8 Boltzmann Equation : Worked Examples

(8.1) Consider a monatomic ideal gas in the presence of a temperature gradient ∇T . Answer the following
questions within the framework of the relaxation time approximation to the Boltzmann equation.

(a) Compute the particle current j and show that it vanishes.

(b) Compute the ‘energy squared’ current,
Z
jε2 = d3p ε2 v f (r, p, t) .

(c) Suppose the gas is diatomic, so cp = 27 kB . Show explicitly that the particle current j is zero. Hint: To do this,
you will have to understand the derivation of eqn. 8.93 in the Lecture Notes and how this changes when the
gas is diatomic. You may assume Qαβ = F = 0.

Solution :

(a) Under steady state conditions, the solution to the Boltzmann equation is f = f 0 + δf , where f 0 is the equilib-
rium distribution and
τ f 0 ε − cp T
δf = − · v · ∇T .
kB T T
For the monatomic ideal gas, cp = 52 kB . The particle current is
Z
j α = d3p v α δf
τ
∂T
Z
=− d3p f 0 (p) v α v β ε − 25 kB T
kB T 2 ∂xβ
2nτ ∂T
ε ε − 25 kB T


=− ,
3mkB T 2 ∂xα

where the average over momentum/velocity is converted into an average over the energy distribution,

dv
P̃ (ε) = 4πv 2 P (v) = √2 (k T )−3/2 ε1/2
π B
φ(ε) e−ε/kB T .
dε M
As discussed in the Lecture Notes, the average of a homogeneous function of ε under this distribution is given by

εα = √2π Γ α + 23 (kB T )α .

Thus, n
o
ε ε − 52 kB T √2 (kB T )2 Γ 7 5 5



= π 2 − 2 Γ 2 =0 .

(b) Now we must compute

Z
jεα2 = d3p v α ε2 δf
2nτ ∂T 3 5


=− ε ε − 2 k T .
3mkB T 2 ∂xα B

1
We then have n
o
ε3 ε − 25 kB T √2 (kB T )4 Γ 11 5 9 105
(kB T )4



= π 2 − 2 Γ 2 = 2

and so
35 nτ kB
jε2 = − (kB T )2 ∇T .
m

(c) For diatomic gases in the presence of a temperature gradient, the solution to the linearized Boltzmann equation
in the relaxation time approximation is

τ f 0 ε(Γ ) − cp T
δf = − · v · ∇T ,
kB T T

where
L21 + L22
ε(Γ ) = εtr + εrot = 12 mv 2 + ,
2I
where L1,2 are components of the angular momentum about the instantaneous body-fixed axes, with I ≡ I1 =
I2 ≫ I3 . We assume the rotations about axes 1 and 2 are effectively classical, so equipartition gives hεrot i =
2 × 12 kB = kB . We still have hεtr i = 23 kB . Now in the derivation of the factor ε(ε − cp T ) above, the first factor of ε
came from the v α v β term, so this is translational kinetic energy. Therefore, with cp = 27 kB now, we must compute

εtr εtr + εrot − 27 kB T = εtr εtr − 25 kB T

=0 .

So again the particle current vanishes.

Note added :

It is interesting to note that there is no particle current flowing in response to a temperature gradient when τ is
energy-independent. This is a consequence of the fact that the pressure gradient ∇p vanishes. Newton’s Second
Law for the fluid says that nmV̇ + ∇p = 0, to lowest relevant order. With ∇p 6= 0, the fluid will accelerate.
In a pipe, for example, eventually a steady state is reached where the flow is determined by the fluid viscosity,
which is one of the terms we just dropped. (This is called Poiseuille flow.) When p is constant, the local equilibrium
distribution is
p/kB T 2
f 0 (r, p) = e−p /2mkB T ,
(2πmkB T )3/2
where T = T (r). We then have
f (r, p) = f 0 (r − vτ, p) ,
which says that no new collisions happen for a time τ after a given particle thermalizes. I.e. we evolve the stream-
ing terms for a time τ . Expanding, we have

τ p ∂f 0
f = f0 − · + ...
 m ∂r 
τ
p
= 1− ε(p) − 5
k
2 B T ·∇T + . . . f 0 (r, p) ,
2kB T 2 m

which leads to j = 0, assuming the relaxation time τ is energy-independent.

When the flow takes place in a restricted geometry, a dimensionless figure of merit known as the Knudsen number,
Kn = ℓ/L, where ℓ is the mean free path and L is the characteristic linear dimension associated with the geometry.
For Kn ≪ 1, our Boltzmann transport calculations of quantities like κ, η, and ζ hold, and we may apply the
Navier-Stokes equations1 . In the opposite limit Kn ≫ 1, the boundary conditions on the distribution are crucial.
Consider, for example, the case ℓ = ∞. Suppose we have ideal gas flow in a cylinder whose symmetry axis is x̂.
1 These equations may need to be supplemented by certain conditions which apply in the vicinity of solid boundaries.

