for various arithmetic operations.
num_1 = input("Choose a number: ")
num_2 = input("Choose a second number: ")
print("The sum of the two numbers you chose is " + num_1 + num_2)
Suppose you chose 20 as your first number and 40 as your second.
Let's see what the print results are.
The sum of the two numbers you chose is 2040.
"Wait a minute! That isn't right."
Exactly. When a user inputs something, it is automatically treated
as a string, not a numeric value. To use those numbers correctly, we
must specify that we want the input value to be converted into an
integer. How do we do that? We add int() before the input, as shown
below:
num_1 = int(input("Choose a number: "))
num_2 = int(input("Choose a second number: "))
total = num_1 + num_2
print("The sum of the two numbers you chose is: " , total)
Choose a number: 20
Choose a second number: 40
The sum of the two numbers you chose is: 60
Comments
Now and then, you will come across proper English words and
sentences. However, they won't do anything to the code for some
reason. The moment you read them, you'd know what the code or
the following block of code is all about, and that's great, but how do
they do it?
Well, what you're looking at are called comments. Python offers the
feature to leave comments as notes for yourself and fellow
programmers who may later be looking at your code. Leaving
comments allows them to understand what they are looking at,
what any given piece of code does, and what purpose any particular
line serves.
To leave comments, there are three ways:

1. Using the # sign

2. Using the""" """ quotation marks (triple quotation marks)
3. Using the ''' ''' apostrophe (triple apostrophe marks)

The first one, #, is used to leave single-line comments. These are

useful if you want to type in short comments or briefly describe a
particular line of code. If you want to have a multiple-line comment
that usually explains many things, you need to use triple quotation
or apostrophe marks.
#This is a single line comment
“““This is a multi-line comment that can stretch on
for as long as you like. There is no limitation to how
much you type here because the compiler will compute
none of this.”””
‘’’This is also a multi-line comment that can stretch on
for as long as you like.’’’
The good thing about using comments is that these are never
processed by the compiler, meaning these will not affect your
program, the input, or the output in any way, shape, or form.
Therefore, these are used purely to make the code more
understandable and to leave notes behind for other programmers.
As a good coding practice, include comments whenever you can.
These encourage programmers and developers to understand what's
happening and will allow you to gain professional recognition
moving forward.
Be sure to use comments clearly and concisely. Try not to write
unnecessary words, as these can easily confuse programmers.
For pieces of code that you don't want to use right away,
comment them out and use the comment symbols to
disable them. When needed, remove the comment symbol
to allow the compiler to read the code.
Exercises
It's time to put your thinking cap on and try the following little
challenges. The first is relatively simple, while the second is more
interactive.
Exercise 1
Code in a program where you take in input from the user for their
name. Using that, the program should then greet the user.
Your code must also have comments for at least a few lines to
explain what the coded line will do.
This should be reasonably easy for you by now.
Exercise 2
This is an interactive story that you are going to create. The goal is
to use basic operations, including input and output, to make the
story more interactive. This story, however, will also require some
additional things, such as if, elif, and else, which are conditional
statements. While we haven't covered those, be sure to return here
and continue from where you leave later.
The objective is simple—this story will have branches that depend
on the user's answers. Depending on the answers, the story will take
a particular direction.
Here are the steps you need to follow:

1. Plan your story.

2. Initialize variables (create them).
3. Capture your user's name.
4. Greet the user and explain the situation, what will happen,
and where the user is in the story.
5. Present their choices and let them decide (input function).
6. Continue the story based on the user's choice.

To give you a head's up, here's a sample code:

# Initialize variables
user_name = ""
user_choice = ""
# Capture user's name
user_name = input("What is your name, brave adventurer? ")
# Start the story
print("Welcome, " + user_name + "! You are on a quest to find the hidden
treasure.")
# Present choices
user_choice = input("You come across a fork in the road. Do you go left or
right? (left/right) ")
# Continue the story
if user_choice == "left":
print("You encounter a friendly wizard who helps you find the treasure.
Congratulations!")
elif user_choice == "right":
print("You get lost in a forest and are never seen again. The end.")
else:
print("Invalid choice. The end.")
Now, go out there and create a turn-based story game that is fun,
interactive, and gripping. Once you've done that, we'll move on to
the next chapter to learn about Python's control structures and data
collection.
Chapter 3: Control Structures and Data
Collections
"Much like life itself, success in
programming depends on making good
decisions." –Anonymous
Programming is fun, and what makes it more interesting is the
ability to make your program intelligent. What we mean by
"intelligent" is simple: your program must be able to make decisions
based on the user's input or choices.
For example, imagine using an app. Every time you open it, it
checks the weather outside and then, depending on the weather,
suggests to you what kind of clothes are ideal to wear. This sounds
simple enough and something we are used to seeing on our
smartphones. We are so used to seeing this that we do not see the
actual code at work; well, now we will.
Imagine if it's 100 degrees outside, and the app says, "You must
wear warm clothes." You'd probably think the app's gone mad. After
all, who'd want to boil themselves in 100 degrees while wearing a
puffy jacket? Nobody!
However, if the app suggests you wear light-colored and
comfortable summer wear, you'd know it's making perfect sense.
Well, the app isn't exactly intelligent on its own. We human beings
give it that direction. We teach the app what to do "if" a specific
condition arrives. If it's winter, wearing warm clothes is ideal.
Perhaps something light and breezy should do the trick if it's
summer. All of these ifs and buts are what go on to create control
structures.
When it comes to programming, these are extremely important to
use. If you can go back to the sample code we gave you at the end of
the last chapter, you'll see some new pieces of code saying if, elif,
and else. They are conditional statements, and they control the flow
of the program. This chapter, therefore, is all about understanding
these and learning how they can help us make our programs
smarter.
Conditional Statements
Conditional statements are the backbone of every great program
created through coding. Whether using Python, JavaScript, or
Node.js, you need conditional statements to make your program
work more effectively.
Conditional statements work by considering the input and then
matching possible outcomes. If a scenario matches, that particular
route is taken as a decision. If the first condition isn't applicable, the
program checks with the second one, third, and so on. As long as a
condition is met, the program will execute. However, if no
conditions are met, the program has a final option that it then takes
as an output.
For example, when we go to school, we are graded based on how
many marks we achieve in our examinations.

If we get 90 or more, we get an A.

If we get between 80 to 89, we end up with a B.
If we get 70 to 79, we get a C.
If we get 60 to 69, we have a D.
If we get anything lower than 60, we get an F.

This is something most of us are used to seeing as we've been

through these. Now, forget that these are marks or grades. Instead,
focus on the conditions here. "If" a value is more than x (x can be
any number or string or a Boolean value), we get y as our result.
To further elaborate, let's say three students ended up with the
following marks:

1. Clark = 86
2. Barry = 51
 3. Bruce = 92

These students acquired their respective marks. Based on this, you

then match the conditions to see where they fall. Similarly, a
program will also do the same once it knows the values it is being
provided with. Whichever condition matches, you'll get the
appropriate outcome. If no condition matches, such as scoring
below 60, you get an F.
To create conditions in Python, we use the reserved keywords:

if—For the first condition.

elif—For all conditions after the first.
else—For the final condition (when no conditions are met).

So, how do these work? Let's take an example and use the data we
already have (marks from our three students).
# Grading Software
name = input("Please Enter Your Name: ")
print("Hello, ", name + "! Welcome to Our Grading Software!")
#marks to be stored as integers
marks = int(input("Enter your marks: "))
print("Fetching your grade. Please wait!")
#grade variable initialized, but the value will be decided based on marks
grade = ""
if marks >= 90:
grade = "A" #value of grade will automatically update depending on
marks achieved
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
elif marks >= 80:
grade = "B"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
 elif marks >= 70:
grade = "C"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
elif marks >= 60:
grade = "D"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
else: #for all other marks that are below 60
grade = "F"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
print("Thank You for Using This Software!")
In the above, we have created a simple grading software that asks
users for their names and their marks. Based on the marks, the
program checks with all the conditions to see where it fits.
Depending on that, it returns a value for grade and provides it to us
as an output.
Using the code above, try to put in various numbers to see how it
works. Be sure that you only try integers and not float values.
Regarding conditional statements, we use if, elif, and else in that
specific order. However, you can always use if and else alone when
you do not have a third option or do not wish to provide one.
For example, a game character has arrived at a crossroads. The
character can either go left, or it can go right. There is no third
option here. In such a situation, you will only use if and else. One
will define a direction, and the other will be the only alternative.
That said, it is vital to understand how these codes work correctly
and what you should do to ensure they are written with the best
practices.
For if statements:
If (define condition):
#statement goes here (with indentation)
This is the same for elif statements as well. However, for other
statements, notice how there is no condition defined. To use else
statements, you do the following:
else:
#statement goes here
For all statements, you must end the else condition with a colon (:).
IDLE is smart enough to identify that you're typing in a conditional
statement. That is why the moment you press enter, it will leave an
indent. Having this indent is good as it makes the code more
readable.
With that said conditional statements need some other components
to work. You may have already noticed how we used > and =
symbols. These are just some logical operators conditional
statements need to perform flawlessly. Let's learn these and find
out what they do.
Comparison and Logical Operators
It is safe to say that all conditional statements are essentially
comparisons. A given value is compared with the statements before
the program makes a decision. To help do that, we need comparison
operators, and you saw three of those earlier.
The following are the comparison operators you can use to compare
situations:

Operato Name Purpose

r symbol
== Equal This is used to check if a situation is
equal to something.
!= Not equal This is used to check if a given value
or condition is not equal to another.
> Greater To compare a value and see if it is
than greater than something
< Less than To compare a value and see if it is
less than something
>= Greater When comparing a value to check if
 than or it is greater than or equal to
equal to something
<= Less than When comparing a value to check if
or equal to it is less than or equal to something
You may be wondering why use the double == symbol instead of the
traditional = only, right? When it comes to programming, you need
to use == to check if something is equal to something else. The fact
is that we are already using the single = sign as an assignment
operator. Therefore, using = will assign the value on the right to the
variable on the left. It will not compare values.
The program compares given values using comparison operators to
see if they match. When they do, a Boolean value of True is passed
through the system. You can have the program print out True or
False, to check what's happening.
When a condition is true, only then is it executed. If it is false, it will
not be executed, and the program will move on to the next one until
it either finds a matchable condition or runs out of all options, in
which case it will settle with the else condition.
Logical Operators
Besides comparison operators, there are logical operators. As the
name suggests, they provide more context to the comparison by
adding logic. In short, they make the code work and behave a lot
smarter.
Local operators help by further clarifying conditions. We use these
to make logical comparisons and arrive at a logical conclusion. For
example, if it is summer, you may be told to wear something light,
which is perfectly fine. However, if it is summer and raining, you
will need a raincoat or an umbrella to prevent getting wet. The usual
"Wear something breezy and light-colored" won't be a logical
answer. To solve such issues, we use logical operators.
In Python, we have three logical operators. These are:

1. and—This comes in if both conditions are true. For example,

 summers "and" raining. In simpler terms, X and Y need to
be true.
2. or—This is used when one condition needs to be true. Here,
either X or Y must be true for it to work, not both.
3. not—This is used when the condition is not true. "I will go
out when it is not raining" is a perfect example.

The and-operator will return a bool value of True only when both
conditions are met. The or operator will return as True when either
one of the conditions is met. The not operator will return as True
when the condition is not met.
Let's look at a simple example and see how logical operators can
help us create better logic. For this example, we will create a simple
pre-qualification software to decide whether a person is eligible for
a loan.
For this, we will need a few things:

1. Age of person (must be between 25–40 years of age).

2. Whether working or not (eligible candidate must be
working).
3. Income (must be at least $65,000 a year).
4. Previous bad debts (automatically disqualifies candidates if
they have any previous bad debts).

With these in mind, we have a rough sketch of the variables we will

use. To make things simple, we will use the following variables to
capture this information:
age
work_status
income
b_debt
Remember, some will remain a string, but some must be changed
into integer values. We will also need to capture the applicant's first
and last name.
Next, we must create our conditions, use logical operators to carry
out this operation, and determine if the person qualifies. We already
know our qualification criteria. To qualify, an applicant must:

Be 25 to 40 years old.
Be currently working.
Be making at least $65,000 a year.
Not have any previous bad debts.

Now, there's a problem. If we type in the usual way, we will see that
we can only set one condition, as shown below:
if age > 24:
Using this will quite literally approve anyone who types their age
above 24. They'll be approved even if they have a bad credit history
or have no job. That's a problem. Therefore, we can use the and
operator here to help us create logic.
# Loan Application Software
# Data of applicant (input required by user)
print("Welcome to Your Bank! Please fill out the form below!")
f_name = input("Please, enter your first name: ")
l_name = input("Please, enter your last name: ")
age = int(input("Please, enter your age: "))
work_status = int(input("Are you currently working? 1 for yes, 2 for no: "))
income = int(input("Please, enter your yearly gross salary: "))
b_debt = int(input("Do you have any previous bad debts? 1 for yes, 2 for
no: "))
print("Thank you! Please wait while we process the information.")
if age in range(25, 40) and work_status == 1 and income >= 65000 and
b_debt == 2:
print("Congratulations! You are eligible to apply for a loan!")
else:
 print("Unfortunately, your loan application does not meet our
requirements!")
print("Thank you for choosing Your Bank! Have a great day!")
In the above, you might have noticed two things:

1. We used the and operator a few times.

2. We used a range() function.

You can use as many "and" or any other operator in the code as long
as it makes sense. As far as the range function is concerned, we used
that to ensure the age condition sticks to the range we need. We will
talk more about functions and methods later on, but we'll stick to
this for now.
Using the code above, try the program with different inputs and see
how the program behaves. Of course, this isn't the most convenient
way of writing code. So many things can be done to make the code
look and feel a lot nicer. However, since we are beginning, it's okay
to keep things as neat and sensible as possible without getting into
too many complexities.
Logical operators help us keep our codes more relevant and concise.
If you were only to use conditional statements, the same code
would end up longer, something like this:
# Loan Application Software
# Data of applicant (input required by user)
print(“Welcome to Your Bank! Please fill out the form below!”)
f_name = input(“Please, enter your first name: “)
l_name = input(“Please, enter your last name: “)
age = int(input(“Please, enter your age: “))
if age >= 25:
if age > 40:
print(“You’re age is higher than our maximum required age!”)
exit()
 else:
print(“You’re too young for a loan application!”)
exit()
work_status = int(input(“Are you currently working? 1 for yes, 2 for no: “))
if work_status == 1:
print(“That’s great!”)
else:
print(“Since you do not have a job, you are not eligible for a loan!”)
exit()
income = int(input(“Please, enter your yearly gross salary: “))
if income >= 65000:
print(“You appear to have a higher income than the required minimum
level, great!”)
else:
print(“Your income currently does not qualify for a loan!”)
exit()
b_debt = int(input(“Do you have any previous bad debts? 1 for yes, 2 for
no: “))
if b_debt == 2:
print(“Everything looks good here!”)
else:
print(“You are not eligible for a loan!”)
exit()
print(“Congratulations! You appear to be eligible for a loan!”)
print(“Thank you for choosing Your Bank!”)
See the difference?
Loops and Iterations
Next, we have something called loops. As the name suggests, loops
are used when you wish the program to loop through a range of
values, carry out multiple iterations of a command in a swift go, and
carry on doing this until the condition is satisfied.
To use loops, Python uses two reserved keywords:

1. for
2. while

For
The for loop is used when you wish to iterate over a given range of
numbers or sequences. This can be a list, a range, a dictionary, a
tuple, a string, or even a set. If you already have exposure to
programming, it is worth noting that this for is very different from
the one you may be used to seeing.
In Python, the for loop executes a given set of statements for every
item within the given list, set, et cetera. The loop will continue to
function until the given condition is no longer true or until it is
ultimately achieved. Let's see this in action:
my_fruits = ["Apple", "blueberry", "cherry", "orange"]
We created a list named my_fruits in the above variable and inserted
four values. Now, we want Python to print the content of the list. To
do that, we will need the for loop.
#x is a loop variable that is local to the loop only
for x in my_fruits:
print(x)
The outcome will be as shown below:
Apple
blueberry
cherry
orange
The for loop will go through each value, print it, move on to the
next, and continue until all the lists' elements are printed.
You can also go through a string and have individual components of
the string printed separately.
for x in "pomegranate":
 print(x)
This will print out the following:
p
o
m
e
g
r
a
n
a
t
e
While
Besides for loops, Python also has while loops. This kind of loop
continues for as long as the condition remains true. The moment it
stops being true, the loop is terminated.
i=0
while i < 10:
print(i)
Before
you
execute
this,
though, it
is crucial
to
understan
d that this
will lead to
a system
crash.
 Why?

