UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

COLLEGE FOR DISTANCE AND E-LEARNING

LEARNING, TEACHING AND APPLYING CALCULUS

(UNIT 3)

FOR BACHELOR EDUCATION IN BASIC EDUCATION MATHEMATICS

SPECIALIST

WRITTEN BY:

EMMANUEL ASEMANI

DENNIS OFFEI KWAKYE

STEPHEN ATEPOR

EDITED BY

PROF. MICHAEL JOHNSON NABIE, PhD

1
UNIT 3: APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES: TEACHING, LEARNING AND
APPLYING

INTRODUCTION

Having differentiated a wide variety of functions, we can now look at some of their
applications. Dear Student teachers, welcome to Unit 3 of your course. In this unit, you
will cover the following sections:

Section 1: Equation of Tangent and Normal,

Section 2: Maximum and Minimum values

Section 3: Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes of graphs of functions

Section 4: Curve sketching

2
UNIT 3: SECTION1: EQUATION OF TANGENT AND NORMAL

INTRODUCTION

Dear student-teacher, let's look at the definitions of tangents and normal.

LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS

On successful completion of the • Outline and address their
course, the student-teacher will be able to perception and misconceptions about
demonstrate content knowledge in tangents and normals.
tangents and normal. They will be able to • Use age-appropriate subject
provide accurate proves of problems knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and
involving these concepts. (NTS 2c, 3i, pedagogical content knowledge for
NTECF Pillar 1) teaching the Basic School Curriculum in a
broad, balanced, relevant and creative
manner.
• Make connections between
tangents and normals and apply them
in teaching and solving real-life
problems.
• Produce a brief report on their
personal understanding of equation
of a tangent and a normal.

3
Tangents and Normals

Definitions 3.1.1 (ie unit3 section1, def 1)

A normal to a curve at a point is the straight line through the point at right angles to the
tangent at the point

The tangent to a curve is a straight line that touches the curve

(Add clarity to definitions by referring readers to fig 3.0 for a tangent and a normal)

Equation of Tangents and Normals

𝑑𝑦
For a curve given by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), is the gradient function. Given the coordinates of a
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
point on the curve, and the gradient function , the equation of the tangent at the point
𝑑𝑥

can be found.

We also know (from coordinate geometry) that, if two lines (with gradients, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 )
are perpendicular, then 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1 (the product of their gradients is -1). Hence, the
1
gradient of the line perpendicular to the tangent, the normal to a curve, is − 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
tangent: gradient,
𝑑𝑥

1
normal: gradient, −
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Fig 3.0

4
ACTIVITY 3.1.1(activity number should reflect unit, section, number)

Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥)(2 + 𝑥), at the
point where 𝑥 = 2.

SOLUTION

Given 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥)(2 + 𝑥)

𝑦 = 2 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 − 𝑥2

𝑑𝑦
Now, 𝑑𝑥 = −1 − 2𝑥

Since we were given 𝑥 = 2, we substitute it into the equation of the curve to find the
value of 𝑦.

Thus, If 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 2 − (2) − (2)2

𝑦 = 2−2−4
𝑦 = −4
⇒ When 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −4: (2, −4)

To find the gradient of the tangent at the point (2, −4), we have

𝑑𝑦
= −1 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= −1 − 2(2)
= −1 − 4
= −5

𝑑𝑦
∴ the gradient at (2, −4), 𝑑𝑥 = −5

But, equation of tangent (straight line) is given as 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

5
 𝑑𝑦
Substituting 𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 = −5, and (2, −4), we have

𝑦 − (−4) = −5(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 + 4 = −5𝑥 + 10
𝑦 + 5𝑥 = 6

1
Now, at the same point (2, −4), the gradient of the normal = 5 and its equation is given

by

1
𝑦 − (−4) = (𝑥 − 2)
5
1
𝑦+4= (𝑥 − 2)
5

multiply through by the LCM (5)

5𝑦 + 20 = 𝑥 − 2
5𝑦 − 𝑥 = −22

ACTIVITY 3.1.2

Find the coordinates of the points on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 where the tangent is
parallel to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥

SOLUTION

Given the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥

The gradient of the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 is 1. Hence, the gradient of the tangent is also equal to 1.
Since the tangent is parallel to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥, their gradients are equal

6
Thus, gradient of tangent (slope of tangent) = gradient of line.

3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 2 = 1
3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3 = 0

which gives (3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0

1
or 𝑥 = − 3 or 3

The 𝑥-coordinates of the two points at which the tangent is parallel to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 are
1
= −3 , 3

By substituting the x values in the equation of the curve, we obtain the coordinates as
(−1/3, −76/27) and (3, −18).

ACTIVITY 3.1.3

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 at the point (2, 8).

SOLUTION

Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 3

𝑑𝑦
Gradient, = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

When 𝑥 = 2,

𝑑𝑦
Gradient, 𝑑𝑥 = 3(2)2

=3×4
= 12
Thus, the gradient of the tangent at (2,8) is +12.

The equation 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

𝑦 − 8 = 12(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 − 8 = 12𝑥 − 24

7
∴. The equation of the tangent is 12𝑥 − 𝑦 − 16 = 0

ACTIVITY 3.1.4

1. Find the equations of the tangents to the following curves at the points
corresponding to the given values of 𝑥 :
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 = 2
(b) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 = 0
(c) 𝑦 = 9𝑥 − 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 = −3
2. Find the equations of the normals to the curves in (1) above at the given points

ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 3.1.4

1(a) 4𝑥 − 𝑦 − 4 = 0

(b) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0

(c) 18𝑥 + 𝑦 + 54 = 0

2.(a) 𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 18 = 0

(b) 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1 = 0

(c) 𝑥 − 18𝑦 + 3 = 0

Well done. You may try your hands on a few more questions in activity #? to consolidate
your understanding of the concept.

ACTIVITY 3.1.5

1. The tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 at a certain point is parallel to the line

𝑦 = 𝑥. Find its equation and where it cuts the 𝑥-axis

2. The gradient of the tangent at a point 𝐴 on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1, is 5. Find the

coordinates of 𝐴

8
3. The curve whose equation is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, passes through the point (2,4) and is
parallel to the 𝑥-axis at the point (1,3). Find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐4. The curve given by
the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 2 has a gradient of −2 at the point (1,1). Find the values of 𝑎
and 𝑏.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 3.1.5

1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 6, (6, 0)
2. 𝐴(4, 5)
3. 1, −2 and 4
4. −2,3

SUMMARY

• If 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥, then the gradient of the tangent to the curve at any point
𝑑𝑦
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦,) is the value of 𝑑𝑥 at that point.

