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CHAPTER TWO
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS AND CONCERNS
Definitions of key terms
Concept; a thought, idea or principle.
Concern; something that is worrisome.
Environment; this refers to manmade and natural surroundings in which people and
animals live. This includes the soil, atmosphere, houses, roads, trees, dams etc.
Natural Resources; these are items or goods found in nature that are of importance to
man and other living things e.g. trees, water, fruits etc.
Renewable Resources; these are resources that can be replaced, reused; replenished etc
e.g. trees, water.
Non renewable Resources; these resources cannot be replaced or take millions of years
to regenerate e.g. minerals.
Sustainability; ability to exist for a long time without being damaged or depleted.
Land degradation; this is the process by which land quality or condition is made poor
due to misuse.
Land reclamation; this is when land that has been damaged is improved so that it can
retain its quality e.g. through afforestation and addition of fertilizers.

What is environment?
Environment refers to manmade and natural surroundings in which people, animals and
plants live. Human beings and animals cannot exist without interacting with the
environment in one way or the other. The environment is important because it provides
people with various natural resources that are used for various activities, for instance,
vegetation is important as it is used to make furniture, build houses, provides fuelwood
and act as windbreakers. Water is important for survival of all living things. Without
water there would be no life. The environment affects our lifestyle in a variety of ways,
for instance, people living around the Okavango swamps practice fishing, basketry,
arable farming and use dugout canoes (mekoro) because it is the environment that
influences such activities. This is called environmental determinism.
Management of the environment means using the environment in such a manner that its
quality is not compromised or degraded. It also means that the environment is used in a
sustainable. Sustainable use of the resources means that resources are used in such a
manner that the future generation will also benefit from such resources. Mismanagement
of the environment involves those activities that destroy the environment such as
littering, veldfires and overstocking.

Impacts of human beings on the environment

a. Pollution
This is the process by which any part of the environment is affected in such a way that it
is made potentially unhealthy, unsafe, impure or hazardous to the welfare of organisms
which live in it. Pollution usually occurs as a result of the presence of too much of a
substance in an inappropriate place at an unsuitable time. The effects of pollution may be
directly harmful to human beings and other organisms, for instance lead from car
exhausts may cause brain damage in children. Pollutants can enter the environment
naturally (e.g. from volcanic eruptions) or through human activities (e.g. burning of fossil
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fuels). Most pollutants from human activities occur in or near urban and industrial
centres.
Examples of pollutants are;
Land pollutants; cans, plastics, untreated waste, oil spills.
Air pollutants; fumes from industries and car exhaust, smells from untreated
waste and pit-latrines.
Water pollutants; toxic liquids from factories, oil spills, pit-latrines.
Effects of pollutants on plants and animals
 death of plants and animal due to dumping of poisonous substances e.g.
animals may drink water containing toxic chemicals resulting in death.
 outbreak of diseases that result from pollution of water such as bilharzia
and cholera.
 air pollutants can worsen respiratory diseases such tuberculosis and
bronchitis.
 excessive chemicals in water can lead to excessive growth of algae. This
process is called eutrophication.
 exposure of leaves to air pollutants can breakdown the waxy coating that
helps prevent excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests,
drought and frost.
 Carbon monoxide reacts with haemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces
ability of blood to carry oxygen.

b. Soil erosion; this is the washing away of top soil by agents of erosion such as wind,
water and animals such that the fertility of the soil is greatly reduced. Human activities
that aid soil erosion are; deforestation, veld fires, overgrazing and poor farming methods
such as ploughing up and down the slope. Soil erosion is a concern because:
 leaves the soil bare and without any vegetation cover. This makes the soil
vulnerable to washing away by running water or easily blown away by the
wind.
 plants growth become poor as nutrients have been washed away
 change in landscape as more dongas and gullies develop. This may destroy
the scenic beauty of the environment.
 animals grow poorly especially herbivore because their pasture is reduced.
 increased flooding as top soil becomes compacted and hard making it
difficult for running water to infiltrate.