Reread the code and see if you can find out what the apparent
problem is.
Yes! The variable i will always be 0, and it will always be less than
10. This means that the loop will never end, and that will crash
IDLE and probably the system. To overcome that problem, we want
to ensure that we instruct Python to add increments after every
iteration.
In the first go, i will be 0. For the next iteration, we want it to be 1,
then 2, and so on. To do that, we must add the following line of code
just underneath the print(i) command.
i=0
while i < 10:
print(i)
i += 1
The += is an incremental sign that tells Python to increase the value
of the variable on the left by one every time it loops. You can also do
the opposite and have -= 1, which will decrease the value of i by one
for every iteration.
Now, if you run the above code, you'll get:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Since the condition stated Python would print i as long as it
remained less than 10, it did just that. When it became 10, the
condition was no longer true, and the loop was terminated.
With that in mind, let's explore some control statements we use
with for and while loops. These are great to ensure that we aren't
stuck in a never-ending loop and to do some additional things.
Break
Let's say you have a list of five items. You want the for loop to go
through all the iterations and stop when it comes across the value
"Orange." You will need to use a break statement to do that.
These statements are beneficial to ensure that the loop doesn't
continue forever. When a condition is met, the loop will go to the
next line, read break, and stop executing further. This helps prevent
your program or system from crashing.
cart = ["apple", "banana", "blueberry", "orange", "cheese"]
for x in cart:
print(x)
 if x == "orange":
break
Now, if you execute this, you will find the following:
apple
banana
blueberry
orange
With that said, what do you think will happen if we do the
following?
cart = ["apple", "banana", "blueberry", "orange", "cheese"]
for x in cart:
if x == "orange":
break
print(x)
In this case, Python will only print the first three values and stop
the minute it reaches orange. This is because Python goes through
its code line by line. Therefore, once it realizes it is dealing with
orange, it will understand that the if conditional statement is met. It
will then move to the following line to check what it must do, and it
immediately sees break, and that ends the code there. It will not take
into account the print(x) anymore.
Continue
Besides break, you may sometimes want the for loop to continue
even after it has found what you were looking for. In such a case,
you can use the continue keyword, as shown below:
cart = ["apple", "banana", "blueberry", "orange", "cheese"]
for x in cart:
if x == "orange":
continue
print(x)
The output, however, will be as shown:
apple
 banana
blueberry
cheese
Once the value matches the condition, the loop will skip that over
and move forward to carry out its process to completion.
Pass
For loops are never meant to be empty. Having one can often cause
things to go wrong. However, there will be instances where you may
need to write a for loop and then leave it empty until a better use is
found or a certain condition is met for them to execute.
For empty loops, we use something called a pass statement. The pass
statement lets Python know, "Hey! It's okay! I did that deliberately.
Ignore this for now!" Python will skip over it and move on with the
rest of the program. How does it work? Quite simple!
for x in [10, 11, 12]:
pass
In the above case, Python will skip over this line of code and move
on. The pass statement can often be used as a placeholder for future
code you will write later. Not having the code at this time is not
essential to debugging and testing certain conditions.
Lists and Dictionaries
"Wait, didn't we cover that already?" We did, but we only touched
upon what these are and how to create them. Remember we said
we'll look into indexing and other aspects later? Now's the time.
Lists and dictionaries, to serve as a refresher, allow us to store
multiple values in a single variable. A list can contain numerous
values in an ordered manner. A dictionary, on the other hand,
contains data in pairs. Lists are created using the [] brackets,
whereas dictionaries are created using the { : } format. Now, we will
look deeper into these, starting with list operators.
List Operators
You can create a list with an empty value and populate it later.
How? Here's how!
my_list = []
What this will do is create a list variable named my_list. However, it
will have no item in it. To add items to the list, we use append. To
access this function, we do the following:
my_list = []
print(my_list)
print("List is empty")
my_list.append("First item")
print(my_list)
Notice how we used a period (.) before the word append. Using a
period allows you to access methods and other functionalities
available to a given variable. One of the available ones happens to be
append. Append is used to add items to a list. It adds the item to the
very end of the list. In the above case, the result will now look like
this:
[]
List is empty
['First item']
However, notice what happens here.
my_list = []
print(my_list)
print("List is empty")
my_list.append("First item")
print(my_list)
my_list.append("Third item")
my_list.append("Second item")
print(my_list)
[]
 List is empty
['First item']
['First item', 'Third item', 'Second item']
The result shows the first, third, and second items, in that specific
order. Why? This is because append only adds one item at a time,
and it does so right at the end of the list. This brings us to an
important question: how do you remove items from a list? That's
simple! Just like append, we can use remove.
my_list.remove("Third item")
print(my_list)
['First item', 'Second item']
From there, you can use append to make the adjustments to the list.
However, that does seem somewhat time-consuming. Indeed, there
must be a more efficient way to remove a value in a particular
position in the list. Well, there is.
Let's say you have a long list of items inside a list. You want to
remove the item that is entered and stored at position number 4.
You don't want to first print out the list, find out what's at number
4, and then restart all over again. Instead, you just want to tell
Python "Whatever's in 4th place, remove it." Here's how you can do
just that.
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
del my_list[3]
print(my_list)
"Wait. I said 4th, not 3rd."
We knew you'd say that. However, trust us and execute the code to
see what happens.
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
"How?"
This is precisely what we were talking about. Whenever you
populate a list, you place each item in a specific index position.
Unlike our numbers that start with 1, the first item in the list has an
index value of 0. If you want to remove the 4th item, you'll be
targeting index number 3.
index number = n - 1
This is a simple formula for you to remember. This will help you
know exactly what index number you want whenever you are
aiming to delete or even access individual values. Once you delete
the value at index number three, it will replace it with the next
element. Therefore, if you were to try and find out what lies at index
number 3 after the above, you'll see the following:
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
del my_list[3]
print(my_list[3])
5
See what we mean?
Now, let's say you want to remove the value at index position 5, and
then you want the system to store it as a separate variable. How do
you do that? One way is to print the entire list, find out what value
lies at the given index number, and then create a unique variable
with that value. This will be time-consuming and somewhat
counterproductive as you must remove the value from the list
separately to avoid glitches. There's an easier way to do that. We do
that by using the pop() function.
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
my_num = my_list.pop(5)
print(my_num)
print(my_list)
6
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
Python could easily remove the value '6' and store it as a separate
variable. With that said, if there's a way to remove specific elements
at specific index values, shouldn't there be a way to add specific
values at specific positions, too? Well, there is. For that, we use the
insert() function.
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
my_num = my_list.pop(5)
print(my_num)
print(my_list) # print for comparison
my_list.insert(5, 6) # alternatively my_list.insert(5, my_num)
print(my_list) # includes 6 which was popped earlier
6
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
Through insert(), we could add the value '6' on the 5th index
position. Remember, for insert() to work correctly, you must first
specify the index number followed by the value you wish to insert.
Let's create another list. This time, we will create a list with random
numbers.
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
The above list has a lot of elements, and we were not bothered to
count how many elements it has. We can ask Python to help us with
the len() function.
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
print(len(my_list))
This will print out 8, meaning that this list has eight values stored
in it. We can do more things with our list as well. For example, we
can ask Python to order this list in reverse. To do that, we use the
reverse() function.
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
my_list.reverse()
 print(my_list)
This will generate the following results:
[75, 37, 28, 86, 19, 71, 103, 11]
We can also use the sort() function to sort a list in order.
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
my_list.sort()
print(my_list)
The list will now be sorted from lower to higher values. You can also
ask Python to sort the list out in reverse order by doing the
following:
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
my_list.sort(reverse=True)
print(my_list)
[103, 86, 75, 71, 37, 28, 19, 11]
Now, the list is sorted in reverse. This can often be very useful in
real-life scenarios and programming situations.
Let's say we want to split this list into two separate variables:
first_half and second_half. To do that, we will use the slicing method.
first_half = my_list[:4] #list[start:end] where we specify end as index 4
second_half = my_list[4:] #we specify starting after index 4
print(first_half)
print(second_half)
[11, 103, 71, 19]
[86, 28, 37, 75]
Let's say you now want to combine these two lists. How do you do
that? Well, there are a few ways you can do that:

1. You can use the + operator to add together the lists.

2. You can use the for loop to append elements of one list into
the other and merge them.
 3. Use the extend() function.

The first one is straightforward to do. You simply add the two lists
as shown below:
my_list = first_half + second_half
This will add the two together. The second method is worth looking
into as it is a very clever way of adding the lists together using the
for loop:
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
my_list.sort(reverse=True)
print(my_list)
first_half = my_list[:4]
second_half = my_list[4:]
print(first_half)
print(second_half)
for x in second_half: #loop will iterate through all elements of second_half
first_half.append(x) #will add elements of second_half into first_half
print(first_half)
Now, your first_half list will be a complete singular list. However,
there is a third way to do this as well, and that is by using the
extend() function:
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
my_list.sort(reverse=True)
print(my_list)
first_half = my_list[:4]
second_half = my_list[4:]
print(first_half)
print(second_half)
first_half.extend(second_half)
 print(first_half)
Once again, your first_half list will have all the elements from
second_half.
If you want to remove all the values from a list, you can use the
clear() function:
my_list = [11, 103, 71, 19, 86, 28, 37, 75]
my_list.clear()
print(my_list)
This will take away all the values from the list.
Diving Deeper Into Dictionaries
With the lists sorted, let's see how dictionaries can be accessed,
modified, cleared out, and used.
The first thing to note is that dictionaries use keys unlike lists. They
do not work with index numbers. Instead, they use keys to recall
values.
grade_key = {"A" : 90, "B" : 80, "C" : 70, "D" : 60}
min_for_A = grade_key["A"]
print(min_for_A)
We created a dictionary with pairs of keys with their values in the
above. Key "A" has a value of 90. Key B has a value of 80, and so on.
We then created a variable to determine what marks are required to
achieve grade A. We assigned this new variable the value of
grade_key["A"], which is 90. If you execute the program now, it will
show you 90 as the result.
To make it more interesting, let's add another key pair where grade
"F" has a value of 0. To do that, we will add the grade value and key
using the following method:
grade_key["F"] = 0
print(grade_key)
{'A': 90, 'B': 80, 'C': 70, 'D': 60, 'F': 0}
To access a particular value in the dictionary, we rely on keys.
Therefore, if you want to find out the value attached to the key pair
of C, we will do the following:
print(grade_key["C"])
This will fetch us the value attached to this key pair. Here, 'C' is the
key to access the value. You can also use the get() method to acquire
the value, as we did above.
print(grade_key.get("C"))
This will fetch you the value of the key pair C. You can also find out
what keys are stored in a given dictionary, in case you're not the
original programmer and wish to find out. To do that, you can use
the keys() method:
print(grade_key.keys())
This will fetch all the keys for you, as shown below:
dict_keys(['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'F'])
Similarly, you can also find all the values stored inside a dictionary.
To do that, use the values() method:
print(grade_key.values())
dict_values([90, 80, 70, 60, 0])
If you wish to see all the items inside a dictionary, use the items()
method:
print(grade_key.items())
dict_items([('A', 90), ('B', 80), ('C', 70), ('D', 60), ('F', 0)])
To remove an item from the dictionary, we use the same pop()
method as we did in the lists:
grade_key.pop("F")
This will remove the key pair of "F" and update the dictionary. To
clear the entire dictionary, you can use the clear() function:
grade_key.clear()
This will remove all the key pairs from the dictionary, leaving you
with an empty dictionary that you can populate again.
Exercises
Now, it's time to bring all that we have learned and put it to some
use. Below is a sample code that you can alter to your liking. The
goal is to create a program on your own that has at least one
working loop and at least one conditional statement.
# Import the random library to generate random numbers
import random
# Initialize variables
target_number = random.randint(1, 100) # Generate a random number
between 1 and 100
user_guess = 0
attempts = 0
# Welcome the user to the game
print(“Welcome to the Number Guessing Game!”)
# Use a while loop to allow multiple guesses
while user_guess != target_number:
# Capture the user’s guess using the input() function
user_guess = int(input(“Guess a number between 1 and 100: “))
# Increment the attempts counter
attempts += 1
# Use a conditional statement to check the guess
if user_guess < target_number:
print(“Too low! Try again.”)
elif user_guess > target_number:
print(“Too high! Try again.”)
else:
print(f”Congratulations! You’ve guessed the correct number
{target_number} in {attempts} attempts.”)
 # End of the game
print(“Thank you for playing the Number Guessing Game!”)
With that said, let's move on to the next chapter and learn all about
functions and modular programming.
Chapter 4: Python Functions and Modular
Programming
"Don't repeat yourself. Every piece of
knowledge must have a single,
unambiguous, authoritative representation
within a system." –Anonymous
Writing code is fun but can quickly become annoying and
cumbersome. This is particularly true when you write large blocks
of code repeatedly. If only there were a way to somehow store all
that massive block of code into a single line you could recall
whenever you wanted. Fortunately for us, there is.
In this chapter, we will learn not only how we can store these blocks
of code but also how to use them properly, and to do that, we start
by understanding what functions are.
Introduction to Functions
A function is a large block of code designed to carry out a specific
job or function. As it turns out, Python has many built-in functions
that come pre-loaded. This means you already have hundreds, if not
thousands, of functions at your fingertips. What's more, Python
allows you to create custom-made functions to help you carry out
extensive operations through a single-line function recall.
Functions are reusable, meaning you can use them in a single
program as often as you like. These are created to serve particular
functions. For example, the print() function prints out information
on the console.
Functions also serve another essential purpose; they organize your
code correctly and make it more manageable. Yes, the first time you
define a function (create), you must type in a few lines, but after
that, you'll only use the function's name followed by the parenthesis
(). Let's say you have around 50 lines of code to define a custom
function you want to use in your program. The next time, you will
use only the name, such as:
my_func()
With that single line and a few characters, you will recall and
execute all the lines without ever having to copy and paste them
repeatedly. This helps you save time, energy, and resources.
Besides, functions are great for debugging, a process where you go
through code to find out what's not working.
The Syntax of a Function
When creating a function, we use the keyword def, which stands for
define. Whenever you define a function, all the code is
automatically indented. This is to ensure ease and to facilitate
debugging later on. Let's create a sample function to print "Hello
Everyone!"
def my_func():
print("Hello Everyone!")
my_func()
We first defined a new function in the above code and named it
my_func. Next, we coded what we wanted this function to do in the
indented code. Once that is done, we type in the name of the
function, and it carries out whatever we want it to do. It's that
simple.
Let's have a little fun with function by creating a simple game where
the computer tells you if your chosen number is odd or even.
def my_func():
var1 = int(input(“Enter a number: “))
if var1 % 2 == 0:
print(“You have chosen an even number”)
else:
print(“You have chosen an odd number”)
my_func()
We used a simple conditional statement where if the chosen
number is perfectly divisible by two and has 0 as a remainder, it is
an even number. Anything else is an odd number. Go ahead, try it
out!
Generally speaking, most applications and games start with several
functions well before the app is used. This is called pre-loading, and
this is usually done using functions. Programmers code in functions
and call these functions the moment the app is opened.
When you define a function, you can also pass something called
arguments. Arguments are additional information or directions for
the compiler to follow. The basic syntax to do that looks something
like this:
def new_func(arg1, arg2):
#code goes here
For example, you have a function where you want to add two
numbers together that you input when calling the function. To do
that, you first need to define the function in the following manner:
def addTwoNum(num1, num2):
print(num1 + num2)
This creates a function where it takes in two arguments, which are
two separate numbers. The function is coded to print out the sum of
the two numbers. Now, let's recall and see what's what:
addTwoNum(19, 22)
41
Do you see how that worked out? Every time you recall this
particular function, you must pass two values through for this
function to work. This is because we have set two arguments as
defaults. We can set as many arguments as we want.
Let's make another function and use what we call a return statement:
def multiNum(num1):
num1 * 10
 res = multiNum(21)
print(res)
In the above, we defined a function called multiNum. We passed a
single argument. The function will take a value as an argument and
multiply that by 10. Next, we created a variable called res to store the
resulting number as its value. However, if you execute this code,
you end up with the following result:
None
Why is that? That is because we haven't defined whether it must
return a number or a value within the function. In the case of the
print() function we used earlier, it was an explicit instruction to
print. Sometimes, you may not want the function to print out
values. Instead, you'd want it to return a value and send it outside
the function. To do that, we'll need to use the return statement, as
shown here:
def multiNum(num1):
return num1 * 10
res = multiNum(21)
print(res)
Now, the function will return the value of num1 * 10. While it will
still not print it, it will store that value successfully in the variable
res. Since it exists outside the function block, res will be successfully
printed. Try it!
Parameters and Return Values
Functions have both arguments and parameters, and these terms
are often used interchangeably. While that isn't completely wrong,
they do technically vary from one another.
Arguments are variables passed within the parentheses after the
function's name when you are defining the function. There can be
as many arguments as you like, each separated by a comma.
 #arg1 and arg2 are arguments
def sample_func(arg1, arg2)
Parameters, on the other hand, are almost identical. The major
difference is that these variables pass through a function when the
function is called. This is the key and probably the most noticeable
difference. Therefore, it is a good idea to familiarize yourself with
these two terms to avoid confusion in the future.
#par1 and par2 are parameters used during recall of function
sample_func(par1, par2)
You can also create functions with default parameter values. Doing
so will allow you to call up a function without an argument. In this
case, it will use a default value you've passed while defining the
function.
def my_func(city = "Austin"):
print("I hail from " + city)
my_func("New York")
my_func("Chicago")
my_func("Claymont")
my_func() #Here, the default value will be used
I hail from New York
I hail from Chicago
I hail from Claymont
I hail from Austin
Functions With No Parameter
You can also create functions with no parameters. To show this, let's
start by creating a dictionary of items for groceries. We will then
create a simple function to print out the list of items with their
quantities.
s_list = {"bread": 2,"eggs": 12,"coffee": 1,"bananas": 6,"sugar": 1}
def show_list():
for item, quantity in s_list.items():
 print(f"{quantity} x {item}")
show_list()
Now, as soon as you execute the program, you will be presented
with a list that looks like this:
2 x bread
12 x eggs
1 x coffee
6 x bananas
1 x sugar
In such cases, you don't need to pass any parameters or arguments
to a function. Depending on what you aim to do with your function,
you can decide whether or not the function requires additional
input. To do that, it is recommended that you know exactly what
your function is meant to do. The more precise you are, the easier it
will be to create a function.
Scope and Variable Lifetime
You may have noticed earlier that we use some variables generally
while some are only limited to loops or conditional statements. This
is because every variable we create in Python has its scope.
When it comes to Python, the scope is the region of a program
where a given variable can be used and accessed. In the case of
Python, there are two types of scope variables. These are:

