Chapter # 20:

Reproduction
Reproduction:
Reproduction is the biological process in which living organism produces off spring its own kind or
new organism and continue his race.
Types of reproduction:
There are two types of reproduction found in living organisms.
 Asexual Reproduction.
 Sexual Reproduction.
Asexual reproduction:
The method of producing new individuals that doesn’t involve sexes, fusion of the nuclei of two
different kinds of gametes and fertilization and zygote formation called asexual reproduction.
During asexual reproduction genetic monotony of species take place and offspring is exact copy of
their parent.
Sexual Reproduction:
The method of reproduction in which sexes are involve, fusion of gametes (fertilization), and zygote
formation is take place called sexual reproduction.
During sexual reproduction genetic variation is take place and offspring is not exact copy of their off
spring.
Human reproductive system:
Man is Diocious or Unisexual or Heterophrodite organism, so single individual has single sex. Man
has a highly developed and complex reproductive system. The reproductive system of man is divided
into male & female reproductive system.
Male reproductive system:
The male reproductive system includes:
 Gonads (testes)
 Accessory ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct and urethra)
 Accessory gland (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands)
 External genitalia or Copulatory organ (penis)
Gonads (Testes):
Testes are male gonads which produce sperms as well as sex hormones e.g. Testosterone. Man has
one pair testes present outside of body between Thais. Testes are suspended with the abdomen within
a skin pouch called scrotum.
The scrotum acts as climate control system for the testes, because for the normal sperm development,
the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the body temperature. The process of sperm
production, (spermatogenesis) is most efficient around 34°C, three degrees cooler than the body
temperature
Anatomy of testes:
Both testes are surrounded by strong connective tissue layer called tunica albuginea. Each testis is
divided into 250 to 300 lobules or chambers called testicular chamber. Each lobule or chamber
contains one to four tightly coiled seminiferous tubules. Seminiferous tubule is composed of two types
of cells.
 Germ cell or sertoli cell.
 Interstitial or leydig cell.
Function:
The process of spermatogenesis takes place
in germ or sertoli cells of the seminiferous
tubules. Between the seminiferous tubules
interstitial cells or leydig cells are present.
They produce male sex hormone called
testosterone.
Accessory ducts:
All the seminiferous tubules are combined
together to form about 10 to 20 tubules
called vasa efferentia which are open into
rete testis that collect sperms from
seminiferous tubules and transfer them to
the epididymis.
Epididymis:
The epididymis is a highly coiled ducts
which present outside of body with the
each testis. These ducts have an uncoiled
length of about 6 m (20 feet). The
epididymis functions in the transport and
storage of the sperm. Here the sperm are
stored temporarily, nourished and they gain
the ability to swim.
Ductus deferens:
Epididymis opens into another thick walled duct called ductus deferens (sperm duct or vas deferens).
They are one pair and present half outside and half inside of body. The posterior part of ductus
deferens is swollen called ampulla which serve as reservoir. It moves deep into the pelvic cavity and
then joins with the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the short ejaculatory duct.
Ejaculatory duct:
It is short hollow tube produce by joining excretory duct of seminal vesical and ampulla of ductus
deferens. Each ejaculatory duct enters the prostate gland where it enter into the urethra.
Urethra:
The urethra is the terminal portion of the male duct system and is also called urinogenital duct as it
carries urine as well as sperm fluid. It opens to the outside at the external urethral opening of the
penis. It discharge urine and semen both outside the body.
Accessary Glands:
Seminal Vesicles:
A pair of seminal vesicles is located at the junction of sperm duct and ejaculatory duct. They produce
an alkaline fluid containing fructose sugar, ascorbic acid and a coagulating enzyme called vesiculase,
as well as other substances that enhance sperm motility thus improve their fertilizing power. It
contribute 60% of total volume of semen.
Prostate Gland:
These are walnut size large gland that are located at the junction of urinary bladder and urethra. It
secrete milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citrate as a nutrient source directly into urethra which
enhance motility of sperm.
Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's gland):
A pair of pea sized bulbourethral gland (Cowper's gland) is situated at the junction of ejaculatory duct
and urethra. It secretes mucus and an alkaline fluid into the urethra. The alkaline fluid neutralizes the
acidity of urine in the urethra and lubricates path for sperms.
External genitalia or Copulatory organ (Penis):
Penis is long cylindrical structure which has Glans or head at the tip. Glans is highly sensitive tissue
and contain opening of urethra. It may be covered by fold of skin called foreskin. Central part of penis
is called shaft that consist of erectile tissue. The root of penis is attach with pelvic part. It is used to
transfer sperms into the female reproductive tract during copulation.
