The Shri Ram School, Moulsari

Study Guide- Grade 7

Computer Studies

Name: ………………………………………………………………

Class: ………………………………………………………………

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 Table of Contents

Number System in Computers ……………………. 05

Data ……………………. 19

Electronic Spreadsheet- Microsoft Excel ……………………. 31

HyperText Markup Language (HTML) ……………………. 57

Cascading StyleSheets (CSS) ……………………. 71

Artificial Intelligence (AI) ……………………. 79

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Number System in
Computers

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Learning Objectives
• What is number system in computers?
• Types of number system in computers
• Applications of various number systems
• Which number system is used for processing in computers and why?
• Why do we need hexadecimal (hex)number system?
• What is decimal or denary number system? How does it work?
• What is binary number system? How does it work?
• Conversion from a decimal number into its binary equivalent
• Conversion from a binary number into its decimal equivalent
• Conversion Table

What is number system in computers?

The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number system.

Types of number system in computers

The computer architecture supports following number systems:
• Binary number system
• Octal number system
• Decimal or Denary number system
• Hexadecimal (Hex) number system

S. Base or
Number System Digits/ Symbols used
No. Radix
1 Binary 0, 1 2

2 Octal 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 8

3 Decimal or Denary 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 10

4 Hexadecimal 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F 16

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Applications of various number systems
Applications of Binary number system

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• All computer languages and programming are based on the 2-digit

number system used in digital encoding. Digital encoding is the process of
taking data and representing it with discrete bits of information. These
discrete bits consist of the 0s and 1s of the binary system.
• We also find the binary number system in a branch of mathematics known
as Boolean Algebra. This field of mathematics is concerned with logic and
truth values. Here, statements that are either true or false are then
assigned a 1 or 0.

Applications of Octal number system

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• The PDP-11 computer made by the Digital Equipment Corporation used

the octal number system exclusively for displaying memory addresses and
content.
• Transponders in aircraft transmit a "squawk" code, expressed as a four-
octal-digit number, when interrogated by ground radar. This code is used
to distinguish different aircrafts on the radar screen.
Note: The use of octal numbers has declined as most modern computers no
longer base their word length on multiples of three bits, (they are based on
multiples of four bits, so hexadecimal is more widely used).

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Applications of Decimal or Denary number system

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• Decimal numbers are used in situations where more precision is required,

than the whole numbers can provide.
• We use decimals every day, while dealing with money, weight, length etc.

Applications of Hexadecimal number system

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• To display images: The images you see on your computer screen have
been encoded with a binary line for each pixel.
• To define locations in memory: Hexadecimals can characterize every byte
as two hexadecimal digits only compared to eight digits when using
binary.
• To define colours on web pages: Each primary colour – red, green, and
blue is characterized by two hexadecimal digits. The format being used is
#RRGGBB. RR stands for red; GG stands for green, and BB stands for blue.
• To represent Media Access Control (MAC) addresses: MAC addresses
consist of 12-digit hexadecimal numbers.

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Which number system is used for processing in computers and why?
Computers use binary, the digits 0 and 1, to store data. A binary digit, or bit, is
the smallest unit of data in computing. It is represented by a 0 or a 1. Binary
numbers are made up of binary digits (bits), e.g., the binary number 1001.

The circuits in a computer's processor are made up of billions of transistors. A

transistor is a tiny switch that is activated by the electronic signals it receives.
The digits 1 and 0 used in binary reflect the “on” and “off” state respectively of
a transistor.

You might be wondering why computers use binary instead of the decimal
system we use for counting things in our daily lives. As mentioned above, binary
has two states: off and on. If computers were to use the decimal system, there
would be 10 states instead and they would have to work a lot harder to process
them all. Binary is easier for computers to process, and it also takes up less
space.

Why do we need hexadecimal number system?

This is because the binary number representation of small numbers is simple
and short in length. But what about large numbers, i.e., numbers with 32 digits,
64 digits or even more. In this case, binary number representation will be a long
string of 0s and 1s. There may arise the possibility of error either in reading the
number or in writing the number.

This problem can be solved with the help of hexadecimal number system. Each
group of four digits of binary numbers can be written into a single digit of the
hexadecimal number. Thus, hexadecimal number reduces the length of the
number representation by 1/4th.

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What is the decimal or denary number system? How does it work?
• As the decimal or denary number system uses ten digits, it is referred to
as a base 10 number system.
• Using the ten digits available in decimal number system, we can represent
any number by applying place values to each digit.

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• This is how a decimal number is represented:

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What is the binary number system? How does it work?

• Binary is the number system that computers use for processing/ storing
data/ information.
• The binary number system uses two digits which are then used to
represent all numbers. These digits are: 0 and 1
• As binary number system uses two digits, it is referred to as a base 2
number system. Each single binary digit (1 or 0) is referred to as a bit.

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 • We can combine multiple bits in different patterns by applying place
values to each digit. This works in a very similar way to the decimal
number system. We use 2 rather than 10 because it is a base 2 number
system. So, using this equation we can generate the following place
values:

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• This is how a binary number is represented:

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Conversion from decimal (base 10) number into its binary (base 2) equivalent
Method 1 (Successive Division Method)
The steps to convert a decimal number into its binary equivalent are as under:
1. Write down the decimal number that is to be converted into its binary
equivalent.
2. Divide the decimal number and write down the quotient below and the
remainder on the right.
3. Repeat step 2 until you reach a situation where further division is not
possible.

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 4. Write down all the remainders upside down. The number thus formed will
be the binary equivalent of the decimal number you started with.

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So, (25) 10 = (11001) 2

Method 2 (Table Method)

1. Draw out a table detailing the binary place values.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

2. Place a 1 under each place value ensuring that when added together they
equal your desired decimal number, in this case we want to find the binary
equivalent for 25. Place a 0 under each of the place values that you will
not need.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
In the table above we have determined that 16 + 8 + 1 = 25. Due to this fact,
we have placed a 1 under each of the corresponding place values. This allows us
to conclude that (25) 10 = (11001) 2.

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Conversion from binary (base 2) number into its decimal (base 10) equivalent
Method 1 (Positional Notation Method)

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So, (101101) 2 = (45) 10

Method 2 (Table Method)

1. Place the digits of the binary number into the table beneath the place
values:

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

2. Add together the place values that have a 1 beneath them. Ignore the
place values that have a 0 beneath them.

In this example, we would add the following numbers: 32 + 8 + 4 + 1

Adding these 4 numbers would give us the answer 45.