1. Global
2. Local

Global scoped variables are defined within the main program and
remain outside the function's body (not defined inside a function's
block of code). These variables will remain visible throughout the
program and can be accessed at any given time.
A global variable can also be accessed when you are defining a new
function, as shown below:
 #Global variable
a = 20
#declaring a function with local variable
def showMe():
print("Local scope =", a)
showMe()
print("Global scope =", a)
Local scope = 20
Global scope = 20
A local scoped variable, however, is limited in terms of access and
reach. These are generally defined or created during the creation of
a function. This variable, being local, cannot be accessed outside a
function, meaning you cannot independently use it anywhere else
but within the function itself.
#local variable
def showMe():
a = "Morning time"
print("Local scope =", a)
showMe()
print(a)
Local scope = Morning time
Traceback (most recent call last):
print(a)
NameError: name 'a' is not defined
The error above shows that the variable 'a' is not defined. This is
because it was called outside the function's body and never existed
in the rest of the program.
There is also a third type of scope called non-local, which exists
inside a nested function. A nested function is one where you are
defining a function within a function. In such a case, the nested
function's variable will be termed a non-local variable.
Exercise
Using all that we have learned, create a simple function that
calculates the average of given numbers and returns the value that
can be stored in a variable.
To give you an example, here's a sample to seek inspiration from:
def average(numbers):
return sum(numbers) / len(numbers)
print(average([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])) # Output should be 3.0
Simple Calculator
This one is slightly challenging but quite fun. The goal is to create a
simple calculator using your coding knowledge. To help you get
started, here are the steps you need to take, followed by a sample
code:

1. Initialize variables.
2. Create functions for arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division).
3. Create a menu.
4. Capture the user's input.
5. Create a main program loop.
6. Complete the code.

# Initialize variables
first_number = 0
second_number = 0
result = 0
# Function for addition
def add(x, y):
return x + y
# Function for subtraction
def subtract(x, y):
return x - y
# Function for multiplication
def multiply(x, y):
return x * y
# Function for division
def divide(x, y):
if y == 0:
return "Cannot divide by zero."
return x / y
# Function to display the menu
def display_menu():
print("Simple Calculator Menu:")
print("1. Add")
print("2. Subtract")
print("3. Multiply")
print("4. Divide")
print("5. Exit")
# Function to capture user input
def get_numbers():
global first_number, second_number
first_number = float(input("Enter the first number: "))
second_number = float(input("Enter the second number: "))
# Main program loop
while True:
display_menu()
choice = input("Choose an option (1-5): ")
if choice in ['1', '2', '3', '4']:
get_numbers()
if choice == '1':
result = add(first_number, second_number)
 elif choice == '2':
result = subtract(first_number, second_number)
elif choice == '3':
result = multiply(first_number, second_number)
elif choice == '4':
result = divide(first_number, second_number)
print(f"The result is: {result}\n")
elif choice == '5':
print("Goodbye!")
break
else:
print("Invalid choice. Please try again.\n")
With that, it's time to move on to the next chapter and learn all
about the advanced data structures we use in Python. They're
essential, and they are certainly going to come in handy.
Chapter 5: Advanced Data Structures in Python
"Data is the new oil." –Clive Humby
While we learned a little about tuples and sets, they are more
powerful and somewhat more advanced to cover in just a few
paragraphs. That is why we didn't dive too much into those in the
previous chapters. This ensured we built a solid foundation and
understood some core concepts before diving into these.
When you want to take Python programming up a notch, you must
use tuples and sets. Therefore, this chapter will walk you through
both, reinforce previously learned knowledge, establish new
concepts, and help you understand these better.
Tuples
Tuples, unlike lists, are immutable, meaning they can neither be
altered nor modified. Once you have created a tuple, the container is
sealed. What remains inside remains with no room for any
additional tampering or addition. You can still use the values stored
inside tuples, which is why these are handy when you want to use
specific values that you know must remain constant.
When you create a tuple, you need to remember that a tuple uses
round brackets, just like functions do. You will also need to ensure
that you create the tuples correctly as errors can lead to problems.
To highlight just how mistypes can cause issues, here's an example:
mytup = ("Cat",)
print(type(mytup)) #type() shows the data type of the variable
mytup = ("Cat")
print(type(mytup))
Before you execute the code above, what do you think the outcome
will be? Will both the variables be reflected as tuples? Well, try it
out and see what happens.
<class 'tuple'>
<class 'str'>
Surprised? Let me explain. Whenever you are creating a tuple, you
not only use the round brackets, but you also need to use a comma.
You do this even if you are storing a single value in it.
"Can't I just initialize a tuple and populate it later?"
Recall the critical difference between a tuple and a list: A tuple is
immutable, meaning once it is created, it cannot be altered,
modified, or changed in any way. We can use the tuple to check the
values it stores, use them, and call upon them, but we cannot
append, remove, or pop any values.
This is why it is imperative to think through all the scenarios
beforehand when creating a tuple. You don't want to create a tuple
to find out you need to add more variables or alter values later.
Once it is created, it cannot be altered.
Accessing Items Inside a Tuple
This works quite like the list. This means you must rely on the
index numbers to find and access individual items within a tuple.
There are two ways you can do this:

1. Using positive index.

2. Using negative index.

Let's create another tuple and add five elements to that. These are
five random numbers.
myTup = (15, 17, 9, 237, 44)
print(type(myTup)) #to verify that myTup is indeed a tuple
Let's see how we can print out individual elements at index
numbers 0, 2, and 4.
myTup = (15, 17, 9, 237, 44)
print(type(myTup))
print("Value in myTup[0] is ", myTup[0])
print("Value in myTup[2] is ", myTup[2])
print("Value in myTup[4] is ", myTup[4])
 <class 'tuple'>
Value in myTup[0] is 15
Value in myTup[2] is 9
Value in myTup[4] is 44
That's done quickly through the use of positive index numbers.
However, what's the deal with negative index numbers? Do they
even exist? Let's find out.
For this example, we will use the same code above. However,
instead of the index values 0, 2, and 4, we will use -4, -2, and -1 to
see what happens. You can use other values, too, if you like.
myTup = (15, 17, 9, 237, 44)
print(type(myTup))
print("Value in myTup[-4] is ", myTup[-4])
print("Value in myTup[-2] is ", myTup[-2])
print("Value in myTup[-1] is ", myTup[-1])
<class 'tuple'>
Value in myTup[-4] is 17
Value in myTup[-2] is 237
Value in myTup[-1] is 44
Do you see what happened here? The order changed. Instead of
going from left to right, the system is now going from right to left.
This can often prove to be helpful if you have a larger tuple.
Tuples are great for yet another reason. They are extremely fast
when compared to lists. This is because tuples do not occupy a lot of
memory and are significantly faster in operation and recall. If you
know your variables and which ones will remain unchanged
throughout the program, store those in tuples where and when
possible.
Sets
We also looked at sets briefly at the start of the book. Lists are
ordered collections of items. Sets, however, are an unordered
collection of a variety of items. Unlike tuples, these can be created
and then modified. However, the elements, once created, remain
immutable. You can still add and remove from the sets, but the
stored values cannot be altered or modified.
That said, it is important to note that sets will not take in and store
any duplicate items. Therefore, if you try to store a value already in
a set, it will end up in an error.
You use the curly brackets, or the {}, to create sets. This does not
include any colon ":" symbols as you find in a dictionary. Like
tuples, sets are highly optimized and are much more efficient at
checking elements inside a set when compared to a list. These are
more efficient and do not take up many resources.
The significant difference between sets and lists is that list items
can be accessed using the index numbers. However, you cannot use
index numbers to access items inside a set. This is because sets are
unordered. Anything that is unordered cannot be accessed using
index values.
Let's create a sample set for ourselves and use that to see how
things work.
mySet = {"one", "two", "three", "four"}
print(type(mySet))
<class 'set'>
Modifying Sets
Let's start by looking at the add() method.
mySet = {"one", "two", "three", "four"}
print(type(mySet))
print(mySet)
mySet.add("five")
print(mySet)
<class 'set'>
{'two', 'one', 'four', 'three'}
{'three', 'two', 'one', 'five', 'four'}
Your values will continue to jump around every time you run the
code. As we mentioned earlier, this list has no specific order, hence
the unordered tag. Since the values keep hopping around, there is
no way to know which index number a particular value will be on
the next time, which is also why you cannot access items within a
set using index numbers.
To remove an element from the set, you use the discard() method:
mySet.discard("four")
This will discard the value of "four" and update the set accordingly.
Things are a little tricky to create an empty set. You see if you were
to do the following:
newSet = {}
That will create an empty dictionary, not a set. To create an empty
set, you use the set() function, as shown here:
newSet = set()
This will initialize a new and empty set that you can populate as you
go along.
List Comprehension in Python
We know how to manually create a list, but there's one more way.
You can create a list from an existing list or other iterables within
your code through a process called list comprehension.
Every list comprehension contains:

1. Some input sequence.

2. Variable that stores members of the above sequence.
3. A predicate expression.
4. A viable output expression (creates an output list while
satisfying the predicate expression).

The basic syntax of list comprehension:

[ <expression> for item in list if <conditional> ]
 new_list = [x for x in range(1, 9)]
print(new_list)
The numbers within the range will be stored as items in the new
list. Notice how we didn't use any if condition here. Let's change
that and see what's what.
This time, we will use the following snippet of code:
new_list = [x for x in range(1, 20) if x % 2 == 1]
print(new_list)
[1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19]
In the above case, instead of storing all the numbers in the range,
Python filtered through the numbers and stored only the ones that
satisfied the condition. The if condition stated to store only the odd
numbers or that had 1 as a remainder after division.
Set Operations
We now know that sets are unordered, meaning they cannot be
accessed using index numbers. We also know that while the set can
be mutated by adding or removing values, the values cannot be
changed once stored. However, that's not all there is to learn about
sets. There are other things sets can do for you, just like they did in
school.
Recall how we once learned about union, difference, intersection,
and symmetric difference. Well, we can do that with sets in Python,
too, making sets all the more useful than ever.
Set Union
Let's create two sets for this and see how the union() method can be
used.
set_one = {1, 2, 3}
set_two = {4, 5, 6}
new_set = set_one.union(set_two)
print(new_set)
In the above, we have two sets with their values. We then initiated a
new variable called new_set, and for this, we want to merge the two
previous sets into one through the union() method. If you execute
this code, you will see that the new_set holds all the values from
both sets.
It is worth noting that the union() does not modify set_one or any
other set. Its function is only to unite the two sets. You need to
store the values in a new set variable to acquire them. Once again,
Python will automatically convert the variable into a set once these
values are stored.
There's another way you can do the above without using the union()
method. Instead, you can use the | key, as shown below:
new_set = set_one | set_two
This will do the same thing.
Set Intersection
The set intersection takes in sets and identifies the common
elements that these sets share. What it does, then, is allow you to
create a new set of all the common values. Once again, there are two
ways to do this. You can use the intersection() method to carry this
operation out, or you can use the & operator and still do the same
thing.
set_one = {1, 2, 3, 7, 19, 21}
set_two = {4, 5, 7, 21, 28}
new_set = set_one.intersection(set_two)
print(new_set)
print(type(new_set))
{21, 7}
<class 'set'>
In the above, the two common elements were identified and then
stored in the new_set variable. You can also use the & operator to do
this, as shown here:
 set_one = {1, 2, 3, 7, 19, 21}
set_two = {4, 5, 7, 21, 28}
new_set = set_one & set_two
print(new_set)
print(type(new_set))
{21, 7}
<class 'set'>
Set Difference
The set difference is the opposite of what set intersection does. As
the name suggests, this computes all the elements in sets and
identifies the ones that are different.
You will use the difference() method to carry out this operation.
Alternatively, you can use the - operator:
set_one = {1, 2, 3, 7, 19, 21}
set_two = {4, 5, 7, 21, 28, 30}
new_set = set_one.difference(set_two)
print(new_set)
print(type(new_set))
{19, 1, 2, 3}
<class 'set'>
Notice how some elements at the end of set two aren't displayed in
this set. This is because the first set stopped at 21, meaning it did
not have additional elements to compare with. You can, however, do
the following using the - operator:
set_one = {1, 2, 3, 7, 19, 21}
set_two = {4, 5, 7, 21, 28, 30}
#
new_set = set_two - set_one
print(new_set)
print(type(new_set))
 {28, 4, 5, 30}
<class 'set'>
Set Symmetric Difference
The symmetric difference considers all such elements present in the
first or the second set but not in both. To check the symmetric
difference between the two sets we have created, we can use the
symmetric_difference() method. Alternatively, we can also use the ^
operator:
set_one = {1, 2, 3, 7, 19, 21}
set_two = {4, 5, 7, 21, 28, 30}
new_set = set_one.symmetric_difference(set_two)
#Use the comment to disable the above before removing the comment
symbol below
#new_set = set_one ^ set_two
print(new_set)
print(type(new_set))
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 19, 28, 30}
<class 'set'>
Exercise
For this chapter, create a list using list comprehension. This list can
be about anything you like. As a challenge, try and find ways to
manipulate a tuple.
With that, it's time for us to move forward to the next chapter. In
the next chapter, we will learn one of the most defining features of
Python and understand what exactly OOP is all about.
 S Y T ,S B ’
J
Y R C S C A
“Sharing knowledge is the most fundamental act of friendship.
Because it is a way you can give something without losing
something.” - Richard Stallman
Imagine you’re back at the starting line, curious and eager, with a
world of coding ahead of you. Remember the excitement? The slight
nervousness? That’s where many are today, at the threshold of their
Python programming journey, holding The Ultimate Guide to
Python Programming for Beginners in their hands, wondering if it’s
the right guide for them.
Our goal at Megabyte Publishing is simple: make Python
programming a fun, accessible adventure for everyone. Every step
we take is driven by this goal. To reach every aspiring programmer
out there, we need your help.
Here’s the deal: book covers and reviews are what catch a beginner’s
eye. So, we have a small, yet significant request for you on behalf of
a future coding star you haven’t met yet:
Please share your thoughts about this book with a review.
Your review doesn’t cost a penny, and it takes less than a minute.
But your words have the power to inspire, guide, and reassure a
newcomer in the world of Python programming. Your insights could
be the nudge that helps...