Spermatogenesis:
The formation of sperm through germ
cell of testis by meiosis is called
spermatogenesis. It is take place in
seminiferous tubule of testes. During
this process germ cell (undifferentiated
cell) or spermatogonia (2n) divide by
mitosis and produce two identical
cells. One cell maintains the germ cell
line while other cell is convert into
primary spermatocyte (2n). Each
primary spermatocyte undergoes
meiosis l, forming two smaller haploid
cells (n) called secondary
spermatocytes. Each secondary
spermatocyte after meiosis II produces
two daughter cells called spermatids.
Each spermatid is a round, non-motile
haploid cell (n) which after maturation
transform into mature sperm by
reshaping the nucleus and formation of
acrosome (contains enzyme crucial for
fertilization) During this process a
spermatid elongates, sheds its excess
cytoplasm, and forms a tail and
develop into motile spermatozoa.
The process begins around the age of 12 years in males (puberty), and continues throughout life.
Every day, a healthy adult male makes about 400 million sperms.
Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive system:
The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones. The primary hormones which
involved in Hypothalamus the functioning of the male reproductive system are:
 Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
 Luteinizing Hormone (LH).
 Testosterone.
 Inhibin hormone.
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH):
GnRH is release from hypothalamus which stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete FSH and
LH. The releasing of GnRH is take place due to negative feedback system. When testosterone level
in blood is low GnRH stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete LH to stimulate the production
of testosterone. As testosterone level is high in blood they inhibit the secretion of GnRH.
Follicular Stimulating Hormone (FSH):
FSH secreted by the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain. It effect on testes in male. FSH
promote the development of testes and production of testosterone by sertoli in seminiferous tubule.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
LH also secreted by anterior
pituitary gland due to stimulation
of GnRH. LH stimulate the
production of testosterone by
Leydig cells of seminiferous
tubule which is necessary to
continue the process of
spermatogenesis.
Testosterone:
Testosterone is the primary male
sex hormone secreted by testes.
It helps to the development of
testes, prostate gland and
seminal vesicles. Testosterone
also helps in the development of
secondary sexual characteristics like deepening of voice, development of muscles mass and strength,
fat distribution, bone mass and growth of facial and body hair.
Inhibin Hormone:
Inhibin hormone is produced by the sertoli cells and controls the spermatogenesis at normal rate. In
addition, inhibin acts on the anterior pituitary gland to reduce FSH secretion.

Female Reproductive System:

The reproductive role of the female is far more complex than that of a male. She not only has to
produce gametes, but her body must be prepared to nurture a developing embryo for a period of
approximately nine months. Female reproductive system includes,
 Gonads (a pair of ovaries).
 Oviducts.
 Uterus.
 Vagina.
1. Gonads (Ovaries):
Ovaries are female gonads
which produce ova as well as
endocrine gland releases two
types of hormones. Ovaries are
oval shape structure which flank
the uterus on each side and held
in place within the peritoneal
cavity (Female pelvic part) by
several ligaments of mesentery.
They measure about 3.5 cm
long and 2.3 cm wide. Many
tiny sac like structures within each ovary called ovarian follicles each of which consists of an
immature egg the oocyte. There are approximately 200,000 potential (follicles) cells are already
present at birth in both ovaries. Only about 400 to 500 will ever become mature ovum and released
from puberty to menopause. Usually, only one egg is released every month from alternate ovary.
Structure:
Ovaries are oval shape structure. The grey mass of the ovary is produce by the germ cell. It also
contains specialized cells called follicular cell. These cells are arranged in ring pattern. They are help
in the maturation of ovum and also secrete female sex hormone.
Function:
 Germ cell of ovary produce the ovum by a process called Oogenesis.
 The follicular cell of ovary release female sex hormone which brought the change in both utters
and ovary.
Oviduct:
It is also known as fallopian tube or uterine tube. Female reproductive system has one pair tubes
located in pelvic region of abdomen called oviduct. Each oviduct is 10 cm long, present nearby each
ovary having ciliated and non-ciliate cells. The open end of oviduct is a fringed with ciliated fingers
surround the whole ovary called fimbriae. They receive the ovulated oocyte and are the site where
fertilization generally occurs. The oocyte is carried toward the uterus by a combination of muscular
peristalsis and the beating of the cilia. Non-ciliated cells produce a secretion that keeps the oocyte
(and sperm, if present) moist and nourished.