c. Desertification-this is the process whereby deserts are formed. It is common on the

boundaries of deserts. Desertification means that the land produces less food, sustains
fewer livestock and people because of the lack of vegetation and poor fertility of the soil.
Causes of desertification include overgrazing, overcultivation, deforestation and veld
fires. Other factors that aid desertification are rapid population growth and natural factors
such as frequent droughts and veldfires caused by lightning and volcanic eruptions.
Negative effects of desertification are:
 loss of flat land as gullies and dongas develop
 soil erosion leads to silting of rivers and dongas
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 climate change due to loss of vegetation which contributes to formation of

clouds in the hydrological cycle.
 imbalance in the ecosystem destruction of animal habitats and food.
 involuntary migration as people deserts are unsuitable for both pastoral
and arable farming.
 rise of temperatures leading to global warming.

d. Deforestation-it refers to excessive cutting down of trees without replacing them.

Trees can be cut for timber, fire wood, creation of settlements and clearing for
agricultural purposes. Trees play an important role in the ecosystem e.g. they provide
shade and shelter to animals, protect the soil from erosion and in the hydrological cycle
they contribute to the formation of clouds through transpiration. Destruction of vegetation
has the following negative impacts:
 exposes the soil to more erosion as trees bind soil particles together and
also act wind breakers
 imbalance in the ecosystem as food for animals is destroyed
 loss of resources such as medicinal plants and decorative plants
 reduction in atmospheric oxygen needed by animals for inhalation
 disruption of the hydrological cycle as less water returns to the atmosphere
through evapotranspiration.
 Burning of forests increases amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
which lead to greenhouse effect.

e. Extinction of species- Some plants and animals are classified as endangered species.
This means that they are available in limited quantities and if people continue to over-
exploit or kill these animals they will eventually become extinct or cease to exist.
Examples of endangered species include rhinos, elephants, tigers, lions, cheetahs, wild
dogs etc. Killing of endangered animals is prohibited by law through an international
organization called CITES (Convention in International Trade on Endangered
Species).Negative impacts of extinction of species are:
 loss of plants and animal species that are used for medicinal purposes.
Modern medicines have their genetic origin in wild species of plant and
animals and thus loss of species may mean loss of possible cures for
diseases such as HIV/AIDS.
 loss of biodiversity exposes crops to pests and diseases and thus lead to
widespread famine and economic hardships.
 imbalance in the ecosystem as some plants and animals may die leading to
loss of habitat and food for other animals.

f. Global Warming: This is the rise in the temperature of the atmosphere due to an
increase in the amount of air pollution due to the introduction of excess gases such as
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, water vapour, chlorofluorocarbons, ozone etc.
Carbon dioxide is mostly increased naturally by volcanic eruptions and veldfires caused
by lightning. It can also be increased by human activities such as burning of fossil fuels
and smokes from vehicles. These gases absorb reflected radiation from the earth and this
consequently raises the temperature of the atmosphere. This process is called green-
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house effect. For the last 100 years or so the increasing use of fossil fuels has put more
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This has raised global temperature by ½ degrees
Celsius. There are fears that as CO2 continues to build up in the atmosphere, world
temperatures will continue to rise. Global warming is of concern to the whole world
because it has the following negative effects:
 polar regions will melt and the water will flood rivers, lakes, seas and
oceans.
 melted water will lead to a rise in ocean and sea level.
 when sea level rises settlements along the coast will be covered with
water.
 climatic system of the world will be affected because of the imbalance in
atmospheric gases
 some plants and animal species will become extinct due to failure to adapt
to new climatic conditions.
 habitats of polar animals and plants will be destroyed.

g. Ozone depletion: Ozone refers to a layer of oxygen found in the atmosphere. This
layer protects the earth from dangerous ultra-violet radiation from the sun. Scientific
studies have revealed that ozone layer is continuously being destroyed by chemicals
known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs are mostly released from refrigerators and
air conditioning systems, spray cans and some liquid cleaning detergents. Depletion of
ozone layer exposes human beings and other living things to dangerous radiation which
has the following effects:
 this would make the body more vulnerable to infectious diseases and some
forms of cancer.
 a decline in forest productivity of the many tree species that are sensitive
to ultra-violet radiation.