• The gradient of a tangent to the curve at any point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is obtained by

𝑑𝑦
substituting the values of 𝑥1 and 𝑦1 into the expression for . Hence, the equation
𝑑𝑥

of the tangent is given by:

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).

𝑑𝑦
Where the gradient, 𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 at 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

• The normal to a curve at any given point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is the straight line that is
1
perpendicular to the tangent at that point. The gradient of the normal is −
𝑚

(negative reciprocal of the gradient of the

tangent at the same point the normal meets the tangent.

• The equation of the normal is given by:

1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) -
𝑚

9
UNIT 3: SECTION 2: MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES

INTRODUCTION

Dear student teacher, we shall consider some more practical applications of differentiation.
In this section, we shall discuss the concepts of maxima and minima. There are many
practical problems involving maximum and minimum values in science and engineering.

LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS

On successful completion of the • Outline and address their
course, student-teacher will be able to perception and misconceptions of
demonstrate secure content knowledge of maxima and minima.
maximum and minimum values. They • Use age-appropriate subject
will be able to provide accurate proves of knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and
concepts. (NTS 2c, 3i, NTECF Pillar 1) pedagogical content knowledge for teaching
the Basic School Curriculum in a broad,
balanced, relevant and creative manner.
Make connections between maximum and
minimum points of a curve and apply them
in teaching and solving real-life problems.

• Produce a brief report on their

understanding of maxima and minima

10
(A) Maximum and Minimum points of a Curve

There are two common ways to determine maximum and minimum points of a curve:
sign test and first or/and second derivatives test. In this section, we shall use the first and
second derivative of the function given. The basic rule states that:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
For a maximum or minimum point, 𝑑𝑥 = 0. Also, for a maximum point, 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0
𝑑2 𝑦
(negative) While, for a minimum point, 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0 (positive)

Dear student, it must be noted that, the use of first and second derivative is dependent on
𝑑2 𝑦
the possibility of finding 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
In other words, "provided can be easily found, we can go ahead to use the derivative
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
rule (𝑑𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 2 ). However, if is not easily found, the sign test is best.
𝑑𝑥 2

Now, let us try to conduct a simple investigation. We shall attempt to provide an answer
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
to the question: What conclusion can be drawn if 𝒅𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎 ?

𝑑2 𝑦
If (𝑑𝑥 2 = 0) is indefinite as can be seen from the two simple functions shown in Fig. 3.1

and Fig. 3.2

𝑦 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥3 𝑦 = 𝑥4

𝑥 𝑥
O O

Fig 3.1 Fig 3.2

11
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 = 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
= 6𝑥 = 12𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 0, gives 𝑥 = 0 (double roots) = 0, gives 𝑥 = 0 (triple roots)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
If 𝑥 = 0, =0 If 𝑥 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
The sign test confirms that this is The sign test shows that this is
a point of inflexion a minimum point
𝑑2 𝑦
Clearly, 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0 is not a decisive test.

Dear student, having investigated and concluded that the derivative rule is appropriate to
𝑑2 𝑦
test for maximum and minimum point only if ≠ 0, we can consider the following
𝑑𝑥 2

examples:

ACTIVITY 3.2.1

A curve is defined by the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 − 1,

Find:
(i) the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥;
(ii) the gradient of the curve at the point where 𝑥 = 1
(iii) the maximum and the minimum points
(iv) the maximum and the minimum values.
SOLUTION

(i) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 − 1

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15
𝑑𝑥

12
(ii) Gradient of curve is the same as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). So,

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15
where 𝑥 = 1
𝑓 ′ (1) = 3(1)2 − 12(1) − 15
= 3 − 12 − 15
= −24

𝑑𝑦
(iii) From (i) above, 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15

𝑑𝑦
For maximum or minimum point, =0
𝑑𝑥

⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15 = 0
⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15 = 0
(Dividing through by 3)

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 = 0

(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 5

Now, we have to investigate whether the function is maximum or minimum at these

points:

𝑑2 𝑦
= 6𝑥 − 12
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
To test for maximum or minimum, we substitute 𝑥 = −1 and 5 into ,
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2𝑦
At 𝑥 = −1; = 6(−1) − 12
𝑑𝑥 2
= −6 − 12
= −18

𝑑2 𝑦
Since −18 < 0, 𝑓(𝑥) has maximum point at 𝑥 = −1 since 𝑑𝑥 2 is negative.

13
 𝑑2 𝑦
At 𝑥 = 5; , 2 = 6(5) − 12
𝑑𝑥
= 30 − 12
= 18
𝑑2 𝑦
>0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum point at 𝑥 = 5 since 𝑑𝑥 2 is positive.

To find the corresponding 𝑦 or 𝑓(𝑥) values at 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 5, substitute 𝑥 = −1 and

𝑥 = 5 into the expression for 𝑦 or 𝑓(𝑥)
When 𝑥 = −1; 𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 − 6(1)2 − 15(−1) − 1 = 7
Hence, the maximum point is (−1,7)
Also, when 𝑥 = 5; 𝑓(5) = (5)3 − 6(5)2 − 15(5) − 1 = −101
Hence, the minimum point is (5, −101)
(iv) The minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) is −101
The maximum value of 𝑓(𝑥) is 7.
ACTIVITY 3.2.2

Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 5

SOLUTION
Given, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
For maximum and minimum values, 𝑑𝑥 = 0

0 = 3𝑥 2 − 3
0 = 3(𝑥 2 − 1)
0 = 3(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
⇒ 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥=1

14
 𝑑2𝑦
Also, = 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
When 𝑥 = −1, 2 = 6(−1) = −6
𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑 𝑦
⇒ 2 < 0 (Maximum)
𝑑𝑥
We then substitute 𝑥 = 1 into 𝑓(𝑥) to get the maximum value.
𝑦 = (−1)3 − 3(−1) + 5 = 7
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Also, when 𝑥 = 1, = 6(1) = 6 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0 (minimum)
𝑑𝑥 2

We substitute 𝑥 = 1 into 𝑦 to get the minimum value

𝑦 = 13 − 3(1) + 5
𝑦=3
Hence, the minimum value is 3 and the maximum value is 7
ACTIVITY 3.2.3
Determine the maximum and minimum values for each of the following functions:
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥

4
(ii) 𝑦 =𝑥+𝑥

4
(iii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥2

(iv) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (3 − 𝑥)

(v) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)

(vi) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (3 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 )

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 3.2.3

(i) −2 minimum, 2 maximum

(ii) 4 minimum, −4 maximum
(iii) −3 maximum
(iv) 0 minimum, 4 maximum

15
 49
(v) − minimum
8
5
(vi) 0 minimum, 16 maximum, 2 maximum.

