Heat Transfer II

Mehrdad Manzari
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Sharif University of Technology

1
Forced Convection
Internal Flow

2
Basic Definitions

3
 Internal Flow
• Internal flow refers to fluid flow inside conduits
such as pipes, tubes, and ducts
• The conduit cross section can be circular or non-
circular
• The wall boundary condition can be isothermal
(Tw=cte) or constant heat flux (qw=cte)
• Here, we will again mostly rely on empirical
relations. One must be aware that all these
relations have been obtained under specific
laboratory conditions. These conditions are most
likely different from real world conditions
• In most cases, we neglect heating due to viscous
dissipation
4
 Average Velocity and Temperature
• For a circular pipe (Radius R), Average velocity is
defined as
R
m   u (r ) 2 r dr 2 R
Vavg 
 Ac
 0
 R 2
 2
R 0
u (r ) r dr

• Note that velocity profile (u) is a function of r

(distance from pipe center)

• Similarly, for a circular pipe (Radius R), Average

temperature is defined as

c p T (r ) m

R
c p T (r )  u (r ) 2 r dr
Tm  m

 Vavg  R 2 c p
0
m c p
2 R

Vavg R 2 0
T (r ) u (r ) r dr

5
Reynolds Number and Hydraulic Diameter
• As before, we need to compute Reynolds number to
find whether flow is laminar or turbulent. For a
circular pipe of radius D, we have

Vavg D 4m
Re D  
  D

• For non-circular ducts, we use Hydraulic Diameter

(Dh) instead of D:

4  cross sectional area 4 Ac

Dh  
wetted perimeter p

• Examples of Dh are shown in the picture

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 Laminar, Transition, or Turbulent
• There is no clear cut numbers for switching flow regimes because various
factors (roughness, vibrations and noises, etc.) affect this
• In many situations, Re<2300 is considered to be laminar
• Also, 10000< Re is considered fully turbulent
• In practical design, it is advised to assume that flow is laminar when Re<4000

Laminar flow

Turbulent flow

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 Entrance Region
• We often assume that the inlet flow has a uniform velocity and temperature
• Of course, these profiles change as fluid goes along the pipe. Velocity becomes
zero on the wall and reaches its maximum at the center of pipe
• Boundary layer gradually grows till fully fills the flow domain (figure below)
• The heat transfer rate (and coefficient) are very much different in this entrance
region
• After entrance region, flow is called Fully Developed, which means that velocity or
temperature profiles do not change further along the pipe
• We say flow in Hydrodynamically Fully Developed when velocity profile is fully
developed. We say flow in Thermally Fully Developed when temperature profile is
fully developed

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 Entry Length
• Entrance region is specified by the entry lengths. Hydrodynamic entry length
Lh and Thermal entry length Lt
• Flow can be only either hydrodynamically or thermally fully developed
• Flow can be both hydrodynamically and thermally fully developed
• Mathematically, we impose the following conditions

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 Constant “f” and “h” in FD Region
• In fully developed region, velocity profile is not a
function of x, therefore its derivative w.r.t. “r” is also
independent of “x”. This means that shear stress
and friction coefficient are both independent of “x”
and remain constant Pr>1
• Similarly, temperature profile is not a function of
“x”, which means its derivative w.r.t “r” is not a
function of x:

  Ts  T   (T / r ) r  R
  
r  Ts  Tm  r  R Ts  Tm
q s / k f hx (Ts  Tm ) / k f
 
Ts  Tm Ts  Tm
hx
  f ( x)
kf

Note that in entrance region, both “f” and “h” are

higher than those of fully developed region 10
 Entry Length Formula
• For Laminar flows, entry length for a circular pipe of diameter D, is

Lh Lt
 0.05 Re D  0.05 Re D Pr
D D

• For Turbulent flows, entry length for a circular pipe of diameter D, is

Lh Lt
10    60
D D
We can use the lower limit (10) for most calculations.

11
 BL Thickness and Pr
• For fluids with Pr = 1, such as gases, the two boundary layers essentially
coincide with each other
• For fluids with Pr >> 1, such as oils, the velocity boundary layer outgrows the
thermal boundary layer. As a result, the hydrodynamic entry length is smaller
than the thermal entry length
• The opposite is true for fluids with Pr << 1 such as liquid metals

12
 Qs=cte or Ts=cte
• In turbulent flow, the boundary condition (Qs=cte or Ts=cte) does not change
Nusselt number significantly

13
 General Thermal Analysis
• Energy balance shows that

Q  m c p Te  Ti 

Q
q s   hx Ts  Tm 
As

• Now, we consider two important cases:

1. Constant wall heat flux: this normally occurs when radiation or electric
resistance heating is involved
2. Constant wall temperature: this normally occurs when boiling or
condensation happen on the wall

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Qs=cte and Ts=cte Conditions

15
 Constant Heat Flux
• In general, we can write

q s As q s
Te  Ti  and Ts  Tm 
m c p hx

• For fully developed condition (“h” is constant) and

we obtain

dTm p q s
m c p dTm  q s  pdx     constant
dx m c p
q s dTs dTm
Ts  Tm   constant  
h dx dx
  Ts  T  T dTs
   0  
x  Ts  Tm  x dx