Ways of sustaining the environment

 Afforestation- This involves planting of trees especially in those areas
that are deficient of trees such as deserts and semi deserts. Tree
planting activities may be carried out by groups and individuals and
are often sponsored by government nurseries, for example, annual
national tree planting activities.
 Promote use of environmentally friendly sources of energy-
Alternative sources of energy such as coal, natural gas, electricity,
solar power and unleaded petrol may be used instead of relying
heavily on use of fuelwood which destroys the environment. Most of
the people especially in rural areas rely on fuel wood as a source of
energy. Some people cut live plants and allow them to dry before
harvesting them for firewood. This practice speeds up deforestation
and desertification.
 Establishment of woodlots- rural dwellers are heavily dependent on
fuelwood and it important that some areas may be fenced for planting
of trees that will provide rural people with firewood.
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 Legislation- government should establish and enforce laws that

safeguard the interest of the environment such as anti-pollution and
anti-littering laws, for instance, some countries have introduced a type
of legislation called Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) whereby polluter
pays full costs of the pollution-reduction measures decided upon by
public authorities to ensure that the environment is kept in an
acceptable condition. Serious penalties can also be imposed on those
individuals and industries that violate such laws. Legislation and
environmental conservation policies should be extended to the
international community, for example, in 1997 over 160 countries met
in Japan and signed the Kyoto agreement in which countries agreed to
reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide.
 Education and awareness campaign- People need to be taught about
the importance of the environment and various ways of conserving it,
for example, through agricultural demonstrators farmers are taught
good methods of farming such crop rotation, ploughing across the
slope and addition of fertilizers. Students are taught about
environmental conservation through subjects such as Geography, DVS
and Social Studies. Some pressure groups often go around
campaigning against mismanagement of the environment and also
giving people vital information concerning environmental
conservation.
 Use of ozone friendly sprays and deodorants- people should
promote the use sprays and other utensils that contain less
chlorofluorocarbons and other greenhouse gases so as to minimize the
rate at which the ozone layer is being destroyed.
 Promotion of ecotourism- This is a type of tourism that is concerned
with protecting and safeguarding the interest of the environment. It is
based on natural attractions of a particular area. Through Community
Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) the community gets
revenue from tourism and this creates a sense ownership and
willingness to protect the environment from degradation.
 Game Farming-This is the rearing of wild animals in privately owned
farms. It is important because it can lead to conservation of
endangered species, prevents poaching, overstocking and overgrazing
as movement of animals will be controlled. Many animal species have
been saved from extinction through game farming.
 Banning of trade on products from endangered species- People
should be forbidden from trading on products from of plants and
animals that are protected by law. This will discourage poaching and
killing of animals such elephants and rhinos for their ivory. For
instance banning of ivory trade by CITES has led to mushrooming of
elephant populations across the world.
 Establishment of recycling industries- The formation of such
industries will boost recycling and reuse of waste materials that would
otherwise contaminate the environment.
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 Construction of firebreaks- This is a strip of land cleared of trees in

order to prevent veldfire from spreading into a larger area.

Environmental Impact Assessment [EIA]

This refers to a process of investigating possible impacts of a planned project on the
environment before implementation. It involves weighing out the advantages and
disadvantages [cost-benefit analysis] of a proposed project and if disadvantages outweigh
the advantages then the plan can be abandoned or altered [changed] so as to minimize the
disadvantages. EIA involves visiting the site of proposed project, studying the area and
also asking people about their views on the planned development.
Importance of EIA
 Helps planners to identify problems that are likely to emanate from
development projects and address them before the physical
implementation. This saves government and other private developers
money because some projects often collapse soon after implementation
because of an oversight on certain potential problems e.g. relocation of
Serowe sports complex to a more stable ground.
 Gives planners a chance to include people in decision making.
Consultation with other stakeholders and beneficiaries is important as it
may cultivate a spirit of ownership and responsibility among people. The
involvement of people indecision making is a strong characteristic of good
governance and as such people will feel obliged to conserve or protect the
resources.
 Leads to long lasting projects as likely negative impacts are identified
before implementation. Planning of the project will ensure that likely
negative impacts that lead to the collapse of the project are addressed in
advance.
 Helps to identify the priorities of people. Involvement of people in
decision making is important as researchers come into direct dialogue with
people. The can facilitate exchange of views, ideas and perceptions.
Ordinary people can express their opinions which are critical for the
planned project. Through contact with people the investigators can know
what type or nature of project do people want and whether the proposed
project is in the interest of the intended beneficiaries or not, for instance,
in a particular village inhabitants may prefer to provided with a hospital
before they can be provided with a secondary school.
 Planners can acquire sound ideas from people on how to mitigate
problems. Through EIA investigators can acquire information which is
critical to the success or failure of the project. The contributions of local
people should not be undermined as they may have in-depth knowledge
about the physical and social conditions in their areas which may be
critical in planning.
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MAIN TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS IN BOTSWANA