A young student discover their passion for technology.

An aspiring developer take the first confident step in their
career.
A creative mind find a new way to express their ideas.
A curious soul unlock a new hobby that brings them joy.
To leave your mark and make a difference, just scan the QR code
below and share your review:
If the thought of guiding a budding programmer excites you,
welcome to our community! You’re now part of a special group
committed to spreading knowledge and joy.
I can’t wait to support you as you continue your Python
programming journey with even more amazing tips, tricks, and
insights in the upcoming chapters.
Thank you for your generosity and for being a guiding star in
someone else’s coding journey.
- Your enthusiastic guide, Megabyte Publishing
P.S. - Did you know? Sharing knowledge not only helps others but
also reinforces your own learning. If you believe this book could
benefit another aspiring Python programmer, why not spread the
word? Your recommendation could be the start of their coding
adventure!
Chapter 6: The Basics of Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP) Using Python
"Object-oriented Programming offers a
sustainable way to write spaghetti code." –
Paul Graham
Python is an Object-Oriented Programming language. That is the
introduction that you will likely come across every time you search
for Python. The fact is that not every language is an OOP-based
programming language. Fortunately for us, we are learning a
language that is, and it is pretty good at that, too.
So, what's the fuss about OOP? What exactly is an object? Why
should it matter that Python is an OOP language? Well, this chapter
is where we learn all that and learn more about what OOP is and
why we should know all about it.
Basics of Python OOP
Object-oriented programming is a utility, power, or paradigm that
uses various objects, classes, and more for programming. We can
implement real-world entities in our code through the power of
OOP. These can include:

Polymorphism
Inheritance
Encapsulation
And more

The entire goal of OOP is to bring data and functions together as a

single unit. This is done so that no other part of the code allows
other programmers to access data.
When it comes to OOP, there are six essential components that
make up OOP:
 1. Class
2. Objects
3. Polymorphism
4. Inheritance
5. Encapsulation
6. Data Abstraction

Considering the scope of this book, we will only be covering the first
four aspects, as the latter two can be pretty advanced.
Classes and Objects
Let's first start by understanding objects. An object is nothing more
than a code entity that a programmer creates. Every object has
attributes and behaviors that allow it to function in a specific
manner.
A class, on the other hand, is the blueprint for objects. It is this
blueprint that then facilitates the creation of objects. As it stands, a
class is a logical entity and holds some methods and attributes.
Many classes may already exist in Python, but you also have the
power to create your own classes as you see fit. Let's take the
following example to give you an idea of how vital and helpful
classes are.
Let's say you want to find out the age and the breed of dogs.
Generally, you would create two lists. One will handle the breed,
and the other will hold their ages. However, if you were to deal with
over 500 dogs, how would you handle that? Creating lists after lists
is undoubtedly not how you want to do things, as that can be very
hectic and messy regarding clean code writing. Instead, you create
classes.
To create a class, there are four rules to remember:

1. A class is always created by using the keyword class.

2. All attributes assigned to the class are variables that belong
to this class.
 3. Attributes are public, meaning these can be accessed easily
using the dot operator (.).
4. A class's name must have the first letter of every word in
uppercase.

With that said, let's look into the basic syntax of how a class is
created:
class SampleClass
#Your First statement goes here
.
.
.
.
.
.
#Your nth statement goes here
You can also create empty classes by using the pass statement:
class SampleClass:
pass
Objects
Now that you know the classes, we move on to the next step and
learn all about objects.
We know that objects are created thanks to classes. Their behavior
is linked to their parent classes. Everything we have learned about
thus far, such as variables, dictionaries, lists, integers, and strings,
are all objects.
Objects consist of a few things:

1. Identity—Every object has a unique name that allows the

object to interact with other objects.
2. State—The object's state is represented by the attributes
assigned to the object. The state also shows the properties of
the object in question.
 3. Behavior—The methods of the object reflect the behavior of
the object.

Let's create a class and call it Dog. We will need this class to create
objects to see how the state, behavior, and identity of the object
work:
class Dog:
# class default attribute
attr1 = "furry"
# Instance attribute
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
# Creation of object
Bruce = Dog("Bruce")
Tom = Dog("Tom")
# accessing attributes from the class
print("Bruce is very {}".format(Bruce.__class__.attr1))
print("Tom is also very {}".format(Tom.__class__.attr1))
# accessing instance attributes
print("This is {}".format(Bruce.name))
print("This is {}".format(Tom.name))
In the above code, we started by creating a class named Dog. First,
we set a default attribute or state, "furry." Next, we defined an
instance attribute. An instance attribute is an attribute that only
belongs to one object. This means that as long as the objects are
created using the same class, only they can access this attribute. Any
other object that isn't created using the same class will not be able
to access this attribute.
The __ init __ is called a constructor and is a special method used to
initialize an instance of a class. By default, it has one parameter
(self). Self is a reference to the instance being created. In our case,
we added one more parameter, name. This attribute will be applied to
every instance of the class.
Next, we created two objects using the following syntax:
object = class()
In our case, we created Bruce and Tom. We passed the names as
attributes while calling upon the class. That name will only apply to
individual objects and cannot be shared with others.
Finally, we printed the class attributes for each object followed by
their names (using the instance attributes).
"That's quite complicated."
Don't worry. We have a simpler way of doing this to get you into the
zone. Let's look at another example. For this, we will create a new
class named Cat. This time, we won't be using many complicated
ways. Instead, we'll use a far simpler approach:
class Cat:
# class attribute
name = ""
age = 0
# creating cat1 object
cat1 = Cat()
cat1.name = "Casper"
cat1.age = 2
# creating cat2 object
cat2 = Cat()
cat2.name = "Whiskers"
cat2.age = 5
# accessing attributes
print(f" {cat1.name} is {cat1.age} years old") #print(f"") is formatted
printing - easier to do
print(f" {cat2.name} is {cat2.age} years old")
"Yes. This seems simpler."
It really is. In this example, we created a class, gave it some empty
but straightforward attributes, and then headed straight to the code.
We created two objects and then defined their attributes further.
Finally, we printed information out using the attributes of each
object.
Creating Class Methods
Objects have attributes, but they also have methods. These are class
methods, and they are defined just as functions. The only difference
is that these are defined slightly differently:
# Adding a method to the Dog class
class Dog:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def bark(self):
print("Woof!")
# Using a method
my_dog = Dog("Buddy")
my_dog.bark()
Here, we created a class, defined it using the constructor, and then
defined a method. Since it was created in this class, this method will
now be exclusive to this class and its related objects only.
Inheritance and Polymorphism
Inheritance is precisely what it sounds like. It establishes a
relationship between any two given classes. One class is the
superclass, better known as the parent, while the other is the
subclass, better known as the child.
Every child keeps all the attributes and methods as inheritance from
its parent class. Furthermore, it can add new attributes and
methods, allowing it to evolve and grow more powerful. Where
required, a child class also can override methods of the parent's
class as well:
 class Father(object):
def buy_pizza(self):
print("yummy")
class Son1(Father):
pass
class Son2(Father):
pass
Father().buy_pizza()
Son1().buy_pizza()
Son2().buy_pizza()
In the above, we created a parent class named Father and passed
object as its parameter. Next, we defined a simple method, buy_pizza
and asked it to print the word yummy.
Then, we created two more classes and passed Father as their
parameter. What we did there was tell Python to designate these
classes as child classes. As a result, these classes ended up
inheriting everything the parent class had. In this case, it was a
method.
Once we called the method for each class, they all printed the same
message. This is because the child classes inherited the same
method, values, and everything else. Besides, a father will always
buy enough pizzas for everyone!
P
When child classes are created, they inherit all the methods and
attributes from their parent class. Naturally, child classes can also
end up having their own unique attributes and methods. However, a
concept in Python allows child classes to change methods in their
parent classes. That process is called polymorphism.
Through polymorphism, you can use a subclass and alter the
method originally defined in the parent class. Sounds somewhat
impossible, right? Let's see how this works:
 class Father(object):
def buy_pizza(self):
print("yummy")
class Son1(Father):
def buy_pizza(self):
print("I want more!")
class Son2(Father):
def buy_pizza(self):
print("I don't like pizzas!")
Father().buy_pizza()
Son1().buy_pizza()
Son2().buy_pizza()
yummy
I want more!
I don't like pizzas!
This is how polymorphism works. It is a great tool, especially when
you have a lot of child classes, and you'd like to change the behavior
of a given superclass from its subclass.
Extending Classes
Let's say you have a class with some methods and attributes you
know you need. However, as you continue with your program, you
feel like you want another class with all these features. Still, you
wish to further add functionality and modifications to the existing
methods. One might think, "Ah, yes! You need to create a child
class." However, a child class is not the answer here, not on its own.
A child class does inherit everything, but it won't let you add more
functionality to the already existing methods and attributes. A child
class can undoubtedly make use of polymorphism, but that's just
going to change the superclass-defined method. It won't add any
additional functionality. That's where you will need to rely on
extending your class.
Extending a class allows you to utilize all the existing methods and
add more features and functionalities. How do you do that? It's
quite easy. Follow these steps, and you'll be able to extend your
classes on the go:
Set up a parent class. Be sure to add all the methods and attributes
here.
Set up and define a child class. This child class will automatically
inherit all the methods and attributes from the parent class.
class Parent:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name}")
class Child(Parent):
def __init__(self, name, age):
super().__init__(name)
self.age = age
def greet(self):
super().greet()
print(f"I am {self.age} years old")
child = Child("Alice", 10)
child.greet()
In the above code, we created a parent and a child class. The child
class inherited all the attributes and methods. However, notice how
we re-defined the "greet" method using the super() method. The
super() method is used to call the superclass's version of the method.
Not only did we retain the original method, but we also added extra
functionality. The results for this code will look like this:
Hello, my name is Alice
I am 10 years old
Method Overriding
Using your subclass, or child class, you can morph the original
method and override it completely. For this to happen, there are a
few things that are required:

1. The method in the subclass must have the same name.

2. It should have the same number of parameters.
3. It should have the same return type.
4. The subclass must have inheritance.

The question here is why. Why would anyone want to override a

method?

1. Overriding method allows you to use functions and methods

with the same name.
2. It allows you to change the behavior as well as the
implementation of the existing method.

Here's a typical example of how a method override takes place:

# parent class
class Father:
# some random function
def someFeature(self):
print('Function defined in parent class!')
# child class
class Son(Father):
# empty class definition
pass
obj2 = Son()
obj2.someFeature()
Function defined in parent class!
Exercise
Now that you know all about classes and objects, let's put your
knowledge to the test. Below, you will find an incomplete code
snippet. The goal is to complete this code and make it work:
# Define the Book class
class ___:
def __init__(self, _____, _____):
self.______ = ______
self.______ = ______
def _______(self):
print(f"The book '{self.______}' is written by {self.______}.")
# Create an object of the Book class
my_book = ______("To Kill a Mockingbird", "Harper Lee")
# Call the describe method to print the book's details
my_book._______()
As you can see, the code is incomplete. Here are some hints to get
you started:

1. Define a class named Book.

2. Create an object for the class.
3. "Book" class should use __ init __ method to set "title" and
"author" attributes.
4. The "Book" class should also have a " describe " method.
5. Method "describe" will print/output the book's details.

With that out of the way, let's move on to the next chapter, where
we will learn about another important aspect of Python
programming—Error handling and debugging.
Chapter 7: Error Handling and Debugging in
Python
"The most effective debugging tool is still
careful thought, coupled with judiciously
placed print statements." –Brian Kernighan
Whenever you code a program, software, or application, one thing is
for certain—there are bound to be errors and crashes. This isn't
because you're a beginner, either. The fact is that even the most
experienced programmers go through these issues now and then.
What truly helps a professional programmer stand out is their
ability to spot these errors during the coding process and then
handle them accordingly.
Some errors occur due to some issues with the code. However, some
other errors emerge for some other reason completely. Either way,
programmers respond to these and conduct recovery procedures to
ensure the program doesn't crash.
Think about it this way. Whenever you are using your computer,
you often end up encountering errors. Does that mean your system
crashes completely? Not likely. Your system only crashes when
something terrible has happened. In most cases, these errors are
picked up and blocked off, and all that happens is a prompt
emerging, telling you what possibly went wrong.
Python is no exception to the rule. Whether you code for the first
time or the nth time, errors are bound to happen. What you can do,
however, is to handle these accordingly, and that is what we will
look into in this chapter.
What Is Error Handling in Programming?
Errors happen due to software or hardware. Sometimes, they can
happen because both issues emerge simultaneously. Error handling
is the art of understanding these errors and ensuring that
something's done to allow the application or the program to resume
function while jumping over the error. Since we aren't learning
about hardware, we won't be covering how to handle hardware-
related errors.
When it comes to software, a programmer can step in and do one of
two things:

1. Use some software tool to catch these errors and handle

them.
2. Write some code to block off such anticipated errors.