• Therefore, we get
T dTs dTm q s p
    cte
x dx dx m c p 16
 Constant Wall Temperature
• In this case, using energy balance for a small element of fluid, we can write
m c p dTm  h Ts  Tm  p dx
• Integrating this between x=0 and x=L, we obtain
1
L
 Ts  Te  h pL
h   h( x) dx ln   
 Ts  Ti 
L0
m c p
• This result is used to find Tm at any “x” and exit temperature Te:

 hx p x   h pL
Tm ( x)  Ts  (Ts  Ti ) exp   and Te  Ts  (Ts  Ti ) exp  
 m c   m c 
 p   p 

h pL
Number of Transfer Units  NTU 
m c p
• Note that for NTU>5, average temperature reaches wall temperature, and therefore,
heat flux approaches zero. The rest of the pipe will be useless for heat transfer
• Heat flux can be written in terms of LMTD: (As=p*L)
Ti  Te Te  Ti
Q  h As Tlm where Tlm  
ln(Ts  Te ) /(Ts  Ti ) ln(Te / Ti ) 17
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Laminar Flow in Tubes

22
 Fluid Mechanics of Flow in Pipes
• From force balance for an annular element shown in picture, we find

• Note that flow is fully-developed steady, incompressible,

laminar, and Newtonian. Also dP/dx is a constant
• Using boundary conditions
 u 
  0 and ur  R  0
 r  r 0
• We find

• or
 r2  R 2  dP 
u (r )  2Vavg 1  2  where Vavg   
 R  8  dx 
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 Fluid Mechanics of Flow in Pipes
• In Fluid Mechanics, head loss is normally written as

PL 8 w
2
L Vavg
hL   f with f 
g D 2g Vavg
2

• Here, “f” is Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient and for Laminar flow becomes
64
f 
Re D

• The required pumping power is given by

m
W pump , L  PL  m g hL


24
 Nusselt Number (Laminar and qw=cte)
• By writing the energy balance for an annular element
shown here, we obtained

T    T 
u  r 
x r r  r 
• Remember that we found

• Therefore, integrating the PDE for T, gives

• And the Nusselt number becomes

48 k f hD Circular tube, Laminar

h  Nu   4.36
11 D kf Constant heat flux
25
 Nusselt Number (Laminar and Tw=cte)
• In this case, we must solve

• using similar approach, we can obtain

hD
Nu   3.66 Circular tube, Laminar
kf Constant wall temperature

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 Non-circular Tubes
• For non-circular tubes, simply use
hydraulic diameter in definition
of Reynolds number and Nusselt
number, and use Table 8-1
• Note that this table cover both
constant flux and constant wall
temperature cases
• The table also provides friction
factor in such tubes

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 Entry Nusselt
• Note that thermal and hydrodynamic
BL may develop together or separately
• In figure, dashed lines refer to case
where velocity is fully developed first,
and solid line refers to case in which
velocity and thermal boundary layers
develop simultaneously

Leo Graetz
(1856–1941)

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 Entry Nusselt
• We can use the following correlations instead of the curves shown in previous slide
• For circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface temperature, the average
Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region (Fully developed velocity) can be
found from

• For hydrodynamically and thermally developing laminar flow in a circular tube in that
case can be determined from

In above equations, all properties are evaluated at bulk film temperature Tb=(Ti+Te)/2,
and wall viscosity at Ts
• The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region (Fully developed
velocity) of flow between isothermal parallel plates of length L is expressed as
(Dh=2* spacing between plates and Re<2800)

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Turbulent Flows in Tubes

35
 Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
• There are several empirical correlations which can be used here
• These equations can be used for both Ts=cte and qs=cte.
• Using Chilton-Colburn analogy, we obtain

• Where “f” can be found using any available formula including

*****************

• Another formula is Dituss-Boelter: (n=0.4 for heating and n=0.3 for cooling)

In both equations, all fluid properties at the bulk mean fluid temperature Tb=(Ti+Te)/2.

36
 Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
• Sieder and Tate proposed the following formula which corrects viscosity using
wall temperature: (use bulk temperature for properties)

*****************

• Petukhov proposed the following formula which uses friction factor “f”:

37
 Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
(Liquid Metals)
• For liquid metals (0.004<Pr<0.01), Sleicher and Rouse propose (104<Re<106)

Prandtl is evaluated at surface temperature

38
 Flow in Concentric Annulus
• For Laminar Fluid flow through the space between two pipes, we define

39
 Flow in Concentric Annulus
• If one of the wall surfaces is adiabatic, then Laminar Nusselt numbers can be
found from the following Table.

40
 Flow in Concentric Annulus
• In general cases when both surfaces exchange heat, the Laminar Nusselt
numbers can be found from the following Table
• Also,

Note that “hi” or “ho” may become negative as we defined “qs” is a specific form.
41
 Turbulent Flow in Concentric Annulus
• For fully developed turbulent flow, the inner and outer convection coefficients
may be assumed to be equal, and they may be evaluated by using the hydraulic
diameter, with the Dittus–Boelter equation

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Heat Transfer Enhancement

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 Effect of Heating or Cooling on Velocity
• Viscosity of Gases increase by temperature, therefore, its diffusivity increases
and wall shear (zero velocity) is felt further away from wall
• Viscosity of liquids decrease by temperature, therefore, its diffusivity decreases
and wall shear (zero velocity) is felt only near wall

56
 Problems
Solve problems (19, 22, 43, 44, 57, 64, 72, 76, 87, 93)
from Chapter 8 of Cencel’s book

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