MATH 1100

Department of Mathematics and Physics

1st sem SY 2020-2021

MODULE 31

Reasoning and problem solving

Objectives:
Upon completion of this module, you are expected to:
1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made
about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
2. Write clear and logical proofs.
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s
four steps.
4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

2. Problem Solving

Among the popular proponents of problem solving, George Polya (1945) indicated that
“A question is considered a problem if the procedure or method of solution is not
immediately known but requires one to apply creativity and previous knowledge in new
and unfamiliar situation.”

According to the National Council of Teachers in Mathematics (NCTM, 2000, p.52),

“problem solving means engaging in a task for which the solution is not known in
advance. In order to find a solution, students must draw on their knowledge or previous
experiences and through this process; they will often develop new mathematical
understandings.”

A problem can be classified as either a routine or a non-routine problem.

Routine Problems
A routine problem is one that may be solved by some algorithm or procedure that
involves the use of mathematical operations and applied to a particular situation. These
are the kinds of problems that are usually encountered in a typical mathematics
classroom. Often, solving a routine problem requires applying an established
generalization.

The following are examples of routine problems:

Example 1. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! – 5𝑥 + 4, is 𝑓(𝑥 + 3) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(3) ?

Solution. The solution requires knowing the concept of functions (see Module 2).

1This module is based from the book “Mathematics in the Modern World” by the Department of Mathematics and
Physics, CS, CLSU.
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

On one hand,
𝑓(𝑥 + 3) = (𝑥 + 3)! − 5(𝑥 + 3) + 4
𝑓(𝑥 + 3) = (𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 9) − 5𝑥 − 15 + 4
𝑓(𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥 ! + 𝑥 − 2

On the otherhand,
𝑓( 𝑥) + 𝑓(3) = (𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 9) + ((3)" − 5 (3) + 4)
𝑓( 𝑥) + 𝑓(3) = (𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 9) + 16
𝑓( 𝑥) + 𝑓(3) = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 25

Thus 𝑓( 𝑥 + 3) ≠ 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑓 (3).

Example 2. Pedro wants to fill a big rectangular box with small cubes having side lengths
3 cm. The box is 12 cm in length, 6 cm in width and 9 cm in height. How many cubes
will fit in the box?

Solution. The solution requires recognizing that the problem is about the volume 𝑉 of a
box, which is always
𝑉 = ( 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)(𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)(ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ).
We need to find the volume of the big box, and then divide it by the volume of one of
the small cubes. We have
𝑉#$% = (12 𝑐𝑚 )(6 𝑐𝑚 )(9 𝑐𝑚 ) = 648 𝑐𝑚"
𝑉&'#( = (3 𝑐𝑚 )(3 𝑐𝑚)(3 𝑐𝑚) = 27 𝑐𝑚"

And so, the number of cubes that would fit into the box is
648 𝑐𝑚"
= 24
27 𝑐𝑚"

A total of 24 of the small cubes having side lengths 3 cm would fit into the box.

Example 3. Juan invested ₱25,000 at 4.5% compounded semi-annually for 4 years. How
much interest will he earn?

Solution. We need here the concept of compound interests:

𝑟 )
𝐹 = 𝑃 C1 + E
𝑚
where 𝐹 := final amount
𝑃 := initial amount or principal
𝑟 := annual rate of interest
𝑚 = no. of compounding periods in a year
𝑛 := total no. of compounding periods
𝐼 := amount earned or interest; also the difference of the final amount 𝐹
and the principal or initial amount 𝑃.
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

And so, the interest earned is computed as

𝐼 =𝐹−𝑃
𝐼 = 𝐹 − 25 000 (1)

Meanwhile, F is computed as
𝑟 )
𝐹 = 𝑃 C1 + E
𝑚
Since the investment is compounded semi-annually, 𝑚 = 2.
Moreover, we have 2 compounding periods in a year means that 𝑛 = (4)( 2) = 8. Here,
4 is the number of years the investment gains interest.
*
𝐹 = 25 000 1 + 4.5%
H 2 J
*
𝐹 = 25 000 1 + 0.045
H 2 J
𝐹 = 29 870.78

Using this value of 𝐹 in Equation (1),

𝐼 = ₱29 870.78 − ₱25 000 = ₱4 870.78
The interest earned is ₱4 870.78.