Uterus:
The uterus or womb is a hollow, muscular organ, shaped somewhat like an inverted pear lie between
bladder and rectum. The size of uterus is equal to the female fist but at the last stage of gestation its
size is 15ʺ×18ʺ×8ʺ. The uterus has three portions the fundus, the body and the cervix. The oviducts
join the uterus just below the fundus and the opening of the cervix leads to the vaginal canal.
Wall structure of uterus:
The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers.
 The perimetrium is the outermost thin covering layer of the uterus.
 The myometrium is the middle thick muscular layer composed of bundles of smooth muscle, which
contracts rhythmically during childbirth to expel the baby from the mother's body.
 The endometrium is the inner spongy lining of the uterine cavity. If fertilization occurs, the young
embryo is implanted into the endometrium and resides there for the rest of its development.
The main functions of uterus are to receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized ovum. Cervix is a narrow
entrance to the uterus from the vagina. It is normally blocked by a plug of mucus.
Vagina:
The vagina is a thin-walled 8-10 cm long tube and extends from the cervix to the exterior of body. In
virgin females, generally the vaginal orifice is partially closed by a thin membrane called the hymen.
Vagina is often called the birth canal as it provides a passageway for delivery of an infant and for
menstrual flow.
The opening of the vagina is the vulva (External genitalia). Semen is deposited in the vagina by male
during copulation.
The Ovarian cycle:
Human female do not under goes a seasonal oestrous cycle as lower mammals do. Instead of that
human female released one egg after about every 28 days known as ovarian cycle.
Ovarian cycle leads to change ovarian follicle to secondary follicle and finally Graafian or vesicular
follicle. These changes are take place under the influence of FSH (Follicular Stimulating Hormone)
and LH (Luteinizing Hormone)
 Primary follicle is comprised of primary oocyte wrapped by epithelial cells.
 Secondary follicle is characterized by follicular fluid pools that surround the oocyte.
 Vesicular follicle is characterized by cavity filled with fluid.
Oogenesis:
The formation of egg (Ovum) from ovary by meiosis is called oogenesis. This process starts when the
individual is at the stage of fetus.
Process:
 In that period the oogonia (diploid stem cells of the ovaries) multiply rapidly by mitosis and then
enter a growth phase.
 Gradually the oogonia are transformed into
primary oocytes and become surrounded by
a single
layer of follicle cells.
 The primary oocytes begin the first meiotic
division, but prophase I do not complete.
They remain in this state all through
childhood at least 10 to 14 years.
 At puberty, a small number of primary
oocytes are recruited each month, however,
only one is selected each time to continue
meiosis l, ultimately producing two haploid
cells that are quite unequal in size.
 The larger cell, which contains nearly all the
cytoplasm is the secondary oocyte. The
smaller cell is called the first polar body.
 In humans the secondary oocyte is ovulated.
 If an ovulated secondary oocyte is not
penetrated by a sperm, it simply deteriorates.
 But, if sperm penetration does occur,
secondary oocyte quickly completes meiosis
yielding one large mature ovum and a tiny second polar body.
Menstruation cycle Or Reproductive Cycle:
Menstruation cycle is complex physiological process started after puberty of female (reproductive
age). It involves series of hormonal and physiological events that prepare the body for possible
pregnancy. This cycle is completed in 28 days and repeated every month. At the age of 45-50 this
cycle is permanently stopped and condition is known as menopause.
Phases of menstruation cycle:
Based upon changes and hormonal regulation the cycle can be divided into three phases
1. Menstruation phase.
2. Proliferative phase.
3. Secretory phase.
1. Menstruation phase (Days: 1-5)
It is first and small phase of menstruation cycle. Menstruation phase start with bleeding that is
discharge of blood, cell debris and discarded tissues through vagina. It is take place when body
chemically aware that fertilization is not take place. The corpus luteum is degenerated and secretion
of progesterone is stopped. It causes the breakdown of soft tissue lining uterus the endometrium. The
detached endometrium tissue and blood including unfertilized ovum pass out through the vagina as
the menstrual flow. The first day of menstrual flow taken as beginning of menstrual cycle. This phase
last about 5 days from day-1 to day-5.
2. Proliferative / Pre-Ovulatory Phase (Days: 6-14)
It is second and comparatively long phase of menstruation cycle. This phase initiated by the secretion
of FSH (Follicular Stimulated Hormone) from anterior pituitary gland.
Follicle Stimulation: Through the influence of a rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) during
the first days of the cycle, a few ovarian follicles are stimulated. The stimulated follicles compete
with each other for dominance. As a result all but one of these follicles stop to grow and finally
disintegrate through process follicle atresia.