Either way, effective error handling allows a programmer to catch

errors and ensure the program continues to operate without
terminating. This helps save data, time, and resources.
Speaking of errors, a programmer must be familiar with four main
categories of errors. These are:

1. Logical errors
2. Runtime errors
3. Compile-time errors
4. Generated errors

One of the most important things a programmer of any level needs

to do is to proofread their code. This is extremely important because
when we are preoccupied with coding, we skip a comma here and
mistype something there, and just one slightest error can leave you
with an unusable code. It can often drive programmers on the edge
of sanity to find out what went wrong. Fortunately, many tools can
help you identify these errors. Some IDEs, such as Pycharm, have
built-in features that help identify potential errors while you are
coding. This means you won't have to write the code, execute it,
develop an error, and then try to find out where the problem is. You
fix the error on the fly.
Logical errors are usually bugs or the use of incorrect logic. This
requires debugging by proofreading the code and ensuring
everything is working. For runtime errors, there are error-handling
applications that can help to either resolve these issues or minimize
their impact. This is done by adopting some countermeasures. As it
turns out, most hardware applications come with error-handling
mechanisms.
The fact is that errors can be a bit of a trouble to deal with. These
can have minimal impacts, but some errors can be fatal (to the
system or the application). These errors can lead to system crashes
and damage to the hardware itself.
What Is Debugging?
Error handling is anticipating when and where an error may occur.
Debugging, however, is the process of going through the code and
then fixing the problem. It is a multi-step process that requires a
programmer to identify the problem first. Once the problem is
identified, it is isolated from the rest of the program to test. Once
the findings are confirmed, programmers try to correct the piece of
code or try to find a way to create a way to bypass that issue. After
this, programmers test the final results to ensure they work
seamlessly.
As the name suggests, the general goal of debugging is to find bugs
in codes and software. This is why many software companies and
gaming studios often pay people to find glitches and bugs in their
products. It is an integral part of programming and can often be
considered a skill that programmers can further enhance and
pursue.
Understanding Exceptions
When it comes to Python, there are two types of errors that you
come across. These are called:

1. Syntax error
2. Exceptions

The syntax errors are quite straightforward. They happen when you
forget to complete the code, perhaps close the parenthesis, or even
mistype the name of a function. When such an instance happens,
Python throws in a syntax error. Here's a sample of such an issue.
See if you can spot the problem here:
# Scoring Software
name = input("Please Enter Your Name: ")
print("Hello, ", name + "! Welcome to Our Grading Software!")
marks = int(input("Enter your marks: "))
print("Fetching your grade. Please wait!")
grade = ""
if marks >= 90:
grade = "A"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
elif marks >= 80:
grade = "B"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
elif marks >= 70:
grade = "C"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
elif marks >= 60:
grade = "D"
print("Your grade is: " grade)
else:
grade = "F"
print("Your grade is: ", grade)
print("Thank You for Using This Software!")
When you run this, you end up with the following error!
SyntaxError: invalid syntax.
If you weren't able to find the problem, look at this line:
elif marks >= 60:
grade = "D"
print("Your grade is: " grade)
Here, there is a comma missing. Just because of a simple comma,
the entire program failed to function and could not move ahead. It
can be frustrating when you are coding and forget something as
small as a comma. However, with most IDEs, you can find the issue,
and some IDEs even hint at what may be wrong. Here's another
example of a simple line of code that went wrong:
print("Hi. My name is" name)
SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?
In the above, we deliberately did not use a comma. As a result, the
syntax was wrong. IDLE could pick that up and suggest that we may
have forgotten to use a comma, which was precisely the problem.
While syntax errors are easy to fix, the following type of error
causes issues and needs a deeper understanding.
Exception errors occur when you have done everything correctly, as
per the syntax, but their functionality is incorrect. Let's take the
following code as an example:
name = input("What's your name?")
What's your name? Alex
print(Name)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in <module>
print(Name)
NameError: name 'Name' is not defined. Did you mean: 'name'?
In the code above, we called upon Name as opposed to name. Recall
that Python is a case-sensitive language. This means that name and
Name are two separate things. We did declare "name" but at no point
did we ever create a variable named "Name." As a result, an
exception was thrown our way.
In the above, we ended up with NameError. This generally happens
when we try to call upon a variable, function, or method that doesn't
exist. As a result, the error was recorded, and the rest of the
program was terminated. If this code had additional lines, they
wouldn't be executed.
There are quite a few types of Exceptions that exist in Python. Let's
go through each of them to understand what's going on. This will
help us with our debugging process.
Types of Exceptions
NameError
The first one is NameError. We just came across this above. It
happens when you try to call upon a variable that doesn't exist.
TypeError
TypeError occurs when trying to run an operation with an
inapplicable data type. Let's say you are trying to print the following:
print(2 + "2")
In the above, we can see clearly that one data type is an integer
value while the other one is a string. These cannot interact with
each other unless they are changed into strings or integers.
In such a case, you will be presented with the TypeError, as shown
below:
print(2 + "2")
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#7>", line 1, in <module>
print(2 + "2")
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'
ValueError
A ValueError exception occurs when you are trying to use an invalid
value as an argument. Let's say you type in the following:
print(int("My name is Cole"))
The above shows that int() is called upon, which means the program
expects you to input a numerical value. Instead, we ended up
passing a string value. As a result, we will end up with the following
error:
print(int("My name is Cole"))
 Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#8>", line 1, in <module>
print(int("My name is Cole"))
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'My name is Cole'
IndexError
When you use index numbers and use the wrong ones, you get
IndexError, Python's way of saying, "Sorry, but that doesn't exist."
dog = [1, 2, 3]
print(dog[3])
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#11>", line 1, in <module>
print(dog[3])
IndexError: list index out of range
In the above, since index values start from 0, the last index number
is 2. We asked Python to print whatever is at index number 3. Since
that is out of the range of the list itself, we end up getting an
IndexError.
IndentationError
When you use the wrong indentations, you end up facing this error.
You may have noticed how conditional statements, for and while
loops, and definition sections are always indented. This isn't just to
make the code look nice, but it is also a requirement.
Sometimes, it may also be reflected as SyntaxError, but
the description will clarify what you are looking at:
SyntaxError: expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line
1
for x in range(1, 10):
print(x)
SyntaxError: expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line 1
The print(x) was meant to be indented in this code, yet it wasn't. In
some IDEs, this will be reflected as an IndentationError. Here's how
the very same code will generate an indentation error in a different
IDE (PyCharm, for this example):
File "/Users/PycharmProjects/PythonForBeginners/test.py", line 2
print(x)
^
IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line 1
ZeroDivisionError
This one should make sense right away. Sometimes, you may have
massive algorithms and complex code to work with. As you process
all of that and run it, you may end up with this error. What does it
mean? It simply means that there is some instance where
something is being divided by 0. Since that is impossible to do, the
system will throw an exception your way:
print(1/0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#2>", line 1, in <module>
print(1/0)
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
Of course, the above is not complicated or complex, but it is a
perfect way to show when such an error might pop up.
ImportError / ModuleNotFoundError
You will have this error when you import something from the
wrong library. In the future, whenever you are importing specialized
libraries for machine learning, game development, or other projects,
you may come across this error if you're trying to import the wrong
module from the wrong library:
from numpy import pandas
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#3>", line 1, in <module>
from numpy import pandas
ModuleNotFoundError: No module named 'numpy'
AttributeError
When you are trying to use an inapplicable attribute for a given
Python object, you end up getting this error:
print('a'.sum())
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in <module>
print('a'.sum())
AttributeError: 'str' object has no attribute 'sum'
KeyError
Just like IndexError, KeyError happens when you are calling upon a
key that doesn't exist in a dictionary:
animals = {"koala": 1, "panda": 2}
print(animals["rabbit"])
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#10>", line 1, in <module>
print(animals["rabbit"])
KeyError: 'rabbit'
These are some of the most common ones you will come across.
You may come across many other exceptions, a detail of which can
be found under Python Documentation at www.python.org.
Python Debugging Techniques
Now that you know the errors and exceptions, let's learn how we
can overcome these. It is essential to learn all of these to have the
best chance at fixing the issues you may encounter during your
programming journey.
Using the Print Statements
This is the most basic way to find problems and then try to resolve
them. When you have multiple operations, try to print the variables
or results out to see if everything is working. If everything works
fine, you should get the result you are looking for.
In all the above examples, where we discussed a variety of
exceptions, we used print statements to see if the code was working.
Where it wasn't, it was responding with the type of error it
encountered and suggestions. It even highlighted the line number
to narrow our search down.
This is the very first kind of debugging method you use.
Using Python Debugger
Python comes built-in with a powerful debugging tool. It is called
the Python Debugger (pdb). Using pdb helps you greatly because it
goes through the code, checks for every value and variable, and then
tracks down any hard-to-find bugs. To use pdb, you must first
import it into your program and then call it into action. How? Here's
an example:
import pdb
def factorial(x):
if x == 0:
return 1
else:
return x * factorial(c-1)
pdb.set_trace()
print(factorial(4))
Once you execute this code, the Python debugger will start. It will
present you with the following:
-> print(factorial(4))
(Pdb)
After the parentheses, you can type one of the four values

n—to execute the command and go to the next one.

s—to step inside a function call.
p—to print the value of a variable.
q—to quit debugger.
If you were to press "n" in the case above, you will find that it
returns an error:
NameError: name 'c' is not defined
Similarly, if you press q, it will detail all the errors it found. This
helps eliminate the guesswork, especially since most codes and
programs you work with will have hundreds or thousands of lines.
Using the Logging Module
You can also use the logging method to debug your program. This
involves importing the logging module into your program, just like
we imported pdb earlier. The logging module provides output
messages that help you track down and identify problem areas
within the code. Here's logging in full action:
import logging
def total_price_calculator(unit_price, quantity):
total = unit_price * quantity
logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
logging.debug(f"Total price is: {total}") # add a logging statement to
debug
return total
price = total_price_calculator(10, 5)
In this code, we first changed the basic configuration of the logging
module to DEBUG. This is because, by default, this module does not
offer any output. We need to change its level since we want to see
what's happening with the code. Next, we carried out a simple
program, and it worked. We received the following output:
DEBUG:root:Total price is: 50
The above does not show any errors and also shows the result.
Logging is quite effective, especially when dealing with significantly
more complex codes.
The Try and Except Statements
These are the most commonly used and effective ways to debug
your program. Using the try and except statements, you can ensure
that your code continues operating without running into
unnecessary crashes.
The try statement is quite helpful when running a program you
know has errors. The try statement is always followed by an except
statement. What this does is tell the program, "Hey. Try this first. If
it works, use that and move on. If this causes an exception, don't
run this and run this instead."
You set up two additional blocks when you spot a troubling piece of
code. The first is the try block, where you ask the program to try a
new block of code to see if that fixes the problem. You also type in
an except block of code in case the try block does not work. It's just
like the conditional if and else statements we worked with earlier.
Using these will allow Python to continue running the program
instead of terminating the process completely. How? Let's see this
in action:
try:
print(a)
except:
print('Please declare the variable a first')
print(10)
Please declare the variable a first
10
We set up two blocks in the above code, try and except. We first
asked Python to try to print 'a', and, as you may have guessed, 'a' is
not defined in the code. If you had just asked Python to print 'a'
normally, the program would have crashed immediately.
Since we used the try and except, it first tried the try block. Since that
led to an error, it skipped that and went for the except block, where
we wrote our error to help us know what was causing the problem.
As a result, the code continued working and successfully printed 10
in the end.
To make things more interesting, let's try and catch an exception
with try and except:
try:
print(a)
except NameError:
print("You need to declare the variable a first")
If this code was run without the try and except block, we'll run into
NameError immediately. Instead, now, we end up with a
customized error message and not a crash:
You need to declare the variable a first
As a programmer and debugger, one of your most important jobs is
to identify the type of errors you will encounter with a given code.
This is important because you can then use that information to
create multiple except statements to catch any error that may occur.
Here's an example:
def print_dict_total(dct):
print(sum(dct.values()))
dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
print_dict_total(dict)
try:
print_dict_total(mydict)
except NameError:
print('Check spelling of dictionary name')
except AttributeError:
print('Provide a dictionary with numeric values')
except TypeError:
print('Some dictionary values are not numeric')
In the above, we have set up a simple code. Notice how we
deliberately used the wrong name in the try block. As a result, it will
revert back with NameError. If that happens, the corresponding
except block will catch it and ensure it provides a better output that
shows us what we did wrong. We also set up other except
statements. To check these, try to change the values or names to see
how these come into action.
If all else fails, you can also use the else statement, and if that fails
too, you can use the finally statement as your last resort:
try:
print(3/0)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print('You cannot divide by zero')
else:
print('The division is successfully performed')
finally:
print('This message is always printed')
Recommended Workflow of Debugging for Beginners
You might be wondering which of these should you use to debug
your code. To help you, here is a recommended workflow to use as a
step-by-step guide. You can move on to the next step only if the
current step fails:

1. Identify the problem yourself.

2. Reproduce and replicate the problem.
3. Use print statements.
4. Use the pdb module.
5. Use a logging module.
6. Use try and except.
7. Test the code once again to finalize everything.

Exercise
Right! It's time to get cracking at some debugging. Below, you will
find two sets of code. The goal is to find out the error, fix it, and run
the code:
print("Welcome to Python Programming!"
That's quite simple, isn't it? Well, let's see if you can solve this one.
numerator = 10
denominator = 0
result = numerator / denominator
print(f"The result is {result}")
With the above code, you are bound to get an error of some kind.
The goal is to handle this code exception so that the code does not
crash and instead handles the code exception somehow.
Here's an additional code if you're feeling up for the task:
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
average = sum(numbers) / len(numbers) - 1
print(f"The average is {average}")
There's something wrong with this code. Can you spot the issue and
fix it?
With that, it is time for us to move on to the book's next chapter,
where we will discuss Python file operations and data storage.
Chapter 8: Python File Operations and Data
Storage
"The goal is to turn data into information,
and information into insight." –Carly Fiorina,
Former CEO of Hewlett-Packard
Did you know you can use Python to write files like .csv, text files,
and more? Well, that is something Python can do and part of the
reason why Python is being taught in almost every leading business
and finance school.
This chapter, therefore, will be all about Python file operations and
how you can read, write, and store files easily.
Reading and Writing Files
Python is powerful enough for many reasons, and reading and
writing files is just one of them. Using Python, you can create, write,
and read files easily.
Regarding Python, there are two types of files that Python can
handle. These are standard text files and library files. The latter are
written in binary language, so we won't be going into those. Keeping
the scope of this book in view, we will only focus on text files.
File Access Modes on Python
When you access a file, you have different access modes. Since we
are dealing with coding, it isn't as simple as double-clicking and
opening a file. Here, we must specify in the code what kind of access
we want.
In Python, we have:

1. Read-only—'r' is used to open text files. This is the default

mode. Returns error if the file doesn't exist.
2. Read and write—'r+' is used to open and write on the file.
Returns error if the file doesn't exist.
 3. Write only—'w' is used to open a file for writing. Existing
files will have their data truncated, meaning you will
overwrite them. Creates the file if the file doesn't exist.
4. Write and read—'w+' is used to open files for reading and
writing. Existing files will be overwritten.
5. Append only—'a' is used to open files for writing. A file is
created if it doesn't exist. Data is added at the end of the file.
6. Append and read—'a+' is used to open files for both reading
and writing. A file is created if it doesn't exist. Data is
inserted at the end.

Opening Files
To open a file in Python, we use the following basic syntax:
file_object = open('file_name', 'mode')
The open() function always takes in two parameters. These are:

1. file_name—this includes the file extension. Python assumes

that the file in question is in the same directory.
2. mode—this is an optional parameter, but to use file
operations, it is recommended that you use the correct type
of mode to access the files.

Depending on the kind of mode you wish to go for, use the

corresponding mode letters. Before opening the file, however, you
want to ensure that any existing file you wish to work with is in the
same directory as the program file itself. If not, you will need to type
in the full address of the file instead of the filename.
# Open function for "MyFile1.txt"
# file is in the same directory
my_file = open("MyFile.txt", "a")
# store its reference in the variable my_file
# and "MyFile2.txt" in \Text subdirectory in my_file2
my_file2 = open(r"Text\MyFile2.txt","w+")
Note that we used the letter 'r' before the file name. This is done to
make the string raw. This ensures that no character of the filename
is treated as a special character. This ensures that this does not
return an error. You can drop the r if the file happens to be in the
same directory and you're not writing down the address.
You'll create my_file as an object for MyFile1.txt using the code
above. Similarly, you will create my_file2 as an object that will
correspond to MyFile2.txt.
Closing Files
To close a file, you use the close() function.
Important: Whenever you work with files, always ensure that you
close them before moving on to the next one. This is done to ensure
the system frees up memory space.
my_file = open("MyFile.txt", "a")
my_file.close() #this will close the file
Writing
There are two ways to write on a file.