Example 4. Rhey has 96 meters of fencing material. Find the area of the largest
rectangular lot that he can fence off with it.

Solution. We need here the established result that a quadratic function

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 ! + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
with constants 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is a parabola that opens upward if 𝑎 > 0 while it is a downward
#
parabola if 𝑎 < 0; and the vertex is always at (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 )) where 𝑥 = − !+.

Now let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be as in the figure below that represents the rectangular lot.

Since Rhey wants to fence the rectangular lot, we are interested with the perimeter of
the lot which is 2𝑥 + 2𝑦. Using the 96-meter fencing material we have
96 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦
96 − 2𝑥 = 2𝑦
2𝑦 = 96 − 2𝑥
𝑦 = 48 − 𝑥
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Now from the area 𝐴(𝑥) of the lot as a function in terms of 𝑥, we have
𝐴 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑦
𝐴 (𝑥) = 𝑥(48 − 𝑥)
𝐴 (𝑥) = −𝑥 ! + 48𝑥

Recognize that 𝐴( 𝑥) is a downward parabola so that the highest point occurs at the
vertex. At the vertex, we have
𝑥 𝑏
=−
2𝑎
𝑥 48
=−
2(−1)
𝑥 = 24
And
𝐴(24) = −(24 )! + 48 (24)
𝐴 (𝑥) = 576 𝑚!

This means that the highest value of the area 𝐴 is 576 𝑚!. Using 96-meter fence, Rhey
can fence off a rectangular lot with a maximum area of 576 𝑚!.

As may have been observed in the preceding examples, routine problems are those that
we usually see in a classroom mathematics discussion. Their solutions typically involve
applications of concepts from specific mathematics subjects. Of course, some routine
problems may also be solved by a different strategy such as what we discuss next in the
following section. We now turn to and focus on non-routine problems.

Non-Routine Problems
Non-routine problems are those where we do not readily have an idea on how to solve
it, or those that seem to be easy but are actually tricky; they are almost like puzzles. Such
problems may be solved in different ways or strategies and some may have more than
one answer or solution. Solving a non-routine problem usually involves common sense,
observations, and own strategy of the solver; it requires little or no use of algorithms.

Steps in Problem Solving

Polya (1945) suggested the following four general steps to solving a problem. It must be
emphasized that these steps must be taken only as a guide; there may be situations
where the listed steps overlap, or the steps are taken not in the same order as listed
below.
1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Look back and check
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Step 1: Understand the Problem

Read, read again, and read the problem a third time if needed. If you don’t understand
a problem, do you think you can solve it? Figure out what kind of problem it is, take note
of what is asked for, what are the given values and/or conditions; keep only the relevant
ones.

Step 2: Devise a Strategy

Some possible strategies are the following.
1. Work Backwards
2. Sketch a Picture
3. Guess, Check, Revise
4. Find a Pattern
5. Eliminate Impossible Cases

In some occasions, when you try using one strategy and then realize that it does not
work, don’t hesitate to choose another strategy. In other cases, you may need to use a
combination of strategies or even devise your own strategy. As a rule, we should be
encouraged to consider alternative solutions to a problem. Indeed, it has been said that
it is far better to solve one problem in four ways than to solve four problems in only one
way.

Step 3: Carry Out the Strategy

Once a problem is fully understood and the chosen strategy is appropriate, the rest is
usually a simple exercise. In case that the original strategy does not work, it may need
to be modified, or a new strategy may be needed. We must realize that not every problem
will be solved within the first attempt. A failed attempt can be viewed as a learning
experience. Be patient and try to avoid getting frustrated or discouraged. Computers,
calculators, or other device may be useful tools when routine tasks are involved.

Step 4: Look Back

Once an answer or solution is found, it is important to test that solution. Below are some
questions that you may find useful in the looking back process.
1. Is the answer reasonable? Does it satisfy the conditions in the problem?
2. Could there be more than one answer?
3. What is the appropriate unit of measurement?
4. Can another strategy be used?

The following are examples of some strategies. It must be pointed out that there may be
many ways to solve a problem. But we are focusing here only in illustrating some specific
strategies. The “Look Back” step is left as an exercise.
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Work Backwards
This strategy is most appropriate if the problem involves multiple steps, and we are given
the final result instead of the initial values. The trick is to reverse the operation while
working backwards.