We can therefore conclude that (101101) 2 = (45) 10

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Conversion Table

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 12
19 10011 23 13
20 10100 24 14
21 10101 25 15
22 10110 26 16
23 10111 27 17
24 11000 30 18
25 11001 31 19
26 11010 32 1A
27 11011 33 1B
28 11100 34 1C
29 11101 35 1D
30 11110 36 1E
31 11111 37 1F

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Glossary

base the number of symbols that can be represented in a number

system; another term for ‘base’ is radix
binary one of the four number systems used by computers for processing/
storing data/ information; uses two symbols, i.e., 0 and 1
bit short for binary digit; the smallest piece of information stored in a
computer
byte short for binary term; a set/ group of eight bits
data raw facts or figures that have no meaning
decimal one of the four number systems used by humans for counting and
calculating in their day-to-day life; uses ten symbols, from 0 to 9
hardware a collective term for all physical components of a computer system
hexadecimal one of the four number systems; uses sixteen symbols, digits from
0 to 9 and letters from A to F
information processed data that is meaningful
nibble a set/ group of four bits
octal one of the four number systems; uses eight symbols, from 0 to 7
operating system (OS) the master program that acts as an interface between a user and a
computer
pixel short for picture element; the smallest unit of a digital image
processor an integrated electronic circuit that performs the calculations that
run a computer. A processor performs arithmetical, logical,
input/output (I/O) and other basic instructions that are passed
from an operating system (OS).
program a set of instructions written in a programming language
radix another term for ‘base’
software a set of related programs to carry out a task
transistor an on/ off switch and the fundamental building block of computer
circuitry

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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 Data

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Learning Objectives
• What are data?
• What is information?
• Some examples of data and information
• What is Data Processing?
• What is Data Analysis?
• Types of data
• How is quantitative data classified?
• What is Big Data?
• What is a Database?
• What is Data Science?
• What is Data Visualization?

What are data?

• Data (singular form datum) are raw facts or figures which have got no
meaning of their own.
• Data can come in the form of text, observations, figures, images,
numbers, graphs, or symbols. For example, data might include individual
prices, weights, addresses, ages, names, temperatures, dates, or
distances.
• Data are a raw form of knowledge and, on their own, do not carry any
significance or purpose. In other words, you must interpret data for it to
have meaning. Data can be simple—and may even seem useless until it is
organized, analyzed, and interpreted.

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What is information?
• Information is processed data and it has got meaning. Information is
defined as knowledge gained through study, communication, research, or
instruction.
• Essentially, information is the result of analyzing and interpreting pieces
of data, whereas, data is the individual figures, numbers, or graphs,
information is the perception of those pieces of knowledge.
• For example, a set of data could include temperature readings in a
location over several years. Without any additional context, those
temperatures have no meaning. However, when you analyze and organize
that information, you could determine seasonal temperature patterns or
even broader climate trends.
• Only when the data is organized and compiled in a useful way can it
provide information that is beneficial to others.

Some examples of data and information

• At a restaurant, a single customer’s bill amount is data. However, when
the restaurant owners collect and interpret multiple bills over a range of
time, they can produce valuable information, such as what menu items
are most popular and whether the prices are sufficient to cover supplies,
overhead, and wages.
• A customer’s response to an individual customer service survey is a point
of data. But when you compile that customer’s responses over time—and,
on a grander scheme, multiple customers’ responses over time—you can
develop insights around areas for improvement within your customer
service team.
• The number of likes on a social media post is a single element of data.
When that’s combined with other social media engagement statistics, like
followers, comments, and shares, a company can intuit which social
media platforms perform the best and which platforms they should focus
on to engage their audience more effectively.

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What is Data Processing?
• Data processing is the conversion of data into a usable and desirable form.
• Data processing can be done using one of the following methods:
o Manual Data Processing
▪ In manual data processing, data is processed manually
without using any machine or tool to get required results.
▪ This method of data processing is very slow, and errors may
occur in the output.
o Mechanical Data Processing
▪ In mechanical data processing, data is processed using
different devices like typewriters, mechanical printers, or
other mechanical devices.
o Electronic Data Processing (EDP)
▪ Electronic data processing is the modern technique to
process data. This method of processing data is very fast and
accurate.
▪ The data is processed through computer; Data and set of
instructions are given to the computer as input and the
computer automatically processes the data according to the
given set of instructions.
▪ For example, in a computerized education environment
results of students are prepared through computer; in banks,
accounts of customers are maintained (or processed)
through computers etc.

What is Data Analysis?

• Data analysis is the process of
transforming raw data into
meaningful insights for decision-
making.
• Data analysis involves the
following steps:

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Types of data
• At the highest level, two types of data exist,
o Quantitative (Numerical) and
o Qualitative (Non-numerical or Descriptive)

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How is Quantitative Data classified?

• Quantitative data is, quite simply, data that can be quantified. It can be
counted or measured and given a numerical value—such as length in
centimetres or revenue in dollars.
• Quantitative data tends to be structured in nature and is suitable for
statistical analysis. If you have questions such as “How many?”, “How
often?” or “How much?”, you’ll find the answers in quantitative data.
• There are two types of quantitative data:
o Discrete and
o Continuous
• Generally, counts are classified as discrete whereas measurements are
classified as continuous.
• Discrete data typically involves integers and is a count that cannot be
made more precise. For instance, the number of students in your class or

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 pets in your family is discrete data, because you are counting whole,
indivisible things; you cannot have 21.5 students or 2.3 pets.
• Continuous data can take any value within a range, also called analog
data. A common example of analog data is the human voice in the air. The
data that is classified as continuous can be further reduced to finer levels
as per convenience. For example, you can measure the length of a
classroom blackboard more detailed and exact scales, i.e., meters,
centimetres, millimetres, and beyond — so length is continuous data.
• A form of discrete data is digital data, this is data transmitted in binary
format (zeros and ones). Examples of digital data includes data used in
computers, CDs, DVDs, and related electronic devices.
• Here are some examples of discrete data and continuous data for further
clarity.

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What is Big Data?

• Big Data is a collection of data that is huge in volume yet growing
exponentially with time. It is a data with so large size and complexity that
none of traditional data management tools can store it or process it
efficiently.

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 Picture Courtesy: https://www.researchgate.net/

• Areas where Big Data is used in a big way are:

o Personalized e-commerce shopping experiences
o Compiling trillions of data points to speed up cancer research
o Media recommendations from streaming services like Spotify,
Hulu, and Netflix
o Predicting crop yields for farmers
o Analyzing traffic patterns to lessen congestion in cities
o Data tools recognizing retail shopping habits and optimal product
placement
o Big data helping sports teams maximize their efficiency and value
o Recognizing trends in education habits from individual students,
schools, and districts

What is Database?
• A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data,
typically stored electronically in a computer system. Databases make data
management easy.
• An online telephone directory uses a database to store data of people,
phone numbers, and other contact details.
• Your electricity service provider uses a database to manage billing, client-
related issues, handle fault data, etc.

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 • Social media platform like Facebook needs to store, manipulate, and
present data related to members, their friends, member activities,
messages, advertisements, and a lot more.

What is Data Science?

Data Science is a field of applied mathematics and statistics that provides useful
information based on large amounts of complex data or big data.

What is Data Visualization?