2
Particles with vx > 0 enter from the left, and particles with vx < 0 enter from the right. Their respective velocity
distributions are  3/2
m 2
Pj (v) = nj e−mv /2kB Tj ,
2πkB Tj
where j = L or R. The average current is then
Z n o
jx = d3v nL vx PL (v) Θ(vx ) + nR vx PR (v) Θ(−vx )
r r
2kB TL 2kB TR
= nL − nR .
m m

3
(8.2) Consider a classical gas of charged particles in the presence of a magnetic field B. The Boltzmann equation
is then given by
 
ε−h 0 e ∂ δf df
2
f v · ∇T − v×B· = .
kB T mc dv dt coll

Consider the case where T = T (x) and B = B ẑ. Making the relaxation time approximation, show that a solution
to the above equation exists in the form δf = v · A(ε), where A(ε) is a vector-valued function of ε(v) = 21 mv 2
which lies in the (x, y) plane. Find the energy current jε . Interpret your result physically.

Solution : We’ll use index notation and the Einstein summation convention for ease of presentation. Recall that
the curl is given by (A × B)µ = ǫµνλ Aν Bλ . We write δf = vµ Aµ (ε), and compute

∂ δf ∂Aα
= Aλ + vα
∂vλ ∂vλ
∂Aα
= Aλ + mvλ vα .
∂ε
Thus,
∂ δf ∂ δf
v×B· = ǫµνλ vµ Bν
∂v ∂v
 λ 
∂Aα
= ǫµνλ vµ Bν Aλ + mvλ vα
∂ε
= ǫµνλ vµ Bν Aλ .

We then have
ε−h 0 e vµ Aµ
2
f vµ ∂µ T = ǫµνλ vµ Bν Aλ − .
kB T mc τ
Since this must be true for all v, we have
eBτ (ε − h) τ 0
Aµ − ǫ n A =− f ∂µ T ,
mc µνλ ν λ kB T 2

where B ≡ B n̂. It is conventional to define the cyclotron frequency, ωc = eB/mc, in which case


δµν + ωc τ ǫµνλ nλ Aν = Xµ ,

where X = −(ε − h) τ f 0 ∇T /kB T 2 . So we must invert the matrix

Mµν = δµν + ωc τ ǫµνλ nλ .

To do so, we make the Ansatz,

−1
Mνσ = A δνσ + B nν nσ + C ǫνσρ nρ ,
and we determine the constants A, B, and C by demanding
−1



Mµν Mνσ = δµν + ωc τ ǫµνλ nλ A δνσ + B nν nσ + C ǫνσρ nρ




= A − C ωc τ δµσ + B + C ωc τ nµ nσ + C + A ωc τ ǫµσρ nρ ≡ δµσ .

Here we have used the result

ǫµνλ ǫνσρ = ǫνλµ ǫνσρ = δλσ δµρ − δλρ δµσ ,
as well as the fact that n̂ is a unit vector: nµ nµ = 1. We can now read off the results:

A − C ωc τ = 1 , B + C ωc τ = 0 , C + A ωc τ = 0 ,

4
which entail
1 ωc2 τ 2 ωc τ
A= , B= , C=− .
1 + ωc2 τ 2 1 + ωc2 τ 2 1 + ωc2 τ 2
So we can now write
−1
δµν + ωc2 τ 2 nµ nν − ωc τ ǫµνλ nλ
Aµ = Mµν Xν = Xν .
1 + ωc2 τ 2
The α-component of the energy current is

d3p 2 d3p 2
Z Z
jεα = v v ε Aµ (ε) = ε Aα (ε) ,
h3 α µ 3m h3
2
where we have replaced vα vµ → 3m ε δαµ . Next, we use

2 d3p 2 5τ 2 ∂T
Z
3
ε Xν = − k T ,
3m h 3m B ∂xν

hence
5τ kB2 T  2 2

jε = − ∇T + ω c τ n̂ (n̂·∇T ) + ω c τ n̂ × ∇T .
3m 1 + ωc2 τ 2
We are given that n̂ = ẑ and ∇T = T ′ (x) x̂. We see that the energy current jε is flowing both along −x̂ and along
−ŷ. Why does heat flow along ŷ? It is because the particles are charged, and as they individually flow along −x̂,
there is a Lorentz force in the −ŷ direction, so the energy flows along −ŷ as well.