1. Use the write() function—This inserts a string in a single line

within the text file.
2. Use the writelines() function—This inserts multiple string
elements.

file_object.write(str1) #replace str1 with what you wish to enter as a string

file_object.writelines(x) for x = [str1, str2, str3, ...... strN]
Reading
To read from a file, you can use three ways.

1. Use the read() function—This returns read bytes in a string

format. This reads the entire file if no value is passed
through.
2. Use the readline() function—This reads a single line from the
file and returns it as a string. This does not read more than
 one line if the value passed through exceeds the length of
the line itself.
3. Use the readlines() function—This reads all the lines and
fetches them back as string elements within a list.

Below is a code that shows you various types of writing and reading
functions in use.
# Showing various ways to read and write
my_file = open("my_file.txt", "w")
L = ["This is Toronto \n", "This is New York \n", "This is LA \n"]
# \n is placed to indicate EOL (End of Line)
my_file.write("Hi there \n")
my_file.writelines(L)
my_file.close() # closing to change access mode
my_file = open("my_file.txt", "r+")
print("Output of Read ")
print(my_file.read())
print()
my_file.seek(0)
print( "Output of Readline ")
print(my_file.readline())
print()
my_file.seek(0)
# difference between read and readline
print("Output of Read(9) function is ")
print(my_file.read(9))
print()
my_file.seek(0)
print("Output of Readline(9) function is ")
 print(my_file.readline(9))
my_file.seek(0)
# readlines function
print("Output of Readlines function is ")
print(my_file.readlines())
print()
my_file.close()
The output is as follows:
Output of Read
Hi there
This is Toronto
This is New York
This is LA
Output of Readline
Hi there
Output of Read(9) function is
Hi there
Output of Readline(9) function is
Hi there
Output of Readlines function is
['Hi there \n', 'This is Toronto \n', 'This is New York \n', 'This is LA \n']
While you
already
know it is
essential
to close
files you
are
working
with, you
 should
always
double-
check
that you
are doing
so.
Failure to
do so can
lead to
file
corruption
, slowing
down of
the
program,
system
crashing,
and other
issues.
Appending
We know we must use 'a' or 'a+' to append items to the file.
However, let's see how that happens with another example.
# Append VS Write
my_file2 = open("file2.txt", "w")
L = ["Say Hello to Japan \n", "Hello Italy \n", "This is England \n"]
my_file2.writelines(L)
my_file2.close()
# Append-adds at last
my_file2 = open("file2.txt", "a") # append mode
my_file2.write("Today \n")
 my_file2.close()
my_file2 = open("file2.txt", "r")
print("Readlines after appending")
print(my_file2.readlines())
print()
my_file2.close()
# Write-Overwrites
my_file2 = open("file2.txt", "w") # write mode
my_file2.write("Tomorrow \n")
my_file2.close()
my_file2 = open("file2.txt", "r")
print("Readlines after writing")
print(my_file2.readlines())
print()
my_file2.close()
The output is:
Readlines after appending
['Say Hello to Japan \n', 'Hello Italy \n', 'This is England \n', 'Today \n']
Readlines after writing
['Tomorrow \n']

Working With CSV Data in Python

Text files are one thing, and they are pretty standard. However,
things are quite different when it comes to CSV. CSV stands for
Comma Separated Values file. It is a popular file format used in
Excel and spreadsheet software.
Python has a built-in CSV library, allowing us to read, write, and
process data to and from any given .csv file easily. Let's see how that
works.
Opening a CSV File
Once again, we call upon the open() function to open a CSV file.
 x = open("file.csv") #Assuming that the file is in the same directory
You will need to type in the full address if the file exists in some
other directory, as shown below:
x = open(r"E:\Python3\Scripts\file.csv")
File Modes
Some modes remain the same as before when dealing with CSV
files, while some are new.

1. 'r'—this is used for read-only access.

2. 'w'—this is used for write-only access (will overwrite data).
3. 'a'—this is used for writing only (appending data).
4. 'r+'—this is used for reading and writing files.
5. 'x'—this is used to create a new file.

Closing a CSV File

Use the close() function to close an open CSV file.
x.close() # assuming that x was already reading or writing on file.
It is worth noting that this may not always work. To ensure that the
file is closed correctly, it is highly recommended to use the with
keyword. Doing so automatically closes the file once the code moves
past the with block. Alternatively, you can use the try-finally
method:
M
with open('file1.csv') as x:
print(x.read()) # The file will automatically close
- M
x = open('file1.csv')
try:
# File operations here
finally:
x.close()
Reading a CSV File
To read, you will first need to import the csv module. This will allow
you to gain access to its reader() method. The reader() method is
excellent as it splits rows into specified delimited. By doing that, it
then provides us with an output as a list of strings.
Let's assume that we have a csv file named file1.csv. The file has the
following data:
name, job, city, age
Ken, Manager, Claymont, 37
George, Actor, Seattle, 44
To read from this file, we will need to do the following:
import csv
with open('file1.csv') as f:
reader = csv.reader(f)
for row in reader:
print(row)
The file will close automatically since we used the with keyword. If
we run this code, we will end up with three lists, each showing the
contents of a line, starting from top to bottom.
['name', 'job', 'city', 'age']
['Ken', 'Manager', 'Claymont', '37']
['George', 'Actor', 'Seattle', '44']
Writing on CSV Files
If you aim to write on an existing file, the first thing to do is import
csv (if you haven't already done so) and then open the file. You can
open the file with:

w—for write only

a—for append
r+—read and write
Once done, you must use the writer object and the writerow()
method. These will help pass the data through the file as a list of
strings.
import csv
with open('file1.csv', 'a') as x:
writer = csv.writer(x)
writer.writerow(['John', 'Senior Manager', 'San Jose' , ‘45’])
writer.writerow(['Samuel', 'Designer', 'Miami' , ‘40’])
This will write the contents in the file file1.csv.
Read CSV File Into Dictionaries
Python allows you to read any CSV file directly into a dictionary.
This can be done using the DictReader() method. When you do so, it
is important to note that the very first row of the file that has the
column names will serve as keys for this new dictionary:
import csv
with open('file1.csv') as x:
my_reader = csv.DictReader(x)
for row in my_reader:
print(row)
If your file does not have names for each column, you can use an
optional parameter fieldnames to name keys.
import csv
with open('file1.csv') as x:
my_keys = ['name', 'job', 'city', ’age’]
my_reader = csv.DictReader(x, fieldnames=my_keys)
for row in my_reader:
print(row)
Writing CSV File From Dictionary
Besides reading, you can also write from a dictionary as well. We
will need to use the DictWriter() method to do this. However, unlike
reading, you must use the fieldname parameter to specify the keys.
import csv
with open('file1.csv', mode='w') as x:
my_keys = ['name', 'job', 'city', 'age']
my_writer = csv.DictWriter(x, fieldnames=my_keys)
my_writer.writeheader() # adds column names in the CSV file
my_writer.writerow({'job': 'Senior Manager', 'city': 'San Jose', 'age':
'45', 'name': 'John'})
my_writer.writerow({'job': 'Designer', 'city': 'Miami', 'age': '40', 'name':
'Samuel'})
This will add the information in your CSV file.
Handling Errors
When you run across an error, it is best to use the try-except block
process to try and resolve the issue:
import csv
import sys
file = 'file.csv'
with open(file, newline='') as x:
my_reader = csv.reader(x)
try:
for row in my_reader:
print(row)
except csv.Error as error:
sys.exit('file {}, line {}: {}'.format(file, my_reader.line_num, error))
Working With JSON Data in Python
JSON stands for JavaScript Object Notation. This means that it is an
executable script file that is made up of text. It is used to store and
transfer data. Fortunately, Python supports JSON and does so
through its built-in package with the same name: JSON.
If you are to use this package, you will first need to use the import
JSON command to import and be able to access all features within
the package.
The text within JSON uses quoted strings containing key-value
mapping within the curly brackets {}. It is almost like dictionaries in
Python:
import json
# {key: value mapping}
x ={"name": "Alan", "age": 29, "Salary": 55000}
# dumps() function called to convert to JSON
y = json.dumps(x)
# printing output
print(y)
This produces the following output:
{"name": "Alan", "age": 29, "Salary": 55000}
JSON supports the primitive Python data types, including strings,
numbers, lists, objects, and tuples.
JSON Serialization
Serialization is a process of encoding JSON. The term is used to
highlight the data transformation. The given data is converted into a
series of bytes that are then stored or transmitted across a network.
Programmers use the dump() function to handle the data flow
within a file. The dump() function converts Python objects into
JSON objects. This conversion allows programmers to write data to
files quickly.
Below is a table that shows Python objects and what they become
once they are converted into JSON objects.

Python JSON
dict object
list and tuple array
str string
 int, float, and number
long s
True true
False false
None null
Here's how you can carry out simple serialization:
import json
my_var = {"Subjects": {"Spanish": 75, "Science": 91}}
with open("Test.json", "w") as a:
json.dump(my_var, a)
We first import JSON into Python. Then, we create a Python object
my_var. Next, we create a file named Test.json. We use the write
mode to access it. Next, we use the dump method. The json.dump()
method takes in two arguments. The first is the data object that we
want to serialize. The second is the object, which the program will
write in Byte format.
Deserialization
This is the opposite of serialization. Therefore, instead of dumping
data, it loads the data instead. As a result, the JSON objects are
converted into their corresponding Python objects. For this, we use
the load() method:
with open("Test.json", "r") as read_this:
my_data = json.load(read_this)
Let's look at another example where we create a JSON object and
then convert it into a Python object using the load() method:
import json
json_obj ="""
{"Country":
{"name": "Pakistan", "Languages_spoken": [
{"names":
["Urdu", "English", "Sindhi", "Punjabi"]}]}}
 """
python_obj = json.loads(json_obj)
Exercise
So far, you're doing great. Yes, it does take some time to get used to
it. However, do not be alarmed if you run into any issues. You can
always consult this book and find help from the wonderful
community. Alternatively, you can check out Python
Documentations to further enhance your knowledge and skills.
With that said, it is time to put your knowledge to the test. For this
chapter, create a program that reads and writes from a text file. It's
that simple!
Bonus Challenge
If you're up for the challenge, we have one for you.
Create a personal expense tracker. You will need to bring in all the
knowledge from this and previous chapters. Below are step-by-step
instructions and a completed code to inspire you.
The code must support JSON and CSV formats. The program should
include reading and writing expense data to a text file:

1. Initialize an empty list.

2. Load the existing expense list form file.
3. Create functions for operations:
4. Function to add expense.
5. Function to view expense.
6. Function to save expense.
7. Create a menu.
8. Create a main program loop.
9. Complete the code.

The code is as follows:

# Initialize expense list
expenses = []
# Load existing expenses from the file
try:
with open("expenses.txt", "r") as file:
expenses = file.readlines()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("No existing expenses found.")
# Function to add an expense
def add_expense(expense):
expenses.append(expense)
# Function to view expenses
def view_expenses():
for expense in expenses:
print(expense.strip())
# Function to save expenses to file
def save_expenses():
with open("expenses.txt", "w") as file:
file.writelines(expenses)
# Function to display the menu
def display_menu():
print("Expense Tracker Menu:")
print("1. Add Expense")
print("2. View Expenses")
print("3. Save and Exit")
# Main program loop
while True:
display_menu()
choice = input("Choose an option (1-3): ")
if choice == '1':
expense = input("Enter the expense details: ") + "\n"
add_expense(expense)
elif choice == '2':
 view_expenses()
elif choice == '3':
save_expenses()
print("Expenses saved. Goodbye!")
break
else:
print("Invalid choice. Please try again.")
In the next chapter, we will move on to Python for web
development, an exciting area that will surely catch your fancy.
Chapter 9: Fundamentals of Python Web
Development
"If you think math is hard, try web design." –
Trish Parr
Web development is exciting. It is a field where programmers and
web developers can be as creative as they want. However, with that,
there are challenges, too.
Python, a programming language, doesn't necessarily come to mind
for web development immediately. With that said, it does have an
ace up its sleeve that many developers and professionals know
about and love. Therefore, this chapter will help you learn exactly
what that is, why Python is great for web development, and how to
get started immediately.
Introduction to Python Web Development
Earlier in the book, we talked about how Python was being used by
some of the top web-based entities, such as Instagram, Spotify, and
Disqus. That is because Python web development offers flexibility.
It is a powerful way to develop web-based applications and projects.
It can handle simple projects as well as those that are more
complex. Because of that, Python continues to be used for projects
related to:

Travel
Transportation
Healthcare
Finance
Manufacturing

And that is just scratching the surface. There's a lot more that
Python web development can do for you. While there are many
other well-established platforms and frameworks people use for
web development, Python has certain advantages that most cannot
offer:

1. Easy and readable

2. Portability and interactivity
3. Prototyping
4. Visualization options
5. Asynchronous coding
6. OOP
7. Rich standard library
8. Rich ecosystem
9. Enterprise application integration

The list goes on and on. However, there are some cons to this as
well that you should know:

1. Fewer specialist developers.

2. Not popular for mobile applications.
3. Speed limitations.
4. High memory consumption.
5. Design restrictions.

Now, for those who are eager to get started, we have some good
news. Python has a framework (a platform that provides you with
all the tools and functionalities you need to develop applications)
that makes your job a lot easier. In this case, that happens to be a
framework called Flask.
The Basics of Framework—Flask
A framework is essentially a platform that developers use to develop
software applications. These can be offline or web-based. A
framework makes the work easier as most fundamental elements
are pre-loaded and provided. This helps save time and energy. Not
just that, using frameworks helps keep things more organized, too.
Frameworks offer functionality and tools that are used explicitly for
application development. This means you won't have to go around
the internet to search for what to use to carry out a specific
operation. It's all there for you, and Flask is one such example.
Flask is Python's web development framework. It's not the only one,
but it is one that people mostly use. It is the most beginner-friendly
framework to learn and work with. The other alternative is Django,
which requires much time to master.
The good thing is that you don't have to start from scratch. Why?
Because by now, you know your way with Python. That helps you
save a lot of time and get straight into it.
Flask is based on the Werkzeg Web Server Gateway Interface
(WSGI) toolkit and Jinja2 engine. The Werkzeg toolkit is used as a
standard for Python web development. It is WSGI that interacts
between the server and the web app. Jinja2, on the other hand, is a
very popular template engine for Python. Using Jinja allows you to
pass Python variables through any HTML code or template easily.
Flask is a lot like Python, meaning you will not have any trouble
using it. To give you an example, here's a sample boilerplate code
for you to see:
from flask import Flask
app = Flask(__name__)
@app.route('/')
def hello_world():
return 'Hello World!'
if __name__ == '__main__':
app.run()
That makes sense, and it is very readable. Well, before you go on to
code anything in Flask, you first need to install something called a
virtual environment.
The virtual environment is used to manage your project during
development and production. A virtual environment is a group of
independent Python libraries for each project. You can have a set of
packages installed for one project, and they will not affect any other
project. To use Flask, we need to download a few things.
Here's a step-by-step guide on how to install Flask properly on your
system.
Step 1—Installing the Virtual Environment
First, you will need to install the virtual environment. Be sure to
follow the steps according to your operating system.
F L
If you are using Debian or Ubuntu, do the following:

1. Open Terminal.
2. Use the following apt command to install virtualenv:
sudo apt install python-virtualenv

For CentOS, Red Hat, or Fedora users, here are the steps:

1. Open Terminal.
2. Use the following yum command to install virtualenv:
sudo yum install python-virtualenv

F M OS
For Mac users, the installation is equally simple.

1. Launch Terminal
2. Use the following command to install virtualenv using pip.
sudo python3 -m pip install virtualenv

F W
To install a virtual environment on Windows, do the following:

1. Open the Command Line (aka command prompt) with

admin privileges.
 2. Use the following pip command to install virtualenv:
py -3 -m pip install virtualenv

Step 2—Creating an Environment

Next, we need to create an environment. To do that, you need to do
the following:

1. Make a separate directory/folder for every project.

2. Move into the directory. If you're using Terminal or
command prompts, use the cd command to enter the
destination directory.
3. Once in the directory, create a virtual environment for Flask
using the steps below, depending on your operating system.