• Data Visualization is the representation of information in the form of a
chart, diagram, picture, etc.
• Why use data visualization?
o Make data easier to understand and remember
o Discover unknown facts, outliers, and trends
o Visualize relationships and patterns quickly
o Ask better questions and make better decisions

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Glossary

analog data refers to data that is continuous, e.g. speed measured by the
speedometer, temperature recorded by the thermometer

big data data that is so large, fast, or complex that it's difficult or impossible
to process using traditional methods

data raw facts or figures that have no meaning

data analysis finding useful patterns in data based on the goals or purpose of the
data analysis activity

database an organized collection of structured information, or data

data processing the conversion of data into a usable and desirable form

data science a field of applied mathematics and statistics that provides useful
information based on large amounts of complex data or big data

data visualization the representation of information in the form of a chart, diagram,

picture, etc.

electronic data data processing method where data is processed through

processing (EDP) computer

information processed data that is meaningful

manual data data processing method where data is processed manually without
processing using any machine or tool to get required results

mechanical data data processing method where data is processed using different
processing devices like typewriters, mechanical printers, or other mechanical
devices

qualitative data non- numerical or descriptive data obtained after classification and
categorization based on specific criteria

quantitative data numerical data that can be counted or measured

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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 Electronic
Spreadsheet-
Microsoft Excel

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Learning Objectives
• What is Microsoft Excel?
• User Interface
• The Home tab
• The Wrap Text tool
• The Merge Cells tool
• The AutoSum tool
• Formulas and Functions
• The Autofill feature
• Conditional Formatting
• Sorting and Filtering Data
• Data Visualization using Charts

What is Microsoft Excel?

• Excel is a spreadsheet program (available in Microsoft Office suite) that
allows you to store, organize, and analyze information.
• Whether you're keeping a budget, organizing a training log, or creating an
invoice, Excel makes it easy to work with different types of data.

User Interface
This is how the user interface of Microsoft Excel 2016 looks like:

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The Home tab
There are seven groups in the Microsoft Excel Home tab: Clipboard, Font,
Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, and Editing.

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The Clipboard group

The Cut and Copy commands store the cut/ copied data in a
place known as Clipboard. In this clipboard, 24 texts cut or
copied are automatically stored temporarily, but if you shut
down the computer then delete all data from the clipboard.
There are four parts in the clipboard: Cut, Copy, Paste, and
Format Painter.

Cut- Cut does not mean delete. It means to move data from one place to another
place. If you want to cut something, then first you select the thing, then by
clicking on cut, it will be cut and moved to the clipboard.
Copy- Copy means to duplicate the selected data. If you want to copy something,
then first you select the thing.
Paste- Paste means any cut or copied data and place it somewhere else. There
are various type of function in Paste option such as formulas, paste value, etc.
Format Painter- Use Format Painter to quickly apply the same formatting, such
as color, font style and size, or border style, to multiple pieces of text or graphics.

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The Font group
1. Font- To set the font. A font is the specific
style of text that is printed on a page or
displayed on a computer screen.
2. Font size- To set the size of the font.
3. Increase Font Size- To increase the size of
the font.
4. Decrease Font Size- To decrease the size of the font.
5. Bold- To mark the selected text as bold.
6. Italic- To mark the selected text as italicized.
7. Underline- To mark the selected text as underlined.
8. Border- To apply the border to the currently selected cell (s).
9. Fill Color- To color the background of cells to make them stand out.
10.Font Color- To change the color of he selected text.
11.Font Settings- To customize the selected text to give it the exact look you
want. Clicking this tool will open the Format Cells dialog box.

The Alignment group

1. Top Align- To align the content to the top of
the selected cell (s).
2. Middle Align- To align the content to the
middle of the selected cell (s).
3. Bottom Align- To align the content to the
bottom of the selected cell (s).
4. Orientation- To rotate the text within a cell diagonally or vertically.
5. Wrap Text- To wrap extra-long text into multiple cells so you can see all
of it.
6. Align Left- To align the content to the left of the selected cell (s).
7. Center- To center the content.
8. Align Right- To align the content to the right of the selected cell (s).
9. Decrease Indent- To move the content closer to the cell border.
10.Increase Indent- To move the content farther away from the cell border.
11.Merge and Center- To combine and center the contents of the selected
cell (s) in a new larger cell.
12.Alignment Settings- To check out the full set of cell alignment options.

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Cell Alignment
By default, the contents of a cell appear at the bottom of the cell, with numbers
aligned to the right and text aligned to the left.

Change Cell Alignment

1. Select the cell(s) you want to align.
2. To vertically align cells, click the vertical alignment button you want.
3. To horizontally align cells, click the horizontal alignment button you want.

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The Wrap Text tool

• We can use the Wrap Text tool in Excel if we want to display long text on
multiple lines in a single cell.
• It can be done in two ways:
o Wrap text automatically or
o Enter a manual line break.

Wrap Text Automatically

You can use the text wrap option to make all cell contents visible. If you wrap
text in a cell, it increases the row height to display everything within the cell.
1. Select the cell(s).
2. Click the Wrap Text button.

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Manual Line Break
To insert a manual line break,
execute the following steps:
1. For example, double click
cell A1.
2. Place your cursor at the
location where you want the
line to break.
3. Press Alt + Enter.

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The result of the above steps will be:

The Merge Cells tool

You can merge cells together to create a larger cell without changing the row or
column size.
1. Select the cells you want to merge.
2. Click the Merge list arrow.
3. Select a merge option.

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The cells are merged into a single cell. If there was text in multiple cells, only the
value in the upper-left cell will remain.

Merge Option Description

Merge & Center Combine and center the contents of the selected
cells into a single, larger cell.

Merge Across Merge selected cells in the same row into a single
cell.

Merge Cells
Merge the selected cells into one cell.

The Number group

Number Format with drop-down- Provides a list of all the available number
formats. The built-in number formats are: General, Number, Currency,
Accounting, Short Date, Long Date, Time, Percentage, Fraction, Scientific and
Text.
Accounting Number Format button with
drop-down- The button applies your
'default' accounting number format to the
current selection. The drop-down contains
the commands: English (UK), English (US),
Euro and More Accounting Formats.
Percent Style- Applies the percent number
format to the current selection.

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Comma Style- Applies the comma style number format to the current selection.
Increase Decimal- Shows more decimal places for a more precise value.
Decrease Decimal- Shows fewer decimal places.
Number Format- To check out the full set of number formatting options.

The Styles group

Conditional Formatting with drop-down- To
easily spot trends and patterns in your data
using bars, colors, and icons to visually
highlight important values.
Format as Table with drop-down- To quickly
convert a range of cells to a table with its
own style.
Cell Styles with drop-down- To style cells in a way to make important data stand
out.

The Cells group

Insert with drop-down- To add new cells, rows, columns, or sheets to the
workbook. Clicking on the drop-down will show the options as shown in the
image given below:

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The Insert Cells… option is used to insert cells, rows or
column into the sheet or table. Clicking on this option
will open the dialog box as shown in the image on the
left. Select the required option and click on the OK
button.