5
(8.3) Consider one dimensional motion according to the equation
ṗ + γp = η(t) ,

and compute the average p4 (t) . You should assume that

η(s1 ) η(s2 ) η(s3 ) η(s4 ) = φ(s1 − s2 ) φ(s3 − s4 ) + φ(s1 − s3 ) φ(s2 − s4 ) + φ(s1 − s4 ) φ(s2 − s3 )

where φ(s) = Γ δ(s). You may further assume that p(0) = 0.

Solution :

Integrating the Langevin equation, we have

Zt
p(t) = dt1 e−γ(t−t1 ) η(t1 ) .
0

Raising this to the fourth power and taking the average, we have

Zt Zt Zt Zt
4 −γ(t−t1 ) −γ(t−t2 ) −γ(t−t3 )
p (t) = dt1 e dt2 e dt3 e dt4 e−γ(t−t4 ) η(t1 ) η(t2 ) η(t3 ) η(t4 )
0 0 0 0
Zt Zt
3Γ2
2
= 3Γ 2 dt1 e−2γ(t−t1 ) dt2 e−2γ(t−t2 ) = 1 − e−2γt .
4 γ2
0 0

We have here used the fact that the three contributions to the average of the product of the four η’s each contribute
the same amount to hp4 (t)i. Recall Γ = 2M γkBT , where M is the mass of the particle. Note that
2
p4 (t) = 3 p2 (t) .

6
(8.4) A photon gas in equilibrium is described by the distribution function
2
f 0 (p) = ,
ecp/kB T − 1
where the factor of 2 comes from summing over the two independent polarization states.

(a) Consider a photon gas (in three dimensions) slightly out of equilibrium, but in steady state under the influ-
ence of a temperature gradient ∇T . Write f = f 0 + δf and write the Boltzmann equation in the relaxation
time approximation. Remember that ε(p) = cp and v = ∂∂εp = cp̂, so the speed is always c.

(b) What is the formal expression for the energy current, expressed as an integral of something times the distri-
bution f ?
(c) Compute the thermal conductivity κ. It is OK for your expression to involve dimensionless integrals.

Solution :

(a) We have
2cp eβcp 2cp eβcp dT
df 0 = − βcp 2
dβ = βcp
.
(e − 1) (e − 1) kB T 2
2

0
 
The steady state Boltzmann equation is v · ∂f
∂r =
∂f
∂t , hence with v = cp̂,
coll

2 c2 ecp/kB T 1 δf
cp/k T 2
p · ∇T = − .
(e B − 1) kB T
2 τ

(b) The energy current is given by

d3p 2
Z
jε (r) = c p f (p, r) .
h3

(c) Integrating, we find

2c4 τ p2 ecp/kB T
Z
3
κ= 3 d p
3h kB T 2 (ecp/kB T − 1)2
3 Z∞
s4 e s

8πkB τ kB T
= ds s
3c hc (e − 1)2
0
3 Z∞
s3

4kB τ kB T
= ds s ,
3π 2 c hc e −1
0

where we simplified the integrand somewhat using integration by parts. The integral may be computed in closed
form:
Z∞
sn π4
In = ds s = Γ(n + 1) ζ(n + 1) ⇒ I3 = ,
e −1 15
0

and therefore 3
π 2 kB τ

kB T
κ= .
45 c hc

7
(8.5) Suppose the relaxation time is energy-dependent, with τ (ε) = τ0 e−ε/ε0 . Compute the particle current j and
energy current jε flowing in response to a temperature gradient ∇T .

Solution :

Now we must compute

jα vα
  Z  
3
= dp δf
jεα ε vα
2n ∂T nεo
τ (ε) 2 ε − 52 kB T


=− 2 α
,
3mkB T ∂x ε

where τ (ε) = τ0 e−ε/ε0 . We find

Z∞
1
α
e −ε/ε0
ε = √2
π
(kB T ) −3/2
dε εα+ 2 e−ε/kB T e−ε/ε0
0
 α+ 32
ε0
√2 Γ α + 23 (kB T )α


= π
.
ε0 + kB T

Therefore,
 5/2
−ε/ε0 3 ε0
e ε = kB T 2
ε0 + kB T
 7/2
−ε/ε0 2 15 2 ε0
e ε = 4 (kB T )
ε0 + kB T
 9/2
ε0
e−ε/ε0 ε3 = 105
8 (kB T )3
ε0 + kB T

and
5/2
5nτ0 kB2 T ε0
j= ∇T
2m (ε0 + kB T )7/2
7/2 
5nτ0 kB2 T
 
ε0 2ε0 − 5kB T
jε = − ∇T .
4m ε0 + kB T ε0 + kB T
√
The previous results are obtained by setting ε0 = ∞ and τ0 = 1/ 2 nv̄σ. Note the strange result that κ becomes
negative for kB T > 52 ε0 .