Now, you may try your hands on the following

ACTIVITY 3.2.4

Find the minimum and maximum points of the curve

(i) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 1

(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 − 6

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 3.2.4

1 3
(i) (2 , −2 4) minimum point

(−1, 4) maximum point

(ii) (−3, −33) minimum point
(0, −4) point of inflexion

(B) Maximum and Minimum Values of Quantities.

Having considered the maximum and minimum values of given functions, we now
extend the concepts to other quantities such as Areas and volumes of 2𝐷 and 3𝐷 figures.
Knowledge of the minimum or maximum areas or volumes of 3D figures are useful to
engineers who may have to make quantitative estimates. Differentiation can be applied to
solve such practical problems.
The general procedure is
• Write an expression for the required quantity (ie, Area, Surface area, Volume, etc.)
• Use the given conditions to rewrite it in terms of a single variable
• Find or investigate whether the quantity is maximum or minimum using the
derivative test.
Good! Let us now consider some examples:

16
ACTIVITY 3.2.5

A 100 cm of fencing is to be used to make a rectangular enclosure. Find the greatest

possible area of the enclosure.

SOLUTION
100 cm represents perimeter
Since the problem requires for area and the fence is described as being rectangular, we
may start with a sketch as follows:

Fig 3.3
L

Let the sides of the rectangular fence be 𝐿 cm and Bcm

Area of fence, 𝐴 = 𝐿𝐵------------------------ (1)

Also, the perimeter, 𝑃 = 2(L + 𝐵)---------- (2)

We now want to write the area (quantify of interest) in terms of a single variable (either 𝐿
or )

From (2), we make " 𝐿 " the subject

. 𝑃 = 2𝐿 + 2𝐵

𝑃−2𝐵
= 𝐿------------------------------------ (3)
2

but 𝑃 = 100 (from the question)

17
 100 − 2𝐵 100 2𝐵
⇒ 𝐿= = − = (50 − 𝐵)
2 2 2

Now, substitute 𝐿 = 50 − 𝐵 into (1)

𝐴 = (50 − 𝐵)𝐵
𝐴 = 50𝐵 − 𝐵 2

We now differentiate the quantity of interest

𝑑𝐴
= 50 − 2𝐵
𝑑𝐵

𝑑𝐴
For greatest (maximum) area, 𝑑𝐵 = 0

⇒ 50 − 2𝐵 = 0
50
=𝐵
2
25 = 𝐵
⇒ 𝐵 = 25 cm

Substitute 𝐵 = 25 cm to get the corresponding 𝐿 value

When 𝐵 = 25 cm, 𝑃 = 2(𝐿 + 25)

𝑃 = 2𝐿 + 50
100 = 2𝐿 + 50
100 − 50 = 2𝐿
50 𝑅𝐿
=
2 2
25 cm = 𝐿

Now, substitute these values, 𝐵 = 25 cm, 𝐿 = 25 cm, into the expression for the area to
get the greatest area:

𝐴 = 𝐿𝐵
𝐴 = 25 cm × 25 cm
𝐴 = 625 cm2

∴ The greatest possible area of the enclosure is 𝐴 = 625 cm2

18
ACTIVITY 3.2.6

A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the ground level and its height after 𝑡 seconds is
(50𝑡 − 16𝑡 2 )𝑚, find;

(a) the greatest height it reaches; and

(b) the time it takes to reach there

SOLUTION

Height given, ℎ = (50𝑡 − 16𝑡 2 )m

Since height is expressed in terms of time, t;

𝑑ℎ
= 50 − 32𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ
(a) At the greatest height, =0
𝑑𝑡

⇒ 50 − 32𝑡 =0
50 = 32𝑡
50
=𝑡
32
25
𝑠 =𝑡
16

25
For the greatest height, substitute 𝑡 = 16 into the expression for ℎ.

∴ The greatest height hmax is:

25 25 2
ℎmax = 50 ( ) − 16 ( )
16 16

19
 25 25 25
= 50 ( ) − 16 ( ) ( )
16 16 16
25
= (50 − 25)
16
25
= × 25
16
625
= m
16

∴ The greatest height it reaches,

625
ℎmax = m
16

25
The time it takes to reach this height is 𝑡 = 16 s

ACTIVITY 3.2.7

A rectangular sheet of metal 60 cm by 50 cm has squares each of side 𝑥 cm cut off from
four corners. The remainder is then formed into a cuboid of volume 𝑉 cm3 . Find the
value of 𝑥 for which the volume of the box will be a maximum.

SOLUTION

𝑥𝑐𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑚

𝑥𝑐𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑚

50𝑐𝑚

𝑥𝑐𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑚

𝑥𝑐𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑚
Fig 3.4
60𝑐𝑚

20
Imagine folding the sides to form a cuboid, the Sides of the cuboid will be (60 − 2𝑥) and
(50 − 2𝑥). Also, the height of the cuboid will be 𝑥 cm

The volume of the cuboid will therefore be given by:

𝑉 = Length × Breadth x Height

𝑉 = (60 − 2𝑥)(50 − 2𝑥) × 𝑥

Expanding the RHS, we have

𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 220𝑥 2 + 3000𝑥.
𝑑𝑉
= 12𝑥 2 − 440𝑥 + 3000
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣
At maximum volume, 𝑉max , =0
𝑑𝑥

12𝑥 2 − 440𝑥 + 3000 = 0

dividing through by 4

3𝑥 2 − 110𝑥 + 750 = 0

𝑥 = 27.61 or 𝑥 = 9.05 (use any of the methods) Eg. the quadratic formula)

To test for the maximum or minimum value, we substitute 𝑥 = 9.05 and 𝑥 = 27.61 into
𝑑2 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑣
Now, 𝑑𝑥 2 = 24𝑥 − 440

𝑑2 𝑣 (maximum
When 𝑥 = 9.05, = 24(9.05) − 440 < 0
𝑑𝑥 2 Value)

𝑑2 𝑣
When 𝑥 = 27.61, = 24(27.61) − 440 ≈ 226.6470 (Minimum value)
𝑑𝑥 2

Hence, the value of 𝑥 for which the volume of the box will be a maximum is 𝑥 = 9.05

21
Dear student teacher, you can now try your hands on the following questions. Remember
to start by differentiating the quantity of interest (making sure it is first expressed in
terms of a single variable). Next is to equate the derivative to zero and proceed with the
second derivative test.

ACTIVITY 3.2.8

1 A rectangle has perimeter 28 m. What is the maximum area?

2 Determine the area of the largest piece of rectangular ground that can be enclosed
by 100 m of fencing, if part of an existing straight wall w is used as one side

3 A cylinder has a radius, 𝑟 meters and a height ℎ meters. The sum of the radium and
height is 2 m. Find an expression for the volume, 𝑉 cubic metres, of the cylinder in
terms of 𝑟 only. Hence, find the maximum volume.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 3.2.8

1 49𝑚2

2 1250 m2

32
3 𝜋 − 𝑚3
27

Well done. .(Attribute praise to some activity) You can now take the following for
trial.

ACTIVITY 3.2.9

The lengths of the sides of a rectangular sheet of metal are 8 cm and 3 cm. A square of
side 𝑥 cm is cut from each corner of the sheet and the remaining piece is folded to make
an open box.

(i) Show that the volume, 𝑣 of the box is given by 𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 22𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 cm3

22
(ii) Find the value of 𝑥 for which the volume of the box is a maximum. Calculate the
maximum volume.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 3.2.9

2
𝑥 = 3 cm
(ii). 200
𝑉= cm3
27

That was a great performance (Attribute praise to some activity) The procedure for
determining maximum and minimum values is just the same. The more you practice, the
easier it becomes. Let us now present the summary of our discussions under section 2:

SUMMARY

In this section, we have learned that;

𝑑𝑦
For a maximum or minimum point, 𝑑𝑥 must equal 0.

𝑑2 𝑦
For a maximum point, < 0 and
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
for a minimum point, 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0

23
UNIT 3: SECTION 3: HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES OF
GRAPHS OF FUNCTION

INTRODUCTION

Dear student teacher, you have made significant progress through some practical
applications of derivatives. However, you still have a few more practical application of the
derivative to some concepts to consider. In this section, we shall consider the application
of the derivative to determining asymptotes to curves.

LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS

On successful completion of the • Outline and address their
course, student-teacher will be able to perception and misconceptions of
demonstrate content knowledge of the Horizontal and Vertical asymptotes
application of derivative in determining the of the graphs of function.
Horizontal and Vertical asymptotes of • Use age-appropriate subject
graphs of function. They will be able to knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and
provide accurate proves of concepts. (NTS pedagogical content knowledge that can
2c, 3i, NTECF Pillar 1) for teaching the Basic School Curriculum
in a broad, balanced, relevant and creative
manner.
• Make connections between
the Horizontal and Vertical
asymptotes of graphs of function
and apply them in teaching and
solving real-life problems.
• Produce a brief report on
their understanding of Horizontal
and Vertical asymptotes of graphs
of function.

24
Definition 3.3.1: Asymptote

An asymptote is a straight line that constantly approaches a given curve but does not
meet it at any infinite distance. In other words, Asymptote is a line that a curve
approaches as it moves towards infinity. For example, the broken line in fig .3.5 is an
asymptote to the curve.
𝑦

𝑥
Fig 3.5

(A) Types of Asymptotes

There are three types of asymptotes. These are:

• Vertical Asymptote

• Horizontal Asymptote

• Oblique/slant Asymptote

(B) Vertical Asymptote

When 𝑥 approaches some constant value 𝑐 from left or right, the curve moves towards
infinity (ie., ∞ ) and this the line x = c is called vertical asymptote. The broken line in fig
3.6 is a vertical asymptote.

25
 𝑦

Asymptote
𝑥
C
Fig 3.6

Fig 3.6 illustrates the behaviour of a curve as it gets closer to a vertical asymptote, x = c.
The broken line (--)on the graph, where the function values approach ∞ is called Vertical
asymptote

Vertical asymptotes are found on rational functions. To find a vertical asymptote of a

rational function, simply equate the denominator of the rational function to zero and solve
for 𝑥.
ACTIVITY 3.3.1

Find the vertical asymptote of the following functions (If any):

𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1
8−𝑥 3
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2

2𝑥 2 −𝑥−3
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2

26
 𝑥 3 +1
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −9
𝑥 4 −4
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 −1

SOLUTION
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
(i) Given.𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1

For vertical asymptote,

𝑥+1=0

𝑥 = −1

8−𝑥 3
(ii)Given𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2

For vertical asymptote, 2𝑥 2 = 0

𝑥=0
2𝑥 2 −𝑥−3
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2

For vertical asymptote,

𝑥−2=0
𝑥=2

𝑥 3 +1
(iv) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −9

For vertical asymptote,

𝑥2 − 9 = 0
𝑥2 = 9
𝑥 = ±3

𝑥 4 −4
(v) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 −1

For vertical asymptote,

𝑥3 − 1 = 0
𝑥=1
27
(C) Horizontal asymptote
When 𝑥 moves to ∞ or −∞, the curve approaches some constant value 𝑏, and the line y
= b is called a horizontal asymptote

Horizontal Asymptote

𝑥
Fig 3.6

We find horizontal asymptote when dealing with rational functions. Let us consider some
cases.
CASE 1 (PROPER FRACTION)
Consider a proper rational function such as

3𝑥 − 8
𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2

NB: A rational function is proper if the degree of the numerator is less

than the degree of the denominator

28
 3𝑥 8
2 − 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
3𝑥 𝑥 2
+ 2+ 2
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥
3 8
lim (𝑥) − lim ( 2 )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→∞ 2
lim 3 + lim (1/𝑥) + lim ( 2 )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
0−0
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→∞ 3+0+0
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) =0
𝑥→∞

The result shows that, whenever the rational function is proper, the line 𝑦 = 0 (𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
is the horizontal asymptote

CASE 2 (Equivalent Degrees)

Consider a rational function with both numerator and denominator having the same
degrees;

3𝑥 2 − 8
𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2

For the horizontal asymptote, divide through each term by 𝑥 2 (That is, the highest power
of )

3𝑥 2 8
2 − 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
3𝑥 𝑥 2
2 + 2+ 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Taking the limits of each term

lim 3 − lim (8/𝑥 2 )

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→∞ 1 2
lim 3 + lim (𝑥) + lim ( 2 )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
3−0
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→∞ 3+0+0
3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→∞ 3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→∞

29
NB: For rational functions with equivalent degrees, simply divide the leading
3
coefficients. In the above case, () ∴ 𝑦 = 1 is the horizontal asymptote
3

CASE 3 (IMPROPER FRACTION)

Improper fraction cases results into a Slant or Oblique asymptotes.
Consider the example below:

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+1

Start by dividing the numerator (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6) by the denominator (𝑥 + 1) using the long

division method or synthetic method. Here we shall use the long division method as
follows:

𝑥 − 2
𝑥+1 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6
− 𝑥2 + 𝑥
−2𝑥 − 6
− −2𝑥 − 2
−4

Remainder
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 −4
So, = (𝑥 − 2) +
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
Divisor
Quotient

−4
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2) +
𝑥+1

Thus, the slant asymptote is the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2

We can proceed to sketch 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 as the Slant or oblique asymptote

NB: For rational improper fraction, the quotient of the function gives the slant asymptote

30
NB: Whereas curves cannot intersect the vertical asymptotes they can sometimes
intersect horizontal asymptotes.
Dear student teacher, let us consider some questions

ACTIVITY 3.3.1

Determine all the possible asymptotes for each curve

2+𝑥−𝑥 2
(i) 𝑦 = (𝑥−1)2
1
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2−𝑥
𝑥 2 −9
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−4
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1

SUMMARY

• Vertical asymptotes are found by equating the denominator for of the rational
function by to zero and then solving for independent variable, 𝑥.

• The method to of identifying the horizontal asymptote depend on the degrees of the
polynomial in the function's numerator and denominator. Below are the points to
remember to in finding the horizontal asymptotes:

✓ If the degrees of the polynomials of numerator and denominator is are equal,

then divide the coefficients of highest degree terms to get the horizontal
asymptotes.

✓ If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then
the horizontal asymptotes will be 𝑦 = 0

✓ If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
then there are no horizontal asymptotes

31
SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 3.3.1
(i) Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = 1
Horizontal asymptote: 𝑦 = −1
No oblique asymptote

(ii) Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = 2

Horizontal asymptote: 𝑦 = 0
No oblique asymptote

(iii) Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = 2

No horizontal asymptote
1
Oblique asymptote: 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 1

(iv) Vertical asymptote: 𝑥 = −1

No horizontal asymptote
Oblique asymptote: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2

32
UNIT 3: SECTION 4: CURVE SKETCHING
INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the last section of Unit 3. You have advanced to the point of sketching curves.
Congratulations! To start with, we must establish the fundamental difference between
'sketching' and 'drawing a graph'. For a sketch, only the important details are required,
sufficient to show the shape and position of the curve relative to the axes. When drawing a
graph however, a table of values will be necessary so that the graph is accurately drawn
and readings can be taken from it.

LEARNING OUTCOMES LEARNING INDICATORS

On successful completion of the • Outline and address their
course, student-teachers will be able perception and misconceptions about
to demonstrate their content sketching curves.
knowledge in Curve Sketching. • Use age-appropriate subject knowledge,
(NTS 2c, 3i, NTECF Pillar 1) pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content
knowledge for teaching the Basic School
Curriculum in a broad, balanced, relevant and
creative manner.
• Make connections between
concepts in curve sketching and apply
them in teaching and solving real-life
problems.
• Write a brief report on their
understanding of curve sketching.

(A) Basics in curve sketching

Fundamentally, we simply want to know the points where a given curve, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) cuts
the 𝑥-axis (𝑥-intercept). We also need the point(s) at which the curve cuts the 𝑦-axis (𝑦-
intercept). With the 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts known, a simple curve can be sketched.

33
Remember this curve will not be very accurate since many details about it are not yet
known. Consider the Example 1 below:

Example 1

Sketch the curve: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3

Solution:

Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
= (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)

We find the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) by setting 𝑓(𝑥) = 0

Thus;

0 = (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)

So, if (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0

⇒ 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 + 1 = 0
2𝑥 = 3 𝑥 = −1
3
𝑥= or 1.5
2
3
Hence, the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) are and −1
2

This means that the curve will cut the 𝑥-axis at these points (𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 1.5)

Having gotten the 𝑥 − coordinates (𝑥 = −1, 1,5), we set out to find the 𝑦-coordinate by
putting 𝑥 = 0 into 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3

Thus 𝑓(0)

34
 𝑓(0): = 2(0)2 − (0) − 3
= 2(0) − 0 − 3
∴ 𝑓(0) = −3

So, the curve cuts the 𝑦-axis at 𝑦 = −3.

With the x and y intercepts known, we can now make a sketch as follows:

1 O 1.5 𝑥

Fig3.7

Generally, for quadratic functions of the form = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 :

The graph is either in the form

35
 Fig 3.8

for a > 0

OR

for a < 0

Fig 3.9

Now, consider a second example of a curve with limited information

Example 2

Sketch the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

Solution:

We start by finding the points at which the curve cuts the 𝑥-axis (𝑥 − intercepts). We do
this by equating 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 0

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 0

Factorizing, we have

𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
⇒ 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 = −2, 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥3 = 1

36
Thus, the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) are 𝑥 = 0, −2, and 1. The curve cuts the 𝑥-axis at these three
points, −2, 0 and 1.

Since the 𝑥-intercepts are not enough, we take a few more points between these values to
locate the curve.

Let’s take 𝑥 = −3, 𝑓(−3) = −27 + 9 + 6 = −12

⇒ 𝐴(−3, −12)

Also, we take 𝑥 = −1 (between 𝑥 = −2 and = 0 )

𝑓(−1) = 2
⇒ 𝐵(−1,2)

Again, we take 𝑥 = 0

𝑓(0) = 0

⇒ The curve passes through the origin

1
Finally, we take 𝑥 = 2

1 3
𝑓( ) = −
2 4

1 3
⇒ 𝑐( ,− )
2 4

37
We can now sketch the curve as shown below
𝑦

−2 O 1 𝑥
C

Fig 3.10
A

This is the shape of a cubic curve 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. Such a curve which will

either be of the form for a > 0

Fig 3.11
OR

be of the form
for a < 0

Fig 3.12

38
ACTIVITY 3.4.1

Trial (3.4.1)

Sketch the curves given by

a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2

b) 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2

c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 1

d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2

Solution

a. Given = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 . Find the 𝑥 intercept by putting 𝑦 = 0.

Thus,

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 − 2) + 1(𝑥 − 2) = 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 + 1 = 0, 𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 2
Thus, the zeros of the curve (𝑥-intercept) are −1 and 2. Meaning, the curve will cut the
𝑥-axis at two points (𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 2)

39
 𝑦

𝑥
−1 2

Fig 3.13

Next, we find the 𝑦-cintercepts by putting 𝑥 = 0. Thus

𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑦 = 02 − 0 − 2
𝑦 = −2
Thus, the curve cuts the 𝑦-axis at 𝑦 = −2.

𝑥
−1 2

−2
Fig 3.14

With the 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates determined; we may sketch the curve with minimum
precision. However, we may as well increase the precision by taking a few more points
the intervals defined by the values (𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 2).

40
Let's consider choosing 𝑥 = −2 (to the left of 𝑥 = −1), 𝑥 = 1 (between −1 and 2) and
𝑥 = 3 (to the right of 𝑥 = 2 )

We now have

𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
If 𝑥 = −2 If 𝑥 = 1 If 𝑥 = 3
𝑦 = (−2)2 − (−2) − 2 𝑦 = 12 − 1 − 2 𝑦 = 32 − 3 − 2
𝑦 = 4+2−2= 4 𝑦 = −2 𝑦=4

Now, with the additionally determined points (−2, 4), (1, −2) and (3, 4), we now
increase the precision of the curve as follows.

𝑦
4
𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2

𝑥
−2 −1 1 2 3

−2
Fig 3.15

The curved is sketched with all points as determined in Fig. 3.15

NB: In 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2, the value of a (co-efficient of 𝑥 2 ) is positive. Thus, 𝑎 > 0.

Hence the orientation of the curve

Fig 3.16

41
 Given 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 . (Quadratic function)

Go through the same steps:

Step 1: Find the 𝑥-intercrop ties, by putting 𝑦 = 0

Step 2: Find the 𝑦-litercept by putting 𝑥 = 0

Step 3: Find additional points by choosing some arbitrary values of 𝑥 between the
𝑥 values found in step 1

Step 4: Use the points from steps 1,2 and 3 to sketch your curve.

Now, with the above four steps in mind, shall we attempt to sketch 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 .

Step 1: Given 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2

Put 𝑦 = 0 to find the 𝑥 - intercepts 1 − 𝑥 2 = 0

1 − 𝑥2 = 0

Applying difference of two squares, we have

(1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥) = 0
1−𝑥 =0 1+𝑥 =0
1=𝑥 𝑥 = −1
Thus, the curve cuts the 𝑥-axis at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1

Step 2: Given 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2

Put 𝑥 = 0, to determine the 𝑦-intercept

𝑦 = 1 − 02
⇒ 𝑦=1

Thus, the curve cuts the 𝑦-axis at 𝑦 = 1

42
 We now have the determined points (from steps 1and 2) as follows:

𝑥
−1 1

Fig 3.17

Step 3: We attempt to determine a few additional points to increase our precision!

Choosing 𝑥 = −2 (left of = −1 ) and 𝑥 = 2 (right of 𝑥 = 1 )

We shall substitute as follows:

𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥2
If 𝑥 = −2 If 𝑥 = 2
𝑦 = 1 − (−2)2 𝑦 = 1 − (2)2
𝑦 = 1−4 𝑦 = 1−4
𝑦 = −3 𝑦 = −3

Step 4: Using the points from steps 1,2 and 3 to sketch the curve, 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 , we
have

1 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥2

−1 1 𝑥

Fig 3.18

43
 NOTE: Given 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 , the value of a (co-efficien. of 𝑥 2 ) is negative. Hence,
𝑎 < 0 and as such, its orientation

Fig 3.19

c. Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 1 (A cubic function)

Step 1: 𝑥 3 + 1 = 0

We factorize, by applying ze the factor theorem

NB: The factor theorem states that:
If 𝑓(𝑎) = 0, 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)
In the cubic function 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 1

𝑓(−1) = 0, because 𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 1

= −1 + 1
=0

Since 𝑓(−1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 1 is a factor.

We then use 𝑥 + 1 (the known factor) to find the other two unknown
factors. We do this by the long division method (of course, other methods
could be used). 𝑥 3 + 1 is re-written as 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 1

𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1
𝑥 + 1 𝑥3 + 0𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 1
− 𝑥3 + 𝑥2
−𝑥 2 + 0𝑥
− −𝑥 2 − 𝑥
𝑥 + 1
− 𝑥 + 1
− −

44
Thus, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 1 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)

We see that 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 is not factorizable because it has complex roots since 𝑏 2 −

4𝑎𝑐 < 0. So, we proceed to find the 𝑥-Intercept (Step 1)

(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) = 0

𝑥+1=0 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑥 = −1 complex roots

It means that, the curve cuts the 𝑥-axis at only one point, 𝑥 = −1.

Step 2: Finding the 𝑦-intercept, we put 𝑥 = 0

𝑦 = 𝑥3 + 1
If 𝑥 = 0
𝑦 = 03 + 1
𝑦=1

It means that, the curve cuts the 𝑦-axis at 𝑦 = 1

So far, we have two points through which the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 1 passes: (−1, 0) and
(0, 1)

𝑥
−1

Fig. 3.20

45
 Step 3: We determine a few more points, by choosing 𝑥 = −2 (to the left of =
−1 ) and 𝑥 = 1 (to the right of 𝑥 = −1 )

If 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) If 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)
Put 𝑥 = −2 Put 𝑥 = 1
𝑦 = (−2 + 1)((−2)2 − (−2) + 1) 𝑦 = (1 + 1)(12 − 1 + 1)
𝑦 = −1(7) 𝑦 = 2 (1)
𝑦 = −7 ⇒ (−2, −7) 𝑦 = 2 ⇒ (1, 2)

Step 4: With the determined points from steps 1, 2 and 3: (−1,0), (1,0), (−2, −7)
and (1, 2), we have the curve as follows:
𝑦

𝑥
−2 −1 1

7 Fig 3.21

d. Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 (cubic function)

46
The curve will look as follows:
𝑦
2

𝑥
−1 1 2

Fig 3.22
Now, let's go through the four steps

Step 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2

For 𝑥 − intercept, put 𝑦 = 0

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 = 0

Since 𝑓(1) = 0, ⇒ (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑥 − 1 𝑥3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
𝑥3 − 𝑥2
−𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
− −𝑥 2 + 𝑥
−2𝑥 + 2
− −2𝑥 + 2
− −

𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2)
but 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)

47
 If 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥−1=0 𝑥+1=0 𝑥−2=0

𝑥=1 𝑥 = −1 𝑥=2

So, the curve cuts the 𝑥-axis at 𝑥 = 1, −1 and 2,

Step 2: For 𝑦-intercepts, we put 𝑥 = 0

𝑦 = 03 − 2(0)2 − (0) + 2
𝑦=2

The curve cuts the 𝑦-axis at 𝑦 = 2

The points determined so far are displayed as follows

𝑦

𝑥
−1 1 2

Fig 3.23

Step 3: We determine a few more points by putting

𝑥 = −2 (left of 𝑥 = −1)
3
𝑥 = 1.5 or (between । and 2 )
2
𝑥 = 3 (right of 𝑥 = 2 )

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 𝑦 = (−2)3 − 2(−2)2 − (−2) + 2

If 𝑥 = −2 𝑦 = −8 − 8 + 2 + 2 = −12

48
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
If 𝑥 = 1.5
𝑦 = (1.5)3 − 2(1.5)2 − 1.5 + 2
𝑦 = 2.37

49
 𝑦= 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
If 𝑥 = 3
𝑦= 33 − 2(3)2 − 3 + 2
𝑦= 27 − 18 − 3 + 2
𝑦= 8

So far, the points available are (1, 0), (−1, 0), (2, 0), (0, 2), (−2, −8), (1.5, 2.37) and
(3, 8)

Step 4: We have the curve as follows

𝑦
8

𝑥
−1 1 2

−12 Fig 3.24

Well done. For now, it is quite clear that, given a curve, we can sketch it with some
degree of precision using the four steps discussed so far. We shall later add greater
details.

50
(B) Further Details on Curve Sketching I

Stationary Points
𝑑𝑦
A point on a curve at which = 0 is called a stationary point and the value of the
𝑑𝑥

function represented by the curve at that point is called its stationary value. At such
𝑑𝑦
points the target is parallel to the 𝑥-axis. To find the stationary points, let 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and

solve the resulting equation.

Example: Find the stationary points of the function 4𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 7

Solution:
𝑑𝑦
We start by finding or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

For this function, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 − 18

= 6(2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3)

= 6(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)

1
Hence, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 when 𝑥 = or −3.
2
9
∴ The function has two stationary points and its stationary values (at these points) are 4

and 88

(C) Maximum and Minimum Points of curves

Fig 3.25 shows a curve which passes through a stationary point and reaches a maximum
value at that point. As 𝑥, increases, the gradient of the curve decreases from a +ve the
value through O to a − va value.
𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥

51
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ Maximum point −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Fig 3.25
𝑥

Fig 3.26 shows a curve reaching a maximum value at a stationary point. As x increases
the gradient increases from a −ve value through O to a true value.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
− 𝑑𝑦 +
𝑑𝑥 =0 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Minimum point
Fig 3.27
𝑥

Maximum and minimum points are also called turning points, as the tangent "turns
around" at such points.

(D) Points of Inflexion

A third type of stationary point is shown in Fig 3.27 where the curve has neighter neither
𝑑𝑦
a maximum nor minimum value but = 0. This point is called point of inflexion, ie. a
𝑑𝑥

point where the tangent "bends" or "flexes" and then continues +ve or +ve as before. It
is not a turning point.
+

52
 o
−
+
o

Point of Inflexion −
Fig 3.28
𝑥

𝑑𝑦
NOTE: For all stationary points, the necessary condition is that =0
𝑑𝑥

Fig 3.28 shows a curve which has two maximum and one minimum value, though one of
the maximum values is greater than the other and the minimum value is not the lowest
value possible. The terms maximum and minimum are meant only in a local sense around
the stationary point. A function can have more than one of each type. For a stationary
𝑑𝑦
point, 𝑑𝑥 = 0 is a necessary condition but it is not sufficient by itself to distinguish

between the three types.

max

max

min Fig 3.29

Further Details on Curve Sketching II

Aside the basics of finding the 𝑥-intercepts), 𝑦-intercept (s) and a few more points, other
details may be needed for more precision in determining the path of a given curve. We
shall consider the following:

53
 1. Critical point (c)

2. Intervals for which a function is increasing and /or decreasing

3. Turning point

4. Concavity

5. Point(s) of inflection

1. Critical Point(𝒔) / Number(s) and Absolute Extrema

Given 𝑓(𝑥), we get critical numbers by setting 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is undefined and
solving for the value(𝑠) of 𝑥. Consider the following examples:

ACTIVITY 3.4.2

Example 1

Find the critical number (s) of the function defined below

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2

2
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 − 2)

Solution

1. Given that

𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 8𝑥 − 3

For critical numbers,

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
8𝑥 − 3 = 0
8𝑥 = 3

54
 3
𝑥=
8
3
∴ the critical number is 8

2. Given that,

2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 − 2)
2 2 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 (2𝑥) + 𝑥 −3 (𝑥 2 − 2)
3
2
5 2(𝑥 − 2)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 1
3𝑥 3
′
6𝑥 2 + 2(𝑥 2 − 2)
𝑓 (𝑥) = 1
3𝑥 3
6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 4
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
3𝑥 3
8𝑥 2 − 4
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
3𝑥 3

For critical number (s); 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = undefined

8𝑥 2 − 4
1 =0
3𝑥 3
8𝑥 2 − 4 = 0
8𝑥 2 = 4
8𝑥 2 4
=
8 8
1
𝑥2 =
2
1 1
𝑥= ,−
√2 √2

55
Also, for 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) to be undefined,

1
3𝑥 3 = 0
𝑥=0

1 1
In all, critical numbers are 0, ,−
√2 √2

Example 2

Find the absolute maximum and minimum of 𝑓(𝑥) on the indicated closed interval

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 − 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 , [−3,1]

(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 7 [−1,3]

2
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 3 [−1,8]

Solution

We follow the following steps:

Step 1: First find the critical numbers

Step 2: Substitute each critical number as the number in the closed interval in 𝑓(𝑥).

Step 3: Compare the results

• The highest of them is the absolute maximum

• The least of them is the absolute minimum

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 − 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3

Step 1: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −12𝑥 − 6𝑥 2

For critical numbers 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0

−12𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 = 0

56
 dividing through by 6

2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥(2 + 𝑥) = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = −2

Step 2: 𝑓(0) = 5 − 6(0)2 − 2(0)3 = 5

𝑓(−2) = 5 − 6(−2)2 − 2(−2)3 = −3

𝑓(−3) = 5 − 6(−3)2 − 2(−3)3 = 5
𝑓(1) = 5 − 6(1)2 − 2(1)3 = −3

Step 3: Absolute maximum = 5

Absolute minimum = −3

(b) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 7, [−1,3]

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 10

For critical numbers, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0

6𝑥 − 10 = 0
10 5
𝑥= =
6 3

5 5 2 5
So, 𝑓 ( ) = 3 ( ) − 10 ( ) + 7
3 3 3
25 50 7
= − +
3 3 1
25 − 50 + 21
=
3
4
=−
3
𝑓(−1) = 3(−1)2 − 10(−1) + 7
= 3 + 10 + 7
= 20
𝑓(3) = 3(3)2 − 10(3) + 7
= 27 − 30 + 7
=4

57
 ∴ Absolute maximum = 20
Absolute minimum = −4/3

2
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 3 , [−1,8]

2 1 −2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥 −3 = 1
3
3𝑥 3

𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 2/3 [−1,8]

(c) 2 −2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥 −1/3 = 1/3
3 3𝑥

For critical number, 𝑥 = 0

𝑓(0) = 1
𝑓(−1) = 0
𝑓(8) = −3

∴ Absolute maximum =1
Absolute minimum = −3

2. Intervals on which 𝒇(𝒙) is Increasing / Decreasing & Turning point (s)

The derived function, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), represents the slope of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point
(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)). 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) tells us the direction in which a curve proceeds at each point.

Sometimes, a curve may have some parts that are at which it is increasing while other
parts (of the same curve) will be at which it is decreasing. We are interested in the values
of 𝑥 that result in the various parts of the curve.

To determine the interval on which 𝑓 (the curve) increasing or decreasing is to determine

the range of values of 𝑥 that produce the increasing or decreasing parts of a curve.

58
ACTIVITY 3.4.3

Example 1

Find (a) the critical point (s)

(b) the interval on which 𝑓 is increasing

(c) the interval on which 𝑓 is decreasing

(d) the turning point (s) (If any)

for the function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 7

Solution

(a) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 7

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 36

For critical numbers, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0

6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 36 = 0

Dividing through by 6

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0

Factorizing, we have

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 6 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 − 3) + 2(𝑥 − 3) = 0
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥 + 2 = 0, 𝑥 − 3 = 0
𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 = 3

Locating the critical numbers on the number line, we have three naturally identified
intervals as follows:

59
 (−∞, −2) (−2, 3) (3, ∞)

𝑥 Fig 3.30
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
Since no range is given in the question, the Intervals chosen are (−∞, −2), (−2, 3) and
(3, +∞).

So, we can create a table with (−∞, −2), (−2,3). and (3, +∞) as the partitions.

Intervals (−∞, −2) (−2,3) (3, +∞)

𝑥 −3 0 4
𝑓′(𝑥) 36 −36 36
Sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) + − +
Direction of 𝑓

From the table, it is clear that, the turning point values of 𝑓(𝑥) are −2 and 3

To find the turning points, we substitute −2 and 3 respectively into the function, 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑓(−2) = 2(−2)3 − 3(−2)2 − 36(−2) + 7 = 51

𝑓(3) = 2(3)3 − 3(3)2 − 36(3) + 7 = −74

⇒ Maximum turning point is (−2, 51) and Minimum turning point is (3, −74)

Now, having tried your hands on the above examples, you can try your hands on the
following exercise.

Example 2

Given the functions

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 5

2
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 − 2).

60
Find is the

(i) critical points

(ii) interval on which 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing

(iii) interval on which 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing

(iv) turning point (s) if any

(v) Hence, sketch the curve

Solution (a)

(i) For critical points, put 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0

but 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 5
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 = 0
3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 5 = 0
3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 5 = 0
3𝑥(𝑥 − 1) + 5(𝑥 − 1) = 0
(3𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
Either 3𝑥 + 5 = 0 or 𝑥 − 1 = 0
3𝑥 = −5 or 𝑥 = 1
5
𝑥=− or 𝑥 = 1
3

5
(ii) With the two critical numbers 𝑥 = − 3 and 1, we can generate three intervals as
5 5
follows. (−∞, − 3) , (− 3 , 1) and (1, +∞)

(iii)

Intervals 5 5 (1, +∞)

(−∞, − ) (− , 1)
3 3
𝑥 2 0 2
𝑓′(𝑥) 3 −5 11
Sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) + − +
Direction of 𝑓

61
 5
From the table, 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing within the interval (−∞, − 3) and decreasing within
5
the interval (− 3 , 1 )

5
The turning values of 𝑓(𝑥) are − 3 and 1

5
∴ The turning points of 𝑓(𝑥) are (1, −8) and of (− 3 , 1.48)

Solution (b)

(i) For critical points 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0

2
but 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 − 2)

1
2 2𝑥 −3 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥3 + (𝑥 − 2)
3
5 2(𝑥 2 − 2)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 1
3𝑥 3

Now,

5 2
2𝑥 3 + 1
(𝑥 2 − 2) = 0
3𝑥 3

Multiplying through by the LCM

6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 4 = 0
8𝑥 2 − 4 = 0
4
𝑥2 =
8
1
𝑥2 =
2
1 1
𝑥= ,−
√2 √2

62
Also, for critical points, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) should be undefined.

1
3𝑥 3 = 0
𝑥=0

1 1
∴ The critical numbers are , −√2 , 0
√2

(ii) With the three critical numbers, we can generate intervals as follows:

1 1 1 1
(−∞, ) , (− , 0) , (0, ) and ( , +∞)
−√2 √2 √2 √2

1 1 1 1
Intervals (−∞, − ) (− , 0) (0, ) ( , +∞)
√2 √2 √2 √2
𝑥 1 1
−1 − 1
2 2
𝑓′(𝑥) 4 2 4
− −4
3 3 3
Sign − + − +

Nature of Curve

1 1
Fig 3.31
− O
√2 √2

63
3. Concavity
tangent lie on top of curve
B
B
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0

A
A
Curve sitting on tangent

Concave upwards Concave downwards

Fig 3.32 a Fig 3.32 b

Note that, concavity is determined by the same procedure as the previous (turning point)
except that we use the second derivative (𝑓 ′′ ) instead of the first (𝑓 ′ ).

Suppose that the function,𝑓 is differentiable. If the graph of 𝑓 lies above all