Note: To insert multiple rows or columns at a time, select multiple rows and columns in the
sheet and click Insert. The new column (s) is/ are inserted on the left side of the currently
selected column (s). The new row (s) is/ are inserted above the currently selected row (s).

Delete with drop-down- To delete cells, rows, column, or sheet from the
workbook. Clicking on the drop-down will show the options as shown in the
image given below:

The Delete Cells… option is used to delete cells, rows,

or columns from the worksheet. Clicking on this option
will open the dialog box as shown in the image on the
right. Select the required option and click on the OK
button.

Format with drop-down- To change the row height or the

column width, to organize sheets or protect or hide cells.
Clicking on the drop-down will show the options as shown in
the image below:

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The Editing group and the AutoSum tool
If you need to sum a column or row of numbers, let Excel do the math for you.
Select a cell next to the numbers you want to sum, click AutoSum on
the Home tab, press Enter, and you’re done.

When you click AutoSum, Excel automatically enters a formula (that uses
the SUM () function) to sum the numbers.

Here’s an example. To add the January numbers in this Entertainment budget,

select cell B7, the cell immediately below the column of numbers. Then
click AutoSum. A formula appears in cell B7, and Excel highlights the cells you’re
totalling.

Press Enter to display the result (95.94) in cell B7. You can also see the formula
in the formula bar at the top of the Excel window.

Notes:
• To sum a column of numbers, select the cell immediately below the last number in the
column. To sum a row of numbers, select the cell immediately to the right.
• AutoSum is in two locations: Home > AutoSum, and Formulas > AutoSum.

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 • Once you create a formula, you can copy it to other cells instead of typing it over and
over. For example, if you copy the formula in cell B7 to cell C7, the formula in C7
automatically adjusts to the new location and calculates the numbers in C3:C6.
• You can also use AutoSum on more than one cell at a time. For example, you could
highlight both cell B7 and C7, click AutoSum, and total both columns at the same time.
• You can also sum numbers by creating a simple formula.

Formulas and Functions

• A formula is an expression which calculates the value of a cell. A function
is a pre-defined formula that is already available in Microsoft Excel.
• For example, cell A3 below contains a formula which adds the value of cell
A2 to the value of cell A1.

• For example, cell A3 below contains the SUM function which calculates
the sum of the range A1:A2.

Enter a Formula
To enter a formula, execute the following steps.
1. Select a cell.
2. To let Excel know that you want to enter a formula, type an equal sign (=).
3. Type the formula A1 + A2. Instead of typing A1 and A2, simply select cell
A1 and cell A2.

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 4. Change the value of cell A1 to 3.

Excel automatically recalculates the value of cell A3. This is one of Excel's most
powerful features!

Edit a Formula
When you select a cell, Excel shows the value or formula of the cell in the
formula bar.

To edit a formula, click in the formula bar and change the formula.

Press Enter. The result will change as shown below:

Operator Precedence
Excel uses a default order in which calculations occur. If a part of the formula is
in parentheses, that part will be calculated first. It then performs multiplication

42
or division calculations. Once this is complete, Excel will add and subtract the
remainder of your formula. See the example below.

First, Excel performs multiplication (A1 * A2). Next, Excel adds the value of cell
A3 to this result.

Another example,

First, Excel calculates the part in parentheses (A2+A3). Next, it multiplies this
result by the value of cell A1.

43
There are a variety of functions available in Excel. Here are some of the most
common functions you'll use:

SUM (): This function adds all the values of the cells in the argument.

AVERAGE (): This function determines the average of the values included in the
argument. It calculates the sum of the cells and then divides that value by the
number of cells in the argument.

COUNT (): This function counts the number of cells with numerical data in the
argument. This function is useful for quickly counting items in a cell range.

MAX (): This function determines the highest cell value included in the
argument.

MIN (): This function determines the lowest cell value included in the argument.

The Autofill feature

Whether you just want to copy
the same value down or need to
get a series of numbers or text
values, fill handle in Excel is the
feature to help. It's an
irreplaceable part of the AutoFill
option. Fill handle is a small
square that appears in the bottom-right corner when you select a cell or range.
It may be hard to believe that this tiny, almost unnoticeable part of selection
gives you numerous helpful options to use every day. Whenever you need to get
a series of values in the adjacent cells, just click on the Excel fill handle to see a
small black cross and drag it vertically or horizontally. As you release the mouse
button, you will see the selected cells filled with the values depending on the
pattern you specify.

44
One of the most popular questions is how to autofill numbers is Excel. This can
also be dates, times, days of the week, months, years and so on. In addition,
Excel's AutoFill will follow any pattern.

For example, if you need to continue a sequence, just enter the first two values
into the starting cell and grab the fill handle to copy the data across the specified
range.

You can also auto-populate any arithmetic progression sequence where the
difference between numbers is constant.

Conditional Formatting
Conditional formatting makes it easy to highlight certain values or make cells
easy to identify. This changes the appearance of a cell range based on a
condition (or criteria). You can use conditional formatting to highlight cells that
contain values which meet a certain condition. Some options to use conditional
formatting are as follows:

45
 • Apply conditional formatting to text
o Select the range of cells, the table, or the whole sheet
that you want to apply conditional formatting to.
o On the Home tab, click Conditional Formatting.
o Point to Highlight Cells Rules, and then click Text that
Contains.
o Type the text that you want to highlight, and then click OK.

• Create a Conditional Formatting rule

o Select the range of cells, the table, or the whole sheet that you want
to apply conditional formatting to.
o On the Home tab, click Conditional Formatting.
o Point to Highlight Cells Rules, and then click Text that Contains.
o Type the text that you want to highlight, and then click OK.

Sorting and Filtering Data

When sorting information in a worksheet, you can rearrange the data to find
values quickly. You can sort a range or table of data on one or more columns of
data. For example, you can sort employees —first by department, and then by
last name. How to sort in Excel?

Select the data to sort

Select a range of tabular data, such as A1:L5 (multiple rows and columns)
or C1:C80 (a single column). The range can include the first row of
headings that identify each column.

Sort quickly and easily

1. Select a single cell in the column you want to sort.
2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, click to perform an
ascending sort (from A to Z, or smallest number to largest).
3. Click to perform a descending sort (from Z to A, or largest number
to smallest).

46
 Sort by specifying criteria
Use this technique to choose the column you want to sort, together
with other criteria such as font or cell colors.
1. Select a single cell anywhere in the range that you want to sort.
2. On the Data tab, in the Sort & Filter group, click Sort to display the
Sort popup window.

3. In the Sort by dropdown list, select the first column on which you want
to sort.
4. In the Sort On list, choose Values, Cell Color, Font Color, or Cell Icon.
5. In the Order list, choose the order that you want to apply to the sort
operation—alphabetically or numerically, ascending or descending
(that is, from A to Z (or Z to A) for text, or lower to higher, or higher to
lower for numbers).

Filter a range of data

1. Select any cell within the range.
2. Select Data > Filter.
3. Select the column header arrow .
4. Select Text Filters or Number Filters, and
then select a comparison, like Between.
Enter the filter criteria and select OK.