L M OS
To create an environment in Linux or MacOS, use the following
code in Terminal (be sure you are in the directory of the project):

python3 -m venv <name of environment>

You can name the environment as per your liking.

W
For Windows, use the command prompt to enter the destination
folder or directory. Once there, use the following code to create a
virtual environment:

py -3 -m venv <name of environment>

Step 3—Activating the Environment

Once the virtual environment is created, you need to activate it.
L M OS
Use the following line of code:

<name of environment>/bin/activate
W
Use the following line of code:

<name of environment>\Scripts\activate

Step 4—Installing Flask

Next, we need to install Flask inside the activated environment. For
this, we will need to use the same command in all three operating
systems:

pip install Flask

Step 5—Testing the Development Environment

1. Create a Flask app to test your development environment (it
can be as simple as a Hello World program).
2. Create a file named hello.py in the Flask project folder.
3. Use a text editor and code in the "hello world" program.
4. Save and close the file.
5. Use the console to navigate to your project folder (use the
cd command).
6. set FLASK_APP environment variable.
A. Linux and Mac users use the code after the arrow ->
export FLASK_APP=hello.py
B. Windows -> setx FLASK_APP "hello.py"
7. Run the Flask application using the code flask run.
8. Take note of the address (http://x.x.x.x:x) and copy it.
9. Open a browser, paste the address, and press enter to access
the web application.

Building a Simple Python Web App

With Flask installed and running, it's time to create a simple web
app. We start by learning about routing. From there, we will move
on to templates and some exercises to reinforce what we'll learn.
Routing
Also known as Flask App Routing, it is mapping URLs to specific
functions. Modern-day web frameworks, such as Flask, make it
easier for users to remember these URLs. Not just that, they aim to
make navigation easier as well.
Whenever you go to any URL, you usually find that the URL reads
something like www.nameoftheurl.com. If you click on "About Us,"
it changes to www.nameoftheurl.com/about. Here, the "/" sign is
used to signify the root URL. The URL is then mapped so that users
know where they are, hence the /about. If we were to click on
another section, say blog, it would read /blog. That's routing at
work.
Using Flask, we can bind our URL with a function. For that, we use
something called app.route decorator. Here's an example of how it
works:
from flask import Flask
my_app = Flask(__name__)
# Pass the required route to the decorator
@my_app.route("/hello")
def hello():
return "Hello, Welcome to My Website"
@my_app.route("/")
def index():
return "Homepage of this website"
if __name__ == "__main__":
my_app.run(debug=True)
Save this file as main.py in your development environment
directory. We used /hello and / to separate two pages in the above
example. One is a welcome page, while the other (/) is a root or
home page. You can now run this app by using the following code
on the command prompt or terminal:
python main.py
Next, open a browser and type 127.0.0.1:5000/hello. You will see the
welcome page.
Think about routing as routes that help you navigate more easily.
The World Wide Web (www) is where much information exists. A
particular protocol is used to communicate data back and forth—
http. You may have already seen this in the address bars of your
browsers. Flask, on the other hand, has different decorators when it
comes to handling http requests.
There are different methods to retrieve data from a given URL.
These are:

Reques Purpose of Request

t name
GET Most common method used. GET is a message
sent to a server, and the server then returns data
POST POST sends HTML form data to servers. The
server does not cache any data received through
POST
HEAD It is the same as GET but has no response body
PUT PUT replaces every current representation of the
resource with uploaded content
DELETE Used to delete all representations given by the
URL
Flask HTTP Methods
First, we have form. By default, Flask responds to GET requests
only. Using the route() decorator, you can change that.
Below, we have set up a simple code to show POST use in a URL
route. To do this, we will first create a simple HTML form. We will
use the POST method to send out form data from there.
 <html>
<body>
<form action = "http://localhost:5000/login" method = "post">
<p>Enter Name:</p>
<p><input type = "text" name = "nm" /></p>
<p><input type = "submit" value = "submit" /></p>
</form>
</body>
</html>
Save this as login.html. You can use a text editor for this, such as
Notepad. In the above, you will notice that we specified the method
as post. Using that, we can send form data to the URL easily.
Next, we have GET and POST requests working in tandem. To
handle both of these at the same time, we use the app.route()
method, as shown below:
from flask import Flask, redirect, url_for, request
app = Flask(__name__)
@app.route('/success/<name>')
def success(name):
return 'welcome %s' % name
@app.route('/login',methods = ['POST', 'GET'])
def login():
if request.method == 'POST':
user = request.form['nm']
return redirect(url_for('success',name = user))
else:
user = request.args.get('nm')
return redirect(url_for('success',name = user))
if __name__ == '__main__':
app.run(debug = True)
This script goes in IDLE and saved as main.py in the same directory
as the login.html. After this, the development server should work.
Once that's started, open the login.html file you saved using your
browser. This will open a simple prompt with a text field asking you
to "Enter Name." The request.form["nm"] will fetch the form data.
Once you enter the name, you will be taken to another page that
says, "Welcome (your name)."
Using Templates
Jinja2 provides templates for Flask. These are great to use as:

1. They are fast and effective.

2. You do not need to install them separately.

In case you do not have Jinja2, all you need to use Jinja2 is to open
up your command prompt or terminal and use the following
command:

pip install Jinja2

By default, the Flask framework comes with a pre-installed Jinja2.

Using Jinja2, we can work with HTML, CSS, and JS without
switching over IDEs or coding on different platforms. You can do all
of that in one place. Thanks to Flask, our jobs just became a lot
easier.
from flask import Flask
app = Flask(__name__)
@app.route('/')
@app.route('/hello')
@app.route('/hello/<user>')
def hello_world(user=None):
user = user or 'Ken'
return '''
<html>
<head>
<title>Templating in Flask</title>
 </head>
<body>
<h1>Hello %s!</h1>
<p>Welcome to the world of Flask!</p>
</body>
</html>''' % user
if __name__ == '__main__':
app.run()
In the above code, notice how we used both HTML and Python
within Flask. This is made possible by a templating engine. Jinja2 is
one such templating engine.
When using Flask, note that Flask expects all templates to reside in
the templates folder at the root level. If a template is present, Flask
can read a template and use it through the render_template()
method.
First, you need a main Python file where you will code all your
programs. Here's a sample code below:
from flask import Flask, render_template, redirect, url_for
app = Flask(__name__)
@app.route("/")
def home():
return render_template("index.html")
@app.route("/default")
def default():
return render_template("layout.html")
@app.route("/variable")
def var():
user = "Programmer"
return render_template("variable_example.html", name=user)
@app.route("/if")
 def ifelse():
user = "Practice Programmer"
return render_template("if_example.html", name=user)
@app.route("/for")
def for_loop():
list_of_courses = ['JavaScript', 'Python', 'C#', 'Ruby']
return render_template("for_example.html", courses=list_of_courses)
@app.route("/choice/<pick>")
def choice(pick):
if pick == 'variable':
return redirect(url_for('var'))
if pick == 'if':
return redirect(url_for('ifelse'))
if pick == 'for':
return redirect(url_for('for_loop'))
if __name__ == "__main__":
app.run(debug=False)
You can save this as app.py or give it a name you like. Now, we need
to declare a variable by using the Jinja template. We will use
{{var_name}} inside the text HTML file. Here's a sample HTML
file.
<html>
<head>
<title>Variable Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h3>Hello {{var_name}}</h3>
</body>
</html>
You can also use the if and else conditions. The syntax will vary
slightly, but you'll understand almost everything immediately. The
basic syntax for conditional statements using Jinja2 template is:
 {% if condition %}
....
....
....
...
{% endif %}
Here's a conditional statement in action (it's used inside the HTML
file).
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>If example</title>
</head>
<body>
{% if(name == "Programmer") %}
<h3> Welcome </h3>
{% else %}
<h3> Unknown name entered: {{name}} </h3>
{% endif %}
</body>
</html>
You can also use loops in Jinja2. It is done in almost the same
fashion as conditional statements and inside the HTML file.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>For Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h2> Programmer Ready to Code </h2>
{% for course in courses%}
<h4> {{course}} </h4>
{% endfor %}
 </body>
</html>
There is a lot more to Flask and Jinja2. However, the deeper we go,
the more advanced it will be, which lies outside this book's scope.
Therefore, if you wish to get into Python web development, there
are tons of videos, courses, and great resources online that you can
use. It takes time to get used to the slight changes here and there,
but once you're ready, you'll soon be creating impressive projects
and attracting much attention from possible employers.
Exercise
For this chapter, we have a simple but exciting exercise. Fill out the
blanks to complete the code snippet using all that you have learned.
The code is designed to create a basic web route using Flask. When
accessed, the route should display the words "Hello, Flask!".
# Import the Flask library
from flask import ____
# Initialize the Flask application
app = ____(__name__)
# Define a route for the root URL
@app.____('/')
def ____():
return '____, Flask!'
# Run the Flask application
if __name__ == '____':
app.____()
You'd know that you've done this correctly by running this
application and then going to your browser and using the address
http://127.0.0.1:5000/ and seeing "Hello, Flask!"
Chapter 10: Introduction to Python Game
Development
"Talk is cheap. Show me the code." –Linus
Torvalds, creator of Linux operating system
Yes! Python is very much capable to be used in game development
as well. While we will not be diving too deep into the world of game
development, the goal of this chapter is to introduce you to yet
another possibility that Python presents you. By the end of this
chapter, you should be able to code in a simple Python-based game.
Project Overview
For this final chapter, we will be creating a simple Snake game
project using all that we have learned throughout the book.
The project will help you refresh all your concepts, apply everything
you've learned in a creative way, and improve your coding skills
before you take on higher level projects.
In this project, we will be using:

1. Variables and data types.

2. Functions and modules.
3. Loops and conditionals.
4. Object-Oriented Programming.
5. PyGame Library (needs to be imported).

Preparing for the Project

The first step is to learn the fundamentals of Python game
development by learning the core, basic concepts of Python, and so
on. And, we're already through that!
"How?"
That's what we've been learning so far in this book. Let's waste no
time and move on to the next step and discover the pros and cons of
using Python for game development.
Pros
It's easy for beginners.
Great for prototyping games.
Access to a very capable library (PyGame).
Robust and easy to debug.

Cons
Slow when compared to other and better established game
development languages, such as C#.
Low compatibility with game engines.
Limited game libraries.
Not a great choice for mobile gaming.

Now that we know what Python can do and what it can't, let's move
on to the next step: Choosing the right game development
framework, library, or engine.
The Right Option
As it turns out, there are a few choices you have that you can choose
from.

Python Arcade
Panda3D
HARFANG
Ren'Py
Kivy
PyGame—We'll be using this one for our project
Ogre
Pyglet
Once you have made your mind up, or gone for the one we
recommend, there are two things to do:

1. Start browsing YouTube and other sources to learn how to

work on more complex projects.
2. Work on our project.

You can do both simultaneously. Additionally, you can seek further

help from YouTube and other sources to make the code and the
overall game even better.
It's perfectly okay to make mistakes. Do not be intimidated by them.
In fact, failure is the greatest teacher. If you fail, find out why. Learn
from the error and move on better equipped and prepared. Do this
time and again and you'll soon be creating games like it's just
another walk in the park.
PyGame Tutorial
The PyGame library is used to help programmers create video
games. This library is well known within the game development
community because it comes with many modules to carry out a
variety of functions. They can play sound, draw graphics, take into
consideration any mouse input, and so much more. You can also
use this library to create a client-side application as well.
First, you will need to download pygame. For windows users, use
the following command in command prompt:
pip install pygame
For mac users, do the following:

1. xcode-select --install
2. pip3 install pygame

Once you've done both, you're ready.

Import and Initialize
To get started, open up IDLE with a fresh screen. Start by importing
pygame:
 import pygame
pygame.init() #this will initialize pygame
Create a Game Window
Next, you will need to initialize a window to display. For this, we
will use .set_mode() function. This will help create a new game
window. All we need is to pass the width and the height of the
window as parameters.
pygame.display.set_mode((width_of_window, height_of_window)) #e.g,
400, 500
Here's a complete code to get you started in the right direction:
# import pygame package
import pygame
# initializing imported module
pygame.init()
# displaying a window of height
# 500 and width 400
pygame.display.set_mode((400, 500))
# creating a bool value which checks
# if game is running
running = True
# keep game running till running is true
while running:
# Check for event if user has pushed
# any event in queue
for event in pygame.event.get():
# if event is of type quit then
# set running bool to false
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
The window will remain open for as long as you want. To exit, just
press the exit button. If you aren't too sure about the screen size,
you can use the screen.get_size() method (shown below):
# import package pygame
import pygame
# initialize pygame
pygame.init()
# Form screen
screen = pygame.display.set_mode()
# get the default size
x, y = screen.get_size()
# quit pygame
pygame.display.quit()
# view size (width x height)
print(x, y)
This will return you the values which you can use as maximum for
your game window. You can also change the background color of the
window, as shown below:
# Importing the library
import pygame
# Initializing Pygame
pygame.init()
# Initializing surface
surface = pygame.display.set_mode((400, 300))
# Initializing RGB Color
color = (255, 0, 0)
# Changing surface color
surface.fill(color)
pygame.display.flip()
To have the color you want, we recommend searching on Google the
RGB values of the color you seek.
Updating Games Using Loops
Now that the window is created, it is time to program a loop that
will constantly update the game's behavior depending on the input,
score, and so on.
We will use loops to do the following main tasks:

1. Update game window to show changes.

2. Update game states depending on the user input.
3. Handle different events.
4. Keep game running.

Here's the code sample showing you how to do that.