Example 1. A barefoot penniless boy named JR found a wallet with some money in it.
Out of it, he bought a ₱65-pair of slippers and then paid ₱20 for his jeep fare home.
Then, he gave half of what remained to his mom. But his mom didn’t need it all so she
gave back ₱35 to him. The boy ended up with ₱170. How much was in the wallet?

Solution. Start with the end-value that is ₱170. As we work backwards, we must reverse
the operation as follows:
Action Operation Reverse Operation
1. Mom gave back…(JR earned) Addition Subtraction
2. Gave half to Mom…(JR spent) Division Multiplication
3. Spent on fare…(JR spent) Subtraction Addition
4. Bought slippers…(JR spent) Subtraction Addition

Thus, starting with P170 and working backwards, we do the reverse operation as follows:
Action
1. Mom gave him P35: 170 − 35 = 135
2. He gave half to Mom: (135)(2 ) = 270
3. Spent ₱20 fare: 270 + 20 = 290
4. Bought ₱65 slippers: 290 + 65 = 355
Hence, when JR found the wallet, it contained ₱355.

Is the answer correct? Check it out by retracing the boy’s steps.

Sketch a Picture
This is a great strategy if it is possible to sketch pictures especially in hard-to-visualize
ones. If possible, make your sketch big enough and include in your sketch only the
pertinent data.
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Example 2. There are 5 posts in every side of a square. How many posts are there all
in all?

Solution.
From the sketch, the horizontal sides have 10 posts. The vertical sides need only
additional 3 posts each in order to have 5 posts in them. And so, there are a total of
10+3+3 or 16 posts.

Example 3. It costs ₱15 to have a long pipe cut into 3 pieces. How much would it cost
to have it cut into 6 pieces?

Solution. Note that what is paid for is the cost of cutting. Now, we need only 2 cuts in a
long pipe to have 3 pieces of it; this means that 1 cut costs P7.50.

To have the pipe cut into 6 pieces, 5 cuts must be done.

And so, (5 cuts) x (₱7.50 per cut) must cost ₱37.50.

Guess, Check, Revise

This strategy is most appropriate when multiple related conditions need to be met. Start
by guessing intelligently an answer that meets one condition, then check if the other
conditions are also met. If yes, you got the answer. If not, revise your guess and repeat
the process.

Example 4. In a 20-item exam, the point system is 5 points for every correct answer,
and minus 2 points penalty for every wrong. You scored a total of 79 points in answering
each of the 20 items. How many correct answers did you make?
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Solution.
It’s a good idea to tabulate (keep track) results of your guesses as in the following. Guess
#1 at 20 correct answers yields a total score of 100, which is way above the actual score
of 79. We need to revise Guess #1. Realize that there must be some wrong answers.

Number of Total Score Need to

Correct Wrong 5(correct) –2 (wrong) Revise?

Guess #1 20 0 5(20) − 2(0) = 100 Yes. Too High

We need additional intelligent guesses.

Number of Total Score Need to

Correct Wrong 5(correct) –2 (wrong) Revise?

Guess #1 20 0 5(20) − 2(0) = 100 Yes. Too high
Guess #2 14 6 5(14 ) − 2 (6) = 58 Yes. Too Low
Guess #3 18 2 5(18 ) − 2 (2) = 86 Yes. Too high
Guess #4 17 3 5(16) − 2(4 ) = 𝟕𝟗 No. BINGO!

You made 17 correct answers.

Alternatively (more elegantly), start from Guess #1 which yielded 100 points. This result
is 21 points (that’s 100 – 79) more than the actual score of 72. We have to “uncorrect”
some answers and make them wrong.

Now, observe that “uncorrecting” 1 answer and making it wrong lowers down the total
points by 7 (that’s due to 5 for “uncorrecting” and another 2 for making it wrong).

Thus, to lower down by 21 the result of Guess #1, we need to “uncorrect” 21/7 or 3
answers.

That is, there must be 20 – 3 or 17 correct answers.

Example 5. In a farm are dogs and ducks. All in all, there are 90 feet while there are
only 35 heads. How many dogs and how many ducks are there?

Solution.
A dog has 4 feet and a duck has 2 feet. Assume there are 35 dogs. This would yield
35(4) = 140 feet – that is 50 more than the given 90 feet. We need to “un-dog” some;
meaning choose them to be ducks.