47
Filter data in a table
When you put your data in a table, filter controls are automatically added to
the table headers.

1. Select the column header arrow for the column you want to filter.
2. Uncheck (Select All) and select the boxes you want to show.

48
 3. Click OK.

The column header arrow changes to a Filter icon. Select this icon to
change or clear the filter.

Data Visualization using Charts

• Data Visualization is the representation of information in the form of a
chart, diagram, picture, etc.
• Why use data visualization?
o Make data easier to understand and remember
o Discover unknown facts, outliers, and trends
o Visualize relationships and patterns quickly
o Ask better questions and make better decisions
• A chart is a visual representation of data in both columns and rows.
• Charts are usually used to analyse trends and patterns in data sets.
• Let’s say you have been recording the sales figures in Excel for the past
three years. Using charts, you can easily tell which year had the most sales
and which year had the least.
• You can also draw charts to compare set targets against actual
achievements.
49
 We will use the following data for this document.

Item 2012 2013 2014 2015

Desktop Computers 20 12 13 12
Laptops 34 45 40 39
Monitors 12 10 17 15
Printers 78 13 90 14

Types of Charts in Microsoft Excel

Different scenarios require different types of charts. Towards this end, Excel
provides several chart types that you can work with. The type of chart that you
choose depends on the type of data that you want to visualize. To help simplify
things for the users, Excel 2016 and above has an option that analyses your data
and makes a recommendation of the chart type that you should use.

The following table shows some of the most used Excel charts and when you
should consider using them.

S. Chart
When to use? Example
No. Type
1 Pie When you want to
Chart quantify items and show
them as percentages.

2 Bar When you want to

Chart compare values across a
few categories. The
values run horizontally

50
3 Column When you want to
Chart compare values across a
few categories. The
values run vertically

4 Line When you want to

Chart visualize trends over a
period i.e., months,
days, years, etc.

5 Combo When you want to

Chart highlight different types
of information

51
The importance of charts
• Allows you to visualize data graphically
• It is easier to analyze trends and patterns using charts in MS Excel
• Easy to interpret compared to data in cells

Step by step example of creating charts in Excel

In this document, we are going to plot a simple column chart in Excel that will
display the sold quantities against the sales year. Below are the steps to create
chart in MS Excel:
• Open a blank workbook in Excel
• Enter the data from the sample data table above
• Your workbook should now look as follows:

To get the desired chart you must follow the following steps:

1. Select the data you want to represent in chart

2. Click on the Insert tab from the ribbon
3. Click on the Column chart drop down button
4. Select the chart type you want

52
You should be able to see the following chart:

Glossary
alignment how is data positioned within a cell

argument the value (s) that a function expects and works on;

autofill the feature used to fill cells with data that follows a pattern or are
based on data in other cells

autosum the tool that automatically enters a formula (that uses SUM ()
function) to sum the numbers when the user clicks on it

cell the basic structural and the functional unit of a worksheet formed
by the intersection of a row and a column

cell address unique identity of a cell within a worksheet represented as a

column letter followed by a row number

cell pointer active cell or the currently selected cell in a worksheet

cell range formed by selecting multiple contiguous cells together

represented as the cell reference of the first cell and the cell
reference of the last cell separated by a colon (:)

chart pictorial representation of the sheet data

column identified by a letter or a combination of letters, columns run

vertically across a worksheet

53
conditional formatting a feature used to highlight cells that contain values which meet a
certain condition or criteria

fill handle a small black square at the bottom right corner of the active cell

filter the tool that helps display relevant data by temporarily hiding the
irrelevant entries from the view

formula an expression that operates on values in a range of cells

formula bar the bar above the worksheet columns used to enter, view, or edit
the contents of the active cell

function a predefined formula used to perform calculations

merge & center a tool used to combine and center the contents of two or more
selected cells

name box the box on the left side of the formula bar that shows the cell
address of the active cell

operator the symbols used to perform various operations on values

(operands)

operator precedence the rule defining which operator will be evaluated first in an
expression or formula

row identified by a number, rows run horizontally across a worksheet

sort arrange data in a specific order; either ascending or descending

status bar the bar at the bottom of the window that displays information
like the Cell Mode options, Calculation options, etc.

workbook a file created in Excel; a collection of multiple worksheets

worksheet a matrix of columns and rows; a single page within a workbook

wrap text a tool that wraps or fits the contents within a cell, displaying them
on multiple lines within a cell

54
Notes

55
Notes

56
HyperText Markup
Language (HTML)

57
Learning Objectives
• What is HTML?
• Features of HTML
• Tools required for HTML Coding
• Saving an HTML Document
• HTML Elements
• Types of HTML Elements
o Container Elements
o Empty Elements
• HTML Attributes
• Basic Structure of an HTML document
• HTML Title
• HTML Headings
• HTML Paragraphs
• HTML Formatting Elements
• HTML Comments
• HTML Lists
o Ordered List or Numbered List
o Unordered List or Bulleted List
o Definition List or Description List
• HTML Images
• HTML Links
• HTML Tables

What is HTML?
• HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language.
• HTML is the standard markup language for creating webpages.
• HTML describes the structure of a webpage.
• The first version of HTML was written by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1993.
• HTML has evolved with the passage of time. HTML5 is the latest version
of HTML.

58
Features of HTML
• Not a programming language
• Easy to learn and easy to use
• Platform independent
• Case insensitive
• Images, videos, and audio can be added to a web page
• Supported by all web browsers

Tools required for HTML Coding

To code in HTML from the scratch, we need two tools:
• A Text Editor, such as, Notepad (Windows) or TextEdit (Mac), etc. to type
the HTML code
• A Web Browser, such as, Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Apple Safari,
etc. to test how your webpage will look

Note: Basic text editors are entirely sufficient when you’re just getting started.
As you progress, there are many feature-rich text editors available which allow
for greater function and flexibility. For example, Brackets, Kompozer,
Notepad++, Visual Studio Code.

Saving an HTML Document

An HTML document must be saved with .html extension. If we do not change
the extension to .html, the text editor will save the document with the default
extension, and we will not be able to view our webpage using a web browser.

HTML Elements
• HTML elements are used to define the content that we put on a webpage.
• HTML elements tell a web browser how to structure and interpret a part
of the HTML document.
• An HTML element is enclosed between angle brackets < >.
• For example, <HTML>, <HEAD>, <TITLE>, <BODY>, etc.

59
Types of HTML Elements
There are two types of HTML elements, Container and Empty.

Container Elements
A container element in HTML is defined by a starting tag followed by the
content. A container element ends with a closing tag.
For example, the <H1> element is a container element used to insert a heading
(largest size) in a webpage.

Usage:
<H1>This is a dummy heading at level 1.</H1>
where,
<H1> is the opening tag of the <H1> element.
This is a dummy heading at level 1. is the content that will get displayed on the
webpage.
</H1> is the closing tag of the <H1> element. Observe the ‘/’ (forward slash)
before H1.