8
(8.6) Use the linearized Boltzmann equation to compute the bulk viscosity ζ of an ideal gas.

(a) Consider first the case of a monatomic ideal gas. Show that ζ = 0 within this approximation. Will your
result change if the scattering time is energy-dependent?
(b) Compute ζ for a diatomic ideal gas.

Solution :

According to the Lecture Notes, the solution to the linearized Boltzmann equation in the relaxation time approxi-
mation is
τf0
 
∂Vα
kB
δf = − mv α v β − ε tr + ε rot ∇·V .
kB T ∂xβ cV
We also have
Tr Π = nm hv 2 i = 2n hεtr i = 3p − 3ζ ∇·V .
We then compute Tr Π:

Tr Π = 2n hεtr i = 3p − 3ζ ∇·V
Z
= 2n dΓ (f 0 + δf ) εtr

The f 0 term yields a contribution 3nkB T = 3p in all cases, which agrees with the first term on the RHS of the
equation for Tr Π. Therefore Z
2
ζ ∇·V = − 3 n dΓ δf εtr .

(a) For the monatomic gas, Γ = {px , py , pz }. We then have

 
2nτ α β ∂Vα ε
Z
3 0
ζ∇·V = d p f (p) ε mv v − ∇·V
3kB T ∂xβ cV /kB
2nτ D 2 kB  E
= 3 − cV ε ∇·V = 0 .
3kB T

Here we have replaced mv α v β → 31 mv 2 = 32 εtr under the integral. If the scattering time is energy dependent, then
we put τ (ε) inside the energy integral when computing the average, but this does not affect the final result: ζ = 0.

(b) Now we must include the rotational kinetic energy in the expression for δf , and we have cV = 52 kB . Thus,
 
2nτ ∂Vα
k
Z
0 α β
ζ∇·V = dΓ f (Γ ) εtr mv v β
− εtr + εrot B ∇·V
3kB T ∂x cV
2nτ 2 2
D
k
E
= ε − B ε + εrot εtr ∇·V ,
3kB T 3 tr cV tr

and therefore
2nτ
ζ= 4
15 ε2tr − 25 kB T εtr = 4
15 nτ kB T .
3kB T

9
(8.7) Consider a two-dimensional gas of particles with dispersion ε(k) = Jk2, where k is the wavevector. The
particles obey photon statistics, so µ = 0 and the equilibrium distribution is given by
1
f 0 (k) = .
eε(k)/kB T −1

(a) Writing f = f 0 + δf , solve for δf (k) using the steady state Boltzmann equation in the relaxation time
approximation,
∂f 0 δf
v· =− .
∂r τ
1 ∂ε
Work to lowest order in ∇T . Remember that v = ~ ∂k is the velocity.
(b) Show that j = −λ ∇T , and find an expression for λ. Represent any integrals you cannot evaluate as dimen-
sionless expressions.
(c) Show that jε = −κ ∇T , and find an expression for κ. Represent any integrals you cannot evaluate as
dimensionless expressions.

Solution :

(a) We have

∂f 0 ∂f 0
δf = −τ v · = −τ v·∇T
∂r ∂T
2τ J 2 k 2 eε(k)/kB T
=−
k·∇T
~ kB T 2 eε(k)/kB T − 1 2

(b) The particle current is

2J d2k µ ∂T
Z
µ
j = 2
k δf (k) = −λ µ
~ (2π) ∂x
2
4τ J 3 ∂T d2k 2 µ ν eJk /kB T
Z
=− 2 k k k
2
~ kB T 2 ∂xν (2π)2 2
eJk /kB T − 1

We may now send k µ k ν → 12 k 2 δ µν under the integral. We then read off

2
2τ J 3 d2k 4 eJk /kB T
Z
λ= k
2
~2 kB T 2 (2π)2 2
eJk /kB T − 1
Z∞
τ kB2 T s2 e s ζ(2) τ kB2 T
= ds 2 = .
π~2 π ~2


es − 1
0

Here we have used

Z∞ Z∞
sα e s α sα−1
ds
2 = ds s = Γ(α + 1) ζ(α) .
es − 1 e −1
0 0

(c) The energy current is

2J d2k ∂T
Z
jεµ = Jk 2 k µ δf (k) = −κ µ .
~ (2π)2 ∂x

10
We therefore repeat the calculation from part (c), including an extra factor of Jk 2 inside the integral. Thus,
2
2τ J 4 d2k 6 eJk /kB T
Z
κ= k
2
~2 kB T 2 (2π)2 2
eJk /kB T − 1
Z∞
τ kB3 T 2 s3 e s 6 ζ(3) τ kB3 T 2
= 2
ds
2 = .
π~ es − 1 π ~2
0

11