Follicle Maturation: Dominant follicle in the ovary continue to mature and becomes Graafian follicle
or vesicular follicle in which oogenesis occurs.
Vascularization of Endometrium: FSH also stimulates the Graafian follicle to secrete estrogen
(First female sex hormone). Estrogen governs the vascularization of endometrial lining of uterine
wall. Consequently the endometrium once again becomes velvety, thick and well vascularized.
Thinning of Cervical Mucus:
Normally cervical mucus is thick and sticky but rising estrogen levels cause it to thin and become
more fluid and transparent forming channels that facilitate the passage of sperm into the uterus.
Ovulation: Estrogen has negative feedback upon FSH. As the concentration of estrogen rises in the
blood the level of FSH falls. This is a signal for anterior pituitary to release LH at the end of the
proliferative stage (day 14). The sudden release of LH from the anterior pituitary causes the release
of developing egg from the Graafian follicle into the oviduct. This event is known as ovulation and
takes place less than five minutes.
Formation of Corpus Luteum: LH converts the ruptured follicle to a yellowish glandular mass
called corpus luteum.
3. Secretory / Post-ovulatory Phase (Days: 15-28)
It is third and longest phase of menstruation cycle which is take place after ovulation. During the
secretory phase, the endometrium prepares for implantation of an embryo.
Formation of Uterine Glands: Rising levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum act on the
endometrium. It causes the arteries to elaborate and converting the functional layer to a glandular
secretory layer (uterine glands). The uterine glands enlarge, coil and begin secreting nutritious
glycogen into the uterine cavity. These nutrients sustain the embryo until it has implanted in the blood
rich endometrial lining.
Degeneration of Corpus Luteum: If fertilization has not occurred, the corpus luteum begins to
degenerate toward the end of the secretory phase as LH blood level declines. Progesterone levels fall
depriving the endometrium of hormonal support and endometrial cells die, setting the stage for
menstruation to begin on day 28.
Fertilization and Pregnancy:
If fertilization is take place before
next menstruation than zygote is
develop which transform into
embryo. The embryo undergoes
development and migrate
towards uterus where it implants
itself with the lining of prepared
endometrial lining.
A discoid tissue is develop
between embryonic and maternal
tissue called placenta. It facilitate
exchange of gases and nutrition
between mother and foetus
circulation. In other hand corpus
luteum sustain their secretion for
development of foetus. Later on placenta secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) than
progesterone and estrogen till to end of pregnancy.
Progesterone and estrogen have dual functions, inhibiting pituitary secretion to prevent the formation
of new follicle and sustained the endometrial lining of uterus. Process of menstruation is ceased during
pregnancy.
Disorders of reproductive system:
Human reproductive system is the complex of various organs and hormones that works together.
Various disorders can affects the proper functioning of reproductive system.
Infertility:
Infertility is the failure to achieve pregnancy after one year regular and unprotected sexual intercourse.
It can be affect the both male and female.
 Male infertility.
 Female infertility.
Causes of Male Infertility:
a. Abnormal sperm production and functions:
Microscopic examination shows typical conditions of sperm in semen.
 Azoospermia is the state of having no sperms. It is the cause of about 5% of male infertility.
 Oligospermia is the state of less amount of sperms. Sperm count below 20 million/ml called
oligospermia. More than 90% of male infertility is due to low sperm count.
 Sperm deformities is the morphological changes in shape of sperms are called sperm deformities.
It is usual for a small proportion of sperm to be abnormal.
b. Ejaculation disorders:
The problem in ejaculation and erectile dysfunction such as retrograde in which sperm enter into
bladder rather than expelled cause male infertility.
c. Obstruction:
Blockage in the male reproductive system such in vas deference due to congenital or infection cause
male infertile.
d. Life style:
Certain life style such as alcohol abuse, excessive smoking, drugs, obesity and prolong exposure in
toxic and high temperature environment.
Causes of Female Infertility:
a. Failure to Ovulation:
Irregular and absence of ovulation can be cause due to hormonal imbalance, ploy cystic ovarian
disease, thyroid disorders and premature ovarian failure are develop the female infertility.
b. Blocked Fallopian Tube:
In some females the infertility is due to the blockage of fallopian tube which hinders transport of
ovum and fertilization. It may be due to infections, endometriosis and previous pelvic surgeries.
c. Uterus and cervical issues:
In some females the infertility is caused by problems with the uterus or cervix. It prevent the
implantation and entering of sperm. It cause by fibrosis, polyps and cervical stenosis.
d. Endometriosis:
It is a condition where endometrium start growing in other places such as the ovaries, fallopian tube
and pelvic organ. Endometriosis can cause inflammation, scaring and structural abnormalities leading
infertility.
e. Age related factors:
As women old than quality and quantity of their egg is decline and very difficult to conceive.