Empty Elements
An empty element in HTML is defined by a starting tag only. It does not need to
be ended as it does not contain anything. Some examples of the empty elements
are <BR>, <HR>, <IMG>
Usage:
<BR>
where,
<BR> is an empty element used to insert a line break in a webpage.

We just need to type <BR> wherever we need to break a line to move the
content that follows to the next line.

Similarly, we use the <HR> element to insert a horizontal rule (line) to demarcate
two sections in a webpage.

60
HTML Attributes
• HTML Attributes provide additional information about an HTML element.
• Attributes are always typed within the starting tag of an HTML element.

For example,
<IMG src = “image.png”> where,
<IMG> is the HTML element used to insert an image in a webpage
src (source) is the attribute to define the image that is to be inserted
image.png is the name of the file (image) that is to be inserted.

Basic Structure of an HTML document

• An HTML document is divided into two sections:
o Head: The header information, such as, webpage title, metadata,
etc. goes here
o Body: The content of the webpage goes here
• A basic HTML document looks like this:
<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
The title of the webpage goes here
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
The content of the webpage goes here
</BODY>
</HTML>
• <!DOCTYPE HTML> defines the document type.
<HTML> is the root element, and it defines the whole HTML document. It
has a start tag <HTML> and an end tag </HTML>.
• <HEAD> is a container for metadata (data about data). HTML metadata is
data about the HTML document. Metadata is not displayed. Metadata
typically define the document title, character set, styles, scripts, and other
meta information.
• <TITLE> defines the title of the HTML document.
• <BODY> defines the body of the HTML document. The body constitutes the
content (text/ images/ audios/ videos, etc.) that we see on a webpage.

61
HTML Headings
• HTML headings are titles or subtitles that you want to display on a
webpage.
• HTML defines six levels of headings.
• The heading elements are <H1>, <H2>, <H3>, <H4>, <H5>, and <H6> with
<H1> being the highest (or most important) level and <H6> the least.
• A heading element implies all the font changes, paragraph breaks before
and after, and any white space necessary to render the heading.
• Example,
<h1>Heading 1</h1>
<h2>Heading 2</h2>
<h3>Heading 3</h3>
<h4>Heading 4</h4>
<h5>Heading 5</h5>
<h6>Heading 6</h6>

HTML Paragraphs
• The <P> element defines a paragraph.
• A paragraph is usually a block of text.
• A paragraph always starts on a new line, and browsers automatically add
some white space (a margin) before and after a paragraph.
• Example:
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
<p>This is another paragraph.</p>

HTML Comments
• HTML comments are not displayed in the browser, but they can help
document your HTML source code.
• You can add comments to your HTML source by using the following
syntax:
<!-- Write your comments here -->

Notice that there is an exclamation point (!) in the start tag, but not in the end
tag.

62
HTML Formatting Elements
Formatting elements were designed to display text that appears different from
rest of the text on the webpage:
• <b> - To mark the enclosed text as boldfaced
• <em> - To mark the enclosed text as emphasized
• <strong> - To mark the enclosed text as important
• <i> - To mark the enclosed text as italicized
• <u> - To mark the enclosed text as underlined
• <sub> - To mark the enclosed text as subscript (slightly below the base
line) e.g. H2O, H2SO4
• <sup> - To mark the enclosed text as superscript (slightly above the base
line) e.g. 23 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8

HTML Lists
• HTML lists allow to group a set of related items in lists.
• HTML allows you to create three types of lists:
o Ordered List or Numbered List
o Unordered List or Bulleted List
o Description List or Definition List or Glossary List

Ordered List or Numbered List

• The <OL> element is used to define an ordered list.
• The <OL> element is a container element, i.e., it has a start tag and an end
tag.
• The <LI> element is used to define each list item.
• Each list item in an ordered list starts with an Arabic numeral, by default.

Example Code Output

<OL> 1. Coffee
<LI>Coffee</LI> 2. Tea
<LI>Tea</LI> 3. Milk
<LI>Milk</LI>
</OL>

63
 • The type attribute may be used to change the numbering style before
each list item in an ordered list.

Example Code Output

<OL type = “i”> i. Coffee
<LI>Coffee</LI> ii. Tea
<LI>Tea</LI> iii. Milk
<LI>Milk</LI>
</OL>

• Possible values for the type attribute with the <OL> element are:

Value of the type attribute Numbering Style

<OL type = “1”> For Arabic numerals (default)
<OL type = “I”> For uppercase Roman numerals
<OL type = “i”> For lowercase Roman numerals
<OL type = “A”> For uppercase letters
<OL type = “a”> For lowercase letters

Unordered List or Bulleted List

• The <UL> element is used to define an unordered list.
• The <UL> element is a container element, i.e., it has a start tag and an end
tag.
• The <LI> element is used to define each list item.
• Each list item in an unordered list starts with a disc, by default.

Example Code Output

<UL> • Coffee
<LI>Coffee</LI> • Tea
<LI>Tea</LI> • Milk
<LI>Milk</LI>
</UL>

64
 • The type attribute may be used to change the bullet style before each list
item in an unordered list.

Example Code Output

<UL type = “circle”> o Coffee
<LI>Coffee</LI> o Tea
<LI>Tea</LI> o Milk
<LI>Milk</LI>
</UL>

• Possible values for the type attribute with the <UL> element are:

Value of the type attribute Bullet Style

<UL type = “disc”> For disc (default)

<UL type = “circle”> For circle
<UL type = “square”> For square

Description List or Definition List or Glossary List

• HTML Description List or Definition List displays elements in definition
form like in dictionary.
• The three HTML description list tags are given below:
o <DL> tag defines the description list.
o <DT> tag defines data term.
o <DD> tag defines data definition (description).

Example Code Output

<DL> Coffee
<DT>Coffee</DT> black hot drink
<DD>black hot drink</DD> Tea
<DT>Tea</DT> brown hot drink
<DD>brown hot drink</DD> Milk
<DT>Milk</DT> white cold drink
<DD>white cold drink</DD>
</DL>

65
HTML Images
• The HTML <img> element is used to embed an image in a web page.
• The <img> element is empty, it contains attributes only, and does not
have a closing tag.
• The <img> element has two required attributes:
o src - Specifies the path to the image
o alt - Specifies an alternate text for the image
• Syntax: <img src="image url" alt="alternatetext">

Image Size
You can use the style attribute to specify the width and height of an image.
<img src="img_girl.jpg" alt="Girl in a
jacket" style="width:500px;height:600px;">

Image Floating
Use the CSS float property to let the image float to the right or to the left of a
text.
Example:
<p><img src="smiley.gif" alt="Smiley
face" style="float:right;width:42px;height:42px;">
The image will float to the right of the text.</p>

<p><img src="smiley.gif" alt="Smiley

face" style="float:left;width:42px;height:42px;">
The image will float to the left of the text.</p>

Image as a link
To use an image as a link, put the <img> tag inside the <a> tag.
Example:
<a href="default.asp">
<img src="smiley.gif" alt="HTML
tutorial" style="width:42px;height:42px;">
</a>

66
HTML Links
• HTML links are hyperlinks. You can click on a link and jump to another
document.
• When you move the mouse over a link, the mouse arrow will turn into a
little hand.
• The HTML <a> element defines a hyperlink. It has the following syntax:
<a href="url">link text</a>
• The most important attribute of the <a> element is the href attribute,
which indicates the link's destination.
• The link text is the part that will be visible to the reader.
• Clicking on the link text, will send the reader to the specified URL address.