To “un-dog” one and make it a duck would lower the number of feet by 2 (that’s due to
“minus 4” for “un-dog-ing” and “plus 2” for making it duck).
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Thus, we need to “un-dog” 50/2 or 25 and make them ducks.

“Un-dog-ing” 25 (of the 35) yields 10 dogs and 25 ducks in the farm.

Find a Pattern

Example 6. For a school project, Leonora uses toothpicks to design what looks like the
following figure. If a box of toothpicks contains 100 pieces, how many boxes does she
need to build 50 house-alikes?

Solution. The first house-alike needs 6 toothpicks.

But for the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, ... , 50th house-alikes (49 of them), observe the pattern of
needing only 5 toothpicks for each of the succeeding house-alikes.

So, in order to build all of the 50 house-alikes, Leonora needs 6 + 5(49) = 251
toothpicks.

Since there are only 100 pieces in a box of toothpicks, she needs to buy 3 boxes of
toothpicks. That would be more than enough for her project.

Eliminate Impossible Cases

Example7. With 5 darts all hitting the dart board each earning a corresponding score of
either 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 depending on where a dart lands in the board, which of the following
are possible total scores: 𝟑, 𝟗, 𝟐𝟗, 𝟑𝟓, 𝟒𝟐, 𝟓𝟎 ?
Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial
1 pt Formatted: Font: 10 pt

1
3 pts Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Text 1, Text Outline,
Shadow

5 5 pts
Formatted: Font: 10 pt

1
7 pts
9 pts Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Text 1, Text Outline,
Shadow
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Text 1, Text Outline,
Shadow
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Solution. Since a dart may only earn an odd score (1, 3, 5, 7, 9), the total score for 5
darts must be odd. So, it is impossible to earn a total of 42 points.

Considering the extreme cases, 5 darts all landing in the 1-pt region earn a total of 5
points while 5 darts all landing in the 9-point region earn a total of 45 points. So, 3 and
50 must now join 42 in the eliminated cases. This leaves only 9, 29, and 35.

Now,
9 can possibly be a result of 1-1-1-3-3.
29 can possibly be a result of 3-5-7-7-7.
35 can possibly be a result of 7-7-7-7-7.

Hence, 9, 29, and 35 are possible total scores.

Example 8. Find the last digit in 201𝟑!,!,.

Solution. Since we are asked only for the last digit, the problem may be simplified by
considering the powers of 3 that is 3!,!,. Considering some powers of 3),

𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Last digit of 𝟑𝒏 3 9 7 1 3 9 7 1

Observe that as the exponent increases, only 3, 9, 7, or 1 are popping up as the last digit.
This eliminates 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 as a possible last digit.

Moreover, observe that the pattern repeats in every cycle of 4.

Dividing the actual exponent 2020 by 4 gives exactly a 505. This means that if 𝑛 = 2020,
the pattern 3 9 7 1 completes 505 full cycles exactly.

That is, when 𝑛 = 2020 it is at the end of the cycle. So, the last digit must be a 1.

Example 9. Rene is working on a cryptarithm, which aims to replace the letters with
distinct 1-digit numbers so that the addition is correct.
B A T H
+ B A T H
H A R O T
What number should replace which distinct letter?
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Solution.
B A T H
+ B A T H
H A R O T

To replace the involved letters with the correct corresponding numbers, we choose from
among 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 .

Note that the sum has 5 digits. This implies that B must be 5 or more. Whatever it is, B
+ B can’t be 20 or more, even if there is a carry from A + A.

So H has to be a 1, which forces T = 2 and O = 4. So, we now have

B A 2 1
+ B A 2 1
1 A R 4 2

For the remaining letters, we now only choose from

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Now A can’t be a 0 (why? if A=0, R=0 but A≠R since the letters are distinct 1-digit
numbers). Moreover, A can’t be a 3 (why? If A=3, R=6. Now what should be B so that
B+B=13? No possible value for B then).

Trying A = 5, we are then forced to have R = 0 and a carry 1 is brought into B + B.

1
B 5 2 1
+ B 5 2 1
1 5 0 4 2
We now have to have B = 7. Thus,
B A T H
+ B A T H
H A R O T
is
1
7 5 2 1
+ 7 5 2 1
1 5 0 4 2

Note: The value of A can’t be a 6, 7, 8, or 9. Why? (Try them J)