Advancement maternal age is associated with the high risk of infertility.
Treatment of infertility:
Where environmental factors such as smoking, obesity and stress are involved, treatment is aimed at
removing or reducing the factor responsible. A number of treatments are available e.g. surgical,
hormone treatments, in vitro fertilization etc.
In Vitro Fertilization (Test-tube baby Technique)
In vitro fertilization (IVF) means fertilization outside of the female body or in a test tube. IVF is the
most effective types of assisted reproductive technology. It is often used when a woman's fallopian
tubes are blocked or when a man produces too few sperm. This is commonly known as the test-tube
baby technique.
The technique involves fertilizing one or more eggs outside the body and then transferring the
fertilized eggs known as 'pre-embryos, back into the uterus i.e., embryo transfer.
Steps of IVF:
 The ovary is stimulated with a drug, (having
fertility FSH) to produce several eggs.
 Eggs can be collected from the follicle by
sucking out the fluid contents of mature
follicles with a fine hollow needle which is
inserted through the abdominal wall under
general anesthesia.
 Sperms are collected from the male partner
and washed in a culture fluid to remove
seminal fluid.
 About 100,000 healthy sperms are added to each egg about six hours after egg collection.
 This is done in a glass dish or tube.
 The fertilized eggs are grown for about two days, after which they are usually at 2 to 8cell stage.
 After examination under the microscope, the embryo are transferred through the cervix into the
uterus using a fine plastic tube.
 She is subsequently treated with progesterone to promote favorable uterine environment for
implantation of the embryos.
Miscarriage:
A miscarriage is the loss of pregnancy before 20 weeks of gestation. Pregnancy loss occurs when the
foetus stop developing. The pregnant tissue will eventually leave the body.
The live birth which takes place before normal time (EDD or expected date of delivery) is called pre
mature birth. It is not miscarriage.
Causes of Miscarriage:
The following are the causes of miscarriage.
 The embryo may implant near the cervix. In this condition, as the placenta grows it may extend
partially or completely across the internal cervical opening. As the foetus and placenta continue to
grow and uterus stretches, the region of the placenta over the cervical opening may be tom and
hemorrhage may occur. The normally positioned placenta may tear away from uterine wall
accomplished by hemorrhaging.
 Most miscarriages happen when unborn baby has fatal genetic problems like abnormalities in
chromosomal number and structure.
 The other causes include infection, medical conditions in mother, such as diabetes or thyroid
disease, hormonal problems, immune system response, uterine, abnormalities, weakness in cervix
(cervical insufficiency), etc.
Miscarriage verses Abortion
The term abortion is usually referred to the induced premature termination of a pregnancy. Medically
speaking a miscarriage is a natural abortion or spontaneous abortion.
Sexually Transmitted Disease: (STD)
Sexually transmitted diseases are contagious diseases caused by pathogens that are passed from one
human to another by sexual contact. (Male to female or vice versa)
1. Gonorrhea:
Gonorrhea is caused by bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Symptoms:
The symptoms in includes:
 Painful or burning sensation of urination.
 Pain or swelling in the testicles of male.
 A milky vaginal discharge three to five days after contact in female.
 Painful bowl movement and rectal itching.
 Majority of women are asymptomatic until they develop severe, pain in the abdominal region due
to pelvic inflammatory disease.
Treatment:
For the treatment of gonorrhea the antibiotics penicillin or tetracycline is used.
Syphilis:
Syphilis is caused by a bacterium called Treponema palladium. It is serious health concern if left
untreated.
Symptoms:
 A hard painless chancre (ulceration sore with hard edges) indicates the site of infection.
 The individual breaks out in a rash.
 The rash is seen even on palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
 Foetus infected with syphilis is usually stillborn or die shortly after birth.
 Syphilis may affect the cardiovascular, bones and nervous system.
 It damages reproductive organs, eyes, bones joints, central nervous system, heart and skin.
Treatment
Long term use of antibiotics for treatment of syphilis. e.g., penicillin.
AIDS: A worldwide sexually transmitted disease
AIDS is one of the most serious, deadly diseases in human history. In the early 1980s doctors in the
United States identified the first cases of AIDS in San Francisco and New York. Now there are an
estimated 42 million people living with HIV or AIDS worldwide and more than 3 million die every
year from AIDS-related illnesses.
AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV destroys helper T-lymphocyte
which is major components of immune system therefore the people with the HIV begin to get serious
infections.