Botswana’s natural physical environment can be divided into 5 main regions
characterised by distinct relief, soils, vegetation and human activities. These are:
- Deserts (including semi deserts)
- Hardveld (Eastern Margin)
- Deciduous Forests
- Swamps
- Salt Pans

1. Deserts and semi-deserts

Physical characteristics
 low annual rainfall of less than 250mm
 cold winters and hot summers
 sandy and saline soils
 short and scattered trees
Importance of deserts to human life
 Tourism- People often visit the desert to marvel at its unique landscape, plants
and sand dunes. Hunting areas have been reduced by establishment of game
reserves and national parks which are also a major tourist attraction.
 Livestock farming- Presence of underground water makes it possible to drill
boreholes. This encourages livestock farming especially cattle and goats.
Arable farming is very limited because of the poor fertility of the soil.
 Harvesting of veld products- People in deserts gather grapple plants
(Sengaparile) and Mosukujane for medicinal and commercial purposes.
Mosukujane is also used to make tea.
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2. Hardveld (Eastern Margin)

Physical Characteristics
 moderate annual rainfall of up to 550mm
 has many ephemeral rivers and Limpopo is the only perennial river.
 dominated by reddish brown loam soils.
 has tree savanna characterised by tall trees such as morula, mokoba, baobab and
mophane.

Importance to humanlife
 Mixed farming- good rainfall and soils make the region suitable for both
arable and pastoral farming. Majority of farmers are subsistence but there are
commercial farms such as Talana, Tati, Tuli and Barolong farms.
 Harvesting of veld products- Natural vegetables common in this area are
thepe, rotlhwe and monyaku. Threre are also fruit trees such as moretlwa and
mowana. Mophane trees provide inhabitants with ‘phane’ which has been
used as a relish for a long time. ‘Phane’ is also used as cattle feed.
 Mining- Mining is another important activity in the region. Major minerals
are diamonds, nickel, gold, copper and coal.
 Tourism- The region has some privately owned game reserves such as
Mashatu and Tuli. It also has places of historical interest such as Matsieng’s
footprints, Domboshaba and Toutswemogala. These areas attract a number of
tourists.

3. Swamps
Physical characteristics
 hot and wet
 dominated by wetlands such as Okavango delta and swamps
 mean annual rainfall is between 400mm and 600mm.
 has plenty of fertile alluvial soils.
 common plants include papyrus, reeds, water lilies and tall trees.
Importance to humanlife
 Mixed farming- People in the swamps grow crops for subsistence and they also
rear animals such as cattle and goats.
 Tourism- The unique character of the Okavango delta together with its diverse
wildlife species has made the swamps the most important tourist destination in
Botswana. Other tourist attractions are Moremi Game Reserves and Tsodilo hill
which is famous for its rock paintings.
 Baskestry- Inhabitants of this region make plenty of baskets from reeds and other
plants found in the region.
 Fishing- People catch fish from the swamps and also harvest some edible plants
such as waterlilies (tswii).
 Construction of shelter- People use reeds to construct shelter.
 Canoeing- The abundance of water makes it possible to transport goods and
people to other areas using dug-out canoes (mekoro).
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4. Deciduous Forest
Physical characteristics
 Mean annual rainfall is 650mm
 Soil is alluvial and poorly drained
 There are tall trees with thick trunks e.g. mukwa and mukusi.
Importance to human life
 Tourism- The main attractions are Chobe Swamps and river, Chobe National
Park and Linyanti Game Reserve. The area has an abundance of wildlife species.
 Timber Production- Timber is cut from hardwoods and sent to the eastern
margin for processing.
 Fishing- The perennial Chobe River provides inhabitants with plenty of fish.
 Commercial Farming- People have taken advantage of fertile alluvial soils to
set up commercial arable farms e.g. Pandamatenga. Livestock farming is done on
a smaller scale because of pests, diseases and wild animals.