# import pygame package
import pygame
# initializing imported module
pygame.init()
pygame.display.set_mode((400, 500))
# Setting name for window
pygame.display.set_caption('MyGame')
# creating a bool value which checks
# if game is running
running = True
# Game loop
# keep game running till running is true
while running:
# Check for event if user has pushed
# any event in queue
for event in pygame.event.get():
 # if event is of type quit then set
# running bool to false
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
Drawing Graphics
Using Pygame, we will now draw objects and shapes. For this, we
will use the draw.rect() function. The syntax to do this is simple:
pygame.draw.rect(surface, color, rect, width)
Here's a sample code to help you draw something.
# Import pygame module
import pygame
# initiate pygame
pygame.init()
# create the display 600x600
window = pygame.display.set_mode((600, 600))
# Fill the screen with white
window.fill((255, 255, 255))
# Using draw.rect module to draw the rectangle outline
pygame.draw.rect(window, (0, 0, 255),
[100, 100, 400, 100], 2)
# Draws the object to the screen.
pygame.display.update()
"Okay. That's just a rectangle."
Wait, there's more. This time, we will use a draw.circle() function to
draw a circular shape instead.
# Import pygame module
import pygame
# initiate pygame
pygame.init()
 # create the display 600x600
window = pygame.display.set_mode((600, 600))
# Fill the screen with white
window.fill((255, 255, 255))
# Using draw.circle module to draw the circle
pygame.draw.circle(window, (0, 255, 0),
[300, 300], 170, 3)
# Draws the object to the screen.
pygame.display.update()
Let's now go to some slightly more complex shapes, polygons. For
this, we will use the polygon() function.
# Import pygame module
import pygame
# initiate pygame
pygame.init()
# create the display 600x600
window = pygame.display.set_mode((600, 600))
# Fill the screen with white
window.fill((255, 255, 255))
# Using draw.polygon module to draw the solid triangle
pygame.draw.polygon(window, (255, 0, 0),
[[300, 300], [100, 400],
[100, 300]])
# Draws the object to the screen.
pygame.display.update()
C :P
1. Change these coordinates above: [[300, 300], [100, 400],
[100, 300]]
 2. Add a fourth (or more) set of coordinates inside of the
outermost [ ]
Note: If your coordinates are larger than 600, you will
have to change the screen size to fit your coordinates in
window = pygame.display.set_mode(600,600)

Creating a Working Game: Circle Escape

Challenge
In this section, we’ll put everything we’ve worked on together, and
introduce a few new concepts such as collision detection, score
keeping, and increasing game difficulty, among others. We’ve added
comments throughout. You should now be able to gain an
understanding of those concepts as we move along.
Importing Modules and Initializing Pygame
Using the following code, we import two Python modules: pygame
and random. These modules provide game functionality and random
number generation for our falling circles.
Then we initialize pygame.init() to be able to use Pygame features.
The code is very simple, and nothing you haven’t seen before.
import pygame
import random
pygame.init()
Setting Up the Display Window and Display Variables
Here we define the width and height of our screen and use
pygame.display.set_mode() to those parameters. We also place a
caption for the game screen itself using the
pygame.display.set_caption() function
# Set up the display window, colors, and variables
screen_width = 400
screen_height = 600
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((screen_width, screen_height))
 pygame.display.set_caption(“Circle Escape Challenge”)
Define Colors, Shapes and Player variables
In the section below we:

1. Define colors as RGB tuples using the variables white,

player_color and circle_color
2. Set player_width, player_height and starting location in the
center of the screen, by defining player_x and player_y
3. Define the dropping circle size with circle_radius, gave it a
random starting location for circle_x and set circle_y=0 to
start at the top of the screen. Then we set the circle_speed =
0.1. This is the speed at which it drops from the top of the
screen. The speed will slowly increase for every 10 points, as
we’ll see later in the Game Loop
4. Last, we initialize the score variable score = 0

# Define colors and other variables

white = (255, 255, 255) # White color for the background
player_color = (0, 0, 255) # Blue color for the player
circle_color = (255, 0, 0) # Red color for the circle
# Define player rectangle and starting location for x and y
player_width = 50
player_height = 10
player_x = (screen_width - player_width) // 2
player_y = screen_height - player_height
# Define the Dropping Circle size, give it a random x location and set the
y=0 to start at the top of the screen
circle_radius = 20
circle_x = random.randint(0, screen_width - circle_radius * 2)
circle_y = 0
circle_speed = 0.1 # Set the initial circle speed to a very slow value (e.g.,
0.1)
 score = 0 # Initialize the player’s score
Game State Control
This is a very simple variable to set, but important to set the
game_started variable to False so that the start up instructions are
shown in the pygame window.
# Add a “game_started” flag to control the game state
game_started = False
Create the fonts for the Score and Instructions
# Create a font for displaying instructions
font = pygame.font.Font(None, 36)
# Create a font for displaying the score
score_font = pygame.font.Font(None, 36)
Display Functions
This function will display the Score at the top of the screen when
the gam is running
# Function to display the score on the screen
def display_score(screen, score):
score_text = score_font.render(“Score: “ + str(score), True, (0, 0, 0))
screen.blit(score_text, (10, 10)) # Adjust the position as needed
“Hey, what is this blit nonsense?”
Great question. In its simplest form, it is a way to re-draw pixels on
the screen. But it is just a little more complicated than that. You
don’t actually see the re-drawn screen until pygame.display.update() is
stated in the code. You will see the above function and the call to
update the display at the bottom of the Game Loop.
The following function will display the instructions in the middle of
the screen. This will also hold the game state until the SPACE bar is
pressed. This function also introduces pygame.KEYDOWN,
pygame.K_SPACE and pygame.QUIT. This functionality watches for
Key Press events and performs the instructions based on the keys
that are pressed. You’ll see this again in the game loop to move your
player left and right using the left and right arrow keys.
# Function to display instructions and wait for player input to start the game
def display_instructions(screen):
screen.fill(white)
instructions_text = font.render(“Press SPACE to start”, True, (0, 0, 0))
screen.blit(instructions_text, (screen_width // 2 - 120, screen_height //
2))
pygame.display.update()
waiting_for_start = True
while waiting_for_start:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
pygame.quit()
quit()
if event.type == pygame.KEYDOWN and event.key ==
pygame.K_SPACE:
waiting_for_start = False
Game Loop
From here, we’re going to the loop that will let you play the game.
In the game loop we follow the workflow noted below. Events on
the same indent level should match the indents in the code that will
follow.

1. Set the game variable running to True

2. Create a while loop for running
A. Check for a Quit condition
B. Check for key presses (SPACE, LEFT Arrow, RIGHT
Arrow)
i. Space bar starts the game
ii. Use the Left and Right arrow keys to move the
player rectangle
iii. Fill the screen
 iv. Draw the Player rectangle
v. Draw the dropping circle
vi. Move the circle downward by the circle speed
variable
vii. When the circle reaches the bottom
a. Create a random spot for the circle to
appear next, set circle_y=0
b. Increase the score for the successful pass
c. If the score is divisible by 10 with no
remainder, increase the speed
viii. When a collision is detected
a. End the game
b. Reset the speed
c. Set the score = 0
ix. Call the display screen
x. Update the display
C. If the game is not started
i. Display the instructions
3. End loop (No code, Python knows by the indentation)
4. Quit pygame

G L C
# Game loop
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if not game_started:
 # Check if the game hasn’t started and the player pressed the SPACE
key to start
if keys[pygame.K_SPACE]:
game_started = True
else:
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT] and player_x > 0:
# Move the player to the left when the LEFT arrow key is pressed
player_x -= 0.1
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT] and player_x < screen_width -
player_width:
# Move the player to the right when the RIGHT arrow key is pressed
player_x += 0.1
screen.fill(white)
# Draw the Player rectangle and the Dropping Circle
pygame.draw.rect(screen, player_color, (player_x, player_y,
player_width, player_height))
pygame.draw.circle(screen, circle_color, (circle_x, circle_y),
circle_radius)
# Use speed variable to decrease verticle position of the circle
through every game loop
# Below, when the circle speed increases for every 10 points, this will
increase the amount
# that the circle drops on every pygame.display.update()
circle_y += circle_speed
if circle_y > screen_height:
# If the circle reaches the bottom of the screen, reset its position
circle_x = random.randint(0, screen_width - circle_radius * 2)
circle_y = 0
# Increase Score for every successful pass
score += 1
 # Increase speed for every 10 points
if score % 10 == 0:
circle_speed += 0.05
if player_x < circle_x < player_x + player_width and player_y <
circle_y + circle_radius:
# Collision detected
game_started = False
circle_x = random.randint(0, screen_width - circle_radius * 2)
circle_y = 0
circle_speed = 0.1 # Reset circle speed
score = 0
# Update and display the score
display_score(screen, score)
pygame.display.update()
if not game_started:
# Display instructions to start the game
display_instructions(screen)
pygame.quit()

Full Code - Circle Escape Challenge

import pygame
import random
pygame.init()
# Set up the display window, colors, and variables
screen_width = 400
screen_height = 600
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((screen_width, screen_height))
pygame.display.set_caption(“Circle Escape Challenge”)
# Define colors and other variables
white = (255, 255, 255) # White color for the background
player_color = (0, 0, 255) # Blue color for the player
circle_color = (255, 0, 0) # Red color for the falling circle
# Define player rectangle and start location for x and y
player_width = 50
player_height = 10
player_x = (screen_width - player_width) // 2
player_y = screen_height - player_height
# Define the Dropping Circle size, give it a random x location and set the
y=0 to start at the top of the screen
circle_radius = 20
circle_x = random.randint(0, screen_width - circle_radius * 2)
circle_y = 0
circle_speed = 0.1 # Set the initial circle speed to a very slow value (e.g.,
0.1)
score = 0 # Initialize the player’s score
# Add a “game_started” flag to control the game state
game_started = False
# Create a font for displaying instructions
font = pygame.font.Font(None, 36)
# Create a font for displaying the score
score_font = pygame.font.Font(None, 36)
# Function to display the score on the screen
def display_score(screen, score):
score_text = score_font.render(“Score: “ + str(score), True, (0, 0, 0))
screen.blit(score_text, (10, 10)) # Adjust the position as needed
# Function to display instructions and wait for player input to start the game
def display_instructions(screen):
screen.fill(white)
instructions_text = font.render(“Press SPACE to start”, True, (0, 0, 0))
 screen.blit(instructions_text, (screen_width // 2 - 120, screen_height //
2))
pygame.display.update()
waiting_for_start = True
while waiting_for_start:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
pygame.quit()
quit()
if event.type == pygame.KEYDOWN and event.key ==
pygame.K_SPACE:
waiting_for_start = False
# Game loop
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if not game_started:
# Check if the game hasn’t started and the player pressed the SPACE
key to start
if keys[pygame.K_SPACE]:
game_started = True
else:
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT] and player_x > 0:
# Move the player to the left when the LEFT arrow key is pressed
player_x -= 0.1
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT] and player_x < screen_width -
player_width:
# Move the player to the right when the RIGHT arrow key is pressed
player_x += 0.1
screen.fill(white)
# Draw the Player rectangle and the Dropping Circle
pygame.draw.rect(screen, player_color, (player_x, player_y,
player_width, player_height))
pygame.draw.circle(screen, circle_color, (circle_x, circle_y),
circle_radius)
# Use speed variable to decrease verticle position of the circle
through every game loop
# Below, when the circle speed increases for every 10 points, this will
increase the amount
# that the circle drops on every pygame.display.update()
circle_y += circle_speed
if circle_y > screen_height:
# If the circle reaches the bottom of the screen, reset its position
circle_x = random.randint(0, screen_width - circle_radius * 2)
circle_y = 0
# Increase Score for every successful pass
score += 1
# Increase speed for every 10 points
if score % 10 == 0:
circle_speed += 0.05
if player_x < circle_x < player_x + player_width and player_y <
circle_y + circle_radius:
# Collision detected
game_started = False
circle_x = random.randint(0, screen_width - circle_radius * 2)
circle_y = 0
circle_speed = 0.1 # Reset circle speed
score = 0
# Update and display the score
 display_score(screen, score)
pygame.display.update()
if not game_started:
# Display instructions to start the game
display_instructions(screen)
pygame.quit()
These are some of the most basic movements and techniques that
you’ve learned. From here, you know enough to get started and start
developing some real games. For that, we highly recommend you
search for “Pygame projects for beginners” to learn advanced and
complex skills, techniques, and projects. The more you practice, the
better you become.
Code Challenge
Before we do part ways, there is but one challenge that we have for
you. Pong is a classic game where the player is on the right or left
side and tries to return the ball back across the screen. We have a
challenge, let’s call it “Pong Escape Challenge”.
The project is to recreate the game using PyGame using the
following guide

Instead of the circle dropping from top to bottom, have the

circle move from left to right.
The player is on the right side and moves up and down
HINT: You’ll have to change some _x and _y variables as
well as some _height and _width variables. Key events need to
look for _UP and _DOWN to move the player bar.
No worries, the code is included in the download package

It’s simple. It’s elegant, and it’s still a classic for everyone. Work on
it, improve it, debug it, code it, and play it.
Conclusion

With everything said and done, Python isn’t just a programming

language. It is far more than that. Python has just started emerging
as one of the most popular languages on earth, and it is safe to
assume that this language will be quite in demand in the near
future.
Considering the fact that Machine Learning, Deep Learning, AI, and
Generative AI mostly need Python, you can rest assured that you
will have plenty of opportunities ahead of you. Whether you are
doing this out of hobby or you wish to add a new skill to your
resume, know that it is a great skill to have nonetheless.
This book was meant to help you walk through the basic concepts of
Python and empower you with enough knowledge to know and
understand how programming works. Now that you know, the world
is literally your oyster.
There are many projects you can start working on immediately. For
more inspiration, be sure to check out great web resources such as:

W3 school
Geeksforgeeks
Codeacademy
Coderslegacy
GitHub
Stack Overflow
Reddit

There are tons of ideas, projects, and collaborative opportunities to

seek and utilize. Where possible, do collaborate with other
programmers to learn even more than what books or videos can
teach. You never know. You might just end up working in a project
that turns out to be the next big thing like Instagram.
We leave you with our best wishes and we would certainly hope to
see you find great fortune and success using this newly acquired
skill of yours. Go out there and code your heart out!
 K G A
You’ve just crossed the finish line of The Ultimate Guide to Python
Programming for Beginners! You’re now equipped with the
knowledge, skills, and confidence to build an exciting career with
Python programming.
But wait, your journey doesn’t have to end here. You can pass the
torch and light the way for others. Remember how you felt when
you first opened this book? Excited? Maybe a little unsure? There
are countless others out there right now feeling the same, looking
for a guide to start their own Python adventure.
A few words from you could be the guiding star for someone else’s
journey. Your review can highlight the path for others, showing
them where to find the same help and inspiration you received.
Your insights and personal story can make all the difference. They
can help others to:

Gain the confidence to start learning Python.

Understand the practical applications of what they’ll learn.
See the real-life benefits of persevering through the
chapters.
Feel part of a community of learners and future
programmers.

It’s simple and takes just a moment of your time. Click the link
below or scan the QR code to share your thoughts and experiences:
Your review is more than just words; it’s a beacon of
encouragement, a signpost of possibility. We deeply appreciate your
time and effort in helping to foster a community of learning and
growth.
Thank you for being an integral part of this journey. As you
continue to explore and grow in the world of Python programming,
remember that your journey can inspire countless others. Keep the
game alive, and let’s keep learning together!
With heartfelt thanks, Megabyte Publishing
P.S. - Sharing your journey not only inspires others but also
cements your own understanding. As you move forward, consider
mentoring or guiding a fellow beginner. Your journey can be the
start of someone else’s great adventure in Python programming!
 R
Dyouri, A. (2022, March 9). How to use Flask-SQLAlchemy to
interact with databases in a Flask application | DigitalOcean.
DigitalOcean.
https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/how-to-use-
flask-sqlalchemy-to-interact-with-databases-in-a-flask-application
Gupta, S. (2022, September 14). What is Python used for? 9 use
cases [Overview Guide]. Springboard.
https://www.springboard.com/blog/data-science/what-is-python-
used-for/
Introduction to Python. (2019). W3Schools.
https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_intro.asp
Karim. (2017, November 10). Python lists (For absolute
beginners). Afternerd. https://www.afternerd.com/blog/python-
lists-for-absolute-beginners/
Krishna, R. (2020, August 31). How to format strings using
print() in Python? Numpy Ninja.
https://www.numpyninja.com/post/how-to-format-strings-using-
print-in-python
Novotny, J. (2023, March 9). A programmers’ guide to Python:
Advantages & disadvantages. Linode Guides & Tutorials.
https://www.linode.com/docs/guides/pros-and-cons-of-python/
Python pygame - The full tutorial. (n.d.). CodersLegacy.
https://coderslegacy.com/python/python-pygame-tutorial/
Python Software Foundation. (2019). What is Python?
Executive summary. Python.
https://www.python.org/doc/essays/blurb/
Python vs other programming languages. (n.d.). StxNext.
https://www.stxnext.com/python-vs-other-programming-
languages/
Sarkar, P. (2023, September 4). How to concatenate strings
using Python. KnowledgeHut.
https://www.knowledgehut.com/blog/programming/concatenate-
strings-python
Send data to Flask template (Jinja2) - Python Tutorial. (n.d.).
PythonBasics. https://pythonbasics.org/flask-template-data/
7 ways to concatenate strings into a string in Python. (n.d.).
Python Tutorial. https://www.pythontutorial.net/python-string-
methods/python-string-concatenation/
Taff Inc. (2021, August 23). Top 12 Python use cases &
applications with examples | Python Trends 2023. TAFF.
https://www.taffinc.com/blog/top-python-use-cases-and-
applications/
TechBootCamps. (2021, September 16). Why learn Python?
Five reasons to start programming with Python in 2022. UT
Austin Boot Camps. https://techbootcamps.utexas.edu/blog/why-
learn-python-get-started-programming/
Yegulalp, S. (2023, January 18). How to install Python the
smart way. InfoWorld.
https://www.infoworld.com/article/3530140/how-to-install-
python-the-smart-way.html