The target attribute

• The target attribute specifies where to open the linked document.
• By default, the linked page will be displayed in the current browser
window. To change this, you must specify another target for the link.
• The target attribute can have one of the following values:
o _self - Default. Opens the document in the same window/tab as it
was clicked
o _blank - Opens the document in a new window or tab
o _parent - Opens the document in the parent frame
o _top - Opens the document in the full body of the window

HTML Tables
• HTML tables allow web developers to arrange data into rows and
columns.
• To arrange the content in a tabular manner, we must use a combination
of the following HTML elements:
o <TABLE> - To start a table
o <TR> - To define a table row
o <TH> - To define a table header (topmost row with boldfaced and
centered text)
o <TD> - To define table data

67
 Example Code Output
<table>
<tr>
<th>S. No.</th>
<th>Name</th>
<th>House</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td>Aarav</td>
<td>Sagar</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td>Akshhat</td>
<td>Srishti</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3</td>
<td>Dhruv</td>
<td>Himgiri</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4</td>
<td>Taarini</td>
<td>Vasundhara</td>
</tr>
</table>

Note: There is no border around the table, by default.

68
Notes

69
Notes

70
Cascading Stylesheets
(CSS)

71
Learning Objectives
• What is CSS?
• CSS Syntax
• Ways to insert CSS
• Common CSS Properties

What is CSS?
• CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets.
• CSS describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper,
or in other media.
• CSS saves a lot of work.
• External stylesheets are stored in CSS files. With an external stylesheet
file, you can change the look of an entire website by changing just one
file!

CSS Syntax
• A CSS rule consists of a selector and a declaration block.

Picture Courtesy: https://www.w3schools.com/

• CSS selector: The selector points to the HTML element you want to style.
• Declaration block: The declaration block contains one or more
declarations separated by semicolons.
• Each declaration includes a CSS property name and a value, separated by
a colon.
• Multiple CSS declarations are separated with semicolons, and declaration
blocks are surrounded by curly braces.

72
Example
In this example all <p> elements will be center-aligned, with a red text color:
p
{
color:red;
text-align:center;
}

Example explained
p is a selector in CSS (it points to the HTML element you want to style: <p>).
color is a property, and red is the property value
text-align is a property, and center is the property value

Ways to Insert CSS

There are three ways of inserting a style sheet:
• Inline CSS
• Internal CSS
• External CSS

Inline CSS
An inline style may be used to apply a unique style for a single element. To use
inline styles, add the style attribute to the relevant element. The style attribute
can contain any CSS property.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>
<h1 style="color:blue;text-align:center;">This is a heading</h1>
<p style="color:red;">This is a paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>

where,

73
<h1> and <p> are the HTML elements,
style is the attribute,
color and text-align are the names of the CSS property and
blue and center are the values of the color and the text-align CSS property
respectively.

Internal CSS
An internal style sheet may be used if one single HTML page has a unique style.
The internal style is defined inside the <style> element, within the <head>
element.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
body
{
background-color:linen;
}
h1
{
color:maroon;
margin-left: 40px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading.</h1>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>

External CSS

74
Each HTML page must include a reference to the external style sheet file inside
the <link> element within the <head> element of an HTML document.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="mystyle.css">
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading.</h1>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>

An external style sheet can be written in any text editor and must be saved with
the .css extension. The .css file must not contain any HTML element.

Here is how the "mystyle.css" file looks:

"mystyle.css" is the name of the external style sheet file.

Example
body{
background-color:lightblue;
}
h1{
color:navy;
margin-left:20px;
}

Note: Do not add a space between the property value and the unit:
Incorrect (space): margin-left:20 px;
Correct (nospace): margin-left:20px;

Common CSS Properties

75
 S.
Property name Description
No.
1 background-color Specifies the background color of an element

2 background-image Specifies the background image for an element

3 border Gives the border around an element

4 border-color Sets the color of the four borders

5 color Sets the color of the text

Places an element on the left or right side of its
6 float container, allowing text and inline elements to wrap
around it
7 font-family Specifies the font family of the text

8 font-size Specifies the font size of the text

Specifies the font style of the text
9 font-style
Possible values are normal (default), italic, oblique
10 height Sets the height of an element
Specifies the horizontal alignment of text
11 text-align
Possible values are left (default), right, center, justify
12 width Sets the width of an element

Notes

76
77
Notes

78
Artificial Intelligence
(AI)

79
Learning Objectives
• What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
• Stages of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• Domains of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• Artificial Intelligence (AI)Ethics
• Ethical issues with Artificial Intelligence (AI)

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial intelligence (AI) involves using computers to do things that traditionally
require human intelligence. AI can process large amounts of data in ways that
humans cannot. The goal for AI is to be able to do things like recognize patterns,
make decisions, and judge like humans.

Picture Courtesy: https://www.bbntimes.com/

The field of AI research was founded during a summer

conference at Dartmouth College in the mid-1950s, where
John McCarthy, computer, and cognitive scientist, coined
the term “artificial intelligence.”

Picture Courtesy: https://www.computerhope.com/

80
Stages of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence can be categorized into several stages, depending upon the
role they play. In modern science, Artificial Intelligence has three stages. They
are as follows:
1. Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI)
2. Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
3. Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)

Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI)

• When Artificial Intelligence system is programmed in such a way that it
performs a set of instructions only for the specified data, then it is termed
as Artificial Narrow Intelligence.
• Artificial Narrow Intelligence doesn’t mean a dumb program; it is just that
it is made for a specific set of tasks.
• Let’s consider an example of a Virtual Assistant such as Siri, Alexa, and
Google Assistant. All these Virtual Assistants are programmed in such a
way that they can perform several tasks, but these tasks are limited only
to their respective devices, i.e., smartphones, tablets, etc. Suppose if you
ask Siri to make a call to your friend, it will make the call using the same
iPhone, it won’t use your landline, because, it simply can’t do it.

Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)

• When Artificial Intelligence system is programmed in such a way that it
can totally mimic human intelligence and behavior, then it is termed as
Artificial General Intelligence.
• Some researchers refer it to as “Strong AI” and “Full AI”. In simple words,
it is the Artificial Intelligence System that can totally work and take
decisions like human beings.
• In the present industry, no such system is available, but researchers and
scientists believe that in a few years, we will interact with such systems.

Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)

• When an Artificial Intelligence system is programmed in such a way that
its decision-making ability and the ability to mimic human intelligence is

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 way better than human, then it is termed as Super Intelligence. In simple
words, it is the system which surpasses human abilities.
• In the present industry, this type of system is available only in the form of
fictions. For example, in Avengers: Endgame (Movie), the Jarvis was able
to make decisions better than humans so that it can be considered as
Artificial Super Intelligence system.

Picture Courtesy: https://medium.com/

Domains of Artificial Intelligence

• To make machines artificially intelligent, training must be given to them.
Machines must be fed with data. The type of data that is fed into the
machine depends on the application for which the AI algorithm is being
developed.
• AI can broadly be categorized into three domains:
o Data Sciences
o Computer Vision
o Natural Language Processing (NLP)

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Data Sciences
• There is a vast amount of data available today. There are certain
questions, like:
o What does one do with all this data?
o How much sense does one make of this huge data?
o How do we make it useful to us?
o What are its applications in the real world?
• Data Science is the extraction of meaningful insights from raw data.
• Data Science uses various tools, algorithms, and machine learning
principles to discover hidden patterns from raw data.
• This is where the role of data scientists come into play. They sift through
a huge volume of data, looking for patterns for the data to make sense
and to draw meaning from it. Data scientists create models and make
predictions using various techniques and algorithms.
• Data Science can be used for:
o Automation o Fraud detection
o Forecasting o Giving
o Pattern detection recommendations
• Data Science plays an important role in several industries, such as,
healthcare, logistics, finance, entertainment, cybersecurity, etc.

Computer Vision
• Human beings use their eyes to see the world around them.
• Computer Vision means getting computers to “see” by using machine
learning and deep learning algorithms and models.
• Computer Vision is the field of study of how computers see and
understand digital images and videos.
• Computer Vision includes all tasks, such as, “seeing” or sensing a visual
stimulus, understanding what is being seen and extracting meaningful
information from it for further use.
• Computer Vision is used for:
o Facial recognition
o Searching images
o Robotics
o Self-driving vehicles

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Natural Language Processing (NLP)
• Computers do not speak language the way human beings do. They
communicate using millions of zeroes (0s) and ones (1s) called machine
code.

Picture Courtesy: https://datasciencedojo.com/

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Ethics

• Ethics is defined as the moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour.
They are the principles that guide us as to what is right and wrong and
prescribe what one ought to do, in terms of fairness, virtues, rights,
obligations, benefits to society, etc.
• AI ethics are simply ethics as they relate to AI.
• AI ethics refers to the issues that stakeholders (from engineers to
government officials)
need to consider ensuring
artificial intelligence
technology is developed
and used responsibly.
This means taking a safe,
secure, humane, and
environmentally friendly
approach to AI. Picture Courtesy: https://towardsai.net/

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Ethical issues with AI
1. Data security and privacy
Development of AI tools requires huge amount of data and includes
personal and private data. Large amount of data continues to be
generated and there always is a possibility of its misuse if it is not
adequately protected. Sensitive data, if falls in the hands of wrong
persons or institutions can cause a lot of harm to persons psychologically,
emotionally, and financially. It is important that the organizations
collecting this data take all measures to keep it safe.

2. Accountability
When an AI system fails to deliver an assigned task or delivers incorrectly,
who is to be held accountable? As AI is progressing and creating robots
with many advanced features, the question arises that if the robot makes
a mistake, who is to be held accountable? Should it be the individual who
programmed the robot? On the other hand, in deep learning, the
technology learns and grows on its own. Will it be ethical to hold the
programmer accountable?

3. Dependency
Human beings may start to experience cognitive decline if all problems
requiring intelligent solutions are left to machines. The dependency on
machines for performing tasks will increase. If the AI machines
malfunction, what would happen? This level of dependency on machines
would be a cause of concern.

4. Addiction
Already we are witnessing the addictions that AI-powered video games,
smart phones, AI-based apps are causing amongst people. These can
prevent people from using their time productively in doing other
productive tasks.

5. Unemployment and AI
Most people sell most of their waking time just to have enough income to
keep themselves and their families alive. The success of AI, because of the

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 amount of time it saves, will provide people the opportunity to spend
more time caring for their families, become involved in their communities
and experience new ways of contributing to human society.

Let’s take, for example, the trucking industry, where millions of people
are employed in the United States alone. If Tesla’s Elon Musk delivers on
his promise of offering true self-driving cars (and by extension, delivery
trucks) and they become widely available within the next decade, then
what’s going to happen to those millions of people? But self-driving trucks
do seem like an ethical option when we consider their ability to lower our
accident rates.

6. Distribution of wealth and AI

AI, if it becomes widely used, can reduce a company’s reliance on the
human workforce, which means that revenues will go primarily to people
who own AI-driven companies.

Already, we are seeing start-up founders take home most of the economic
surplus they generate. So how do we equitably distribute the wealth
created by machines?

7. Influence of machines over our behavior and interactions

AI bots are becoming more effective at imitating human relationships and
conversations. A breakthrough on this front occurred in 2015 when a bot
named Eugene Goostman became the first computer to pass the Turing
test. This challenge requires human raters to use text input to chat with
an unknown entity, and then guess whether the entity is human or
machine. Over half of the raters chatting with Eugene Goostman believed
it was human.

While this can prove very useful in nudging society toward more beneficial
behavior, it can also prove detrimental in the wrong hands.

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8. Possible Detrimental Mistakes and AI
Intelligence results from learning, whether you’re human or machine.
Systems normally have a training phase where they “learn” to detect the
right patterns and act according to their input. After the training phase,
the system then goes to the test phase where more scenarios are thrown
at it to see how it performs.

Because it is highly unlikely that the training phase can cover all the
possible scenarios that the system may encounter in the real world, the
system can be fooled in ways that humans wouldn’t be. Therefore, if we
are to rely on AI to replace human labor, we need to ensure it performs
as planned and cannot be overpowered by humans with selfish
intentions.

9. AI Bias
AI systems are created by humans, who can sometimes be very
judgmental and biased. Yes, AI, if used right, can become a catalyst for
positive change, but it can also fuel discrimination. AI has the capability of
speed and capacity processing that far exceeds the capabilities of
humans; however, due to human influence, it cannot always be trusted
to be neutral and fair.

So how do we address these ethical Issues?

Many believe that because AI is so powerful and ubiquitous, it is
imperative that it be tightly regulated. However, there is little consensus
about how this should be done. Who makes the rules? So far, companies
that develop and use AI systems are mostly self-policed. They rely on
existing laws and negative reactions from consumers and shareholders to
keep them in line. Is it realistic to continue this way? Obviously not, but
as it stands, regulatory bodies are not equipped with the AI expertise
necessary to oversee those companies.

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Notes

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Notes

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Bibliography

https://archive.org/

https://www.coursehero.com/

https://ncert.nic.in/

https://www.scribd.com/

https://www.teachmint.com/

https://www.udemy.com/

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