5. Salt Pans
Physical characteristics
 Has some salt pans such as Makgadikgadi, Mababe depression and Ntwetwe
 Average winter temperature is 15ْْc and summer temperature is 25ْْc.
 there is little vegetation, tall grasses and Palm trees are common in salt pans
 soils are mostly saline (salty).

Importance to human life

 Livestock farming-Due to abundance of grass people rear livestock such as cattle
and goats
 Tourism- Makgadikgadi Game Reserve and the unique landscape of the salt pans
are the main tourist attractions.
 Mining- The presence of soda ash has led to establishment of a mine in Sowa
Town.

The role of stakeholders in caring for the environment

Stakeholder: These are individuals, groups or organisations that have been given the
responsibility to carryout a particular task. In this context this refers to all individuals,
groups and organizations that are concerned with the preservation of the natural and
physical environment.
Individuals and local community
 litter-picking:picking up of wastes around their areas such as plastics, cans and
papers and throwing litter in dust bins.
 planting trees especially in deforestated areas such deserts.
 educating other people about the importance of the environment and the needs of
sustainable development.
 practice environmentally friendly activities like recycling litter such as cans,
paper, bottles etc.
 good farming methods such crop rotation and controlling stocking rate
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 using environmentally friendly sources of energy such as solar power and

electricity.

Government
 Legislation- Government has made some laws that are meant to protect the
environment e.g. in 2005 government approved an act which makes it
compulsory to conduct EIA for any project that affects the environment.
Some laws also make it illegal to mismanage the environment e.g. anti-
poaching and littering laws.
 Formation of departments to look after various natural resources e.g. Dept.
of Water Affairs to monitor and conduct the use of water, Forestry
Department to protect the vegetation and Wildlife and National Parks to
protect animals and man-made attractions.
 Sponsoring workshops and seminars that address environmental issues
 Construction of firebreaks to prevent the spread of veldfires to other areas.
 Encouraging national tree planting activities to reduce deforestation and
desertification
 Encouraging farmers to fence communal grazing areas so that they can
practice rotational grazing and general education of farmers through
extension workers.
 Introduction of environmental education in schools through subjects such
as geography, social studies and DVS.
 Penalties against people who mismanage the environment e.g. dumping
waste in ungazetted points.
 Encouraging the use of alternative sources such as solar power, electricity
and natural gas.

Non-Governmental Organisations- These are private organisations that are not

profit-oriented. Examples of NGOs concerned with environmental conservation are
National Conservation Strategy (NCS), Kalahari Conservation Society (KCS) and
Somarelang Tikologo.
Their role is to:
 Advise the government on environmental conservation
 Conserve important natural resources e.g. NCS protects endangered
species of plants and animals and controls depletion of non-renewable
resources such as minerals,
 Give local communities technology and information that is
environmentally friendly.
 Sponsor workshops concerned with environmental education
 Educate communities about proper use of natural resources.
 Carryout research on environmental protection and conservation of
resources e.g. Somarelang Tikologo
 Encourage woodland conservation among communities e.g. Forestry
Association of Botswana.
 Promote sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation e.g.
FONSAG.
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International Community- All people throughout the world have the responsibility
to care for the environment because other environmental issues like ozone depletion,
desertification and global warming affect the whole world regardless of where they
occur. Examples of international organisations that care for the environment are
Green Peace, CITES etc.

Revision Test.
1. Define the following concepts
i. Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA)
ii. Land Degradation
iii. Global Warming (6)
2. Discuss the effects of the following environmental problems on living things (plants
and animals):
i. Land pollution
ii. Ozone Depletion
iii. Deforestation (6)
3. Discuss the importance of the Eastern Margin to human life in Botswana. (8)
4. Describe three ways in which a damaged environment can be made valuable for
human use again. (6)
5. Discuss the role of the following stakeholders in caring for the environment
i. Government
ii. Individuals
iii. Non-Governmental Organisations (6)
6. Discuss three man-made causes of desertification (6)
7. State four physical characteristics of a true desert. (4)
8. Explain three ways in which global warming can lead to extinction of both plant and
animal species.(6)
9. Outline the importance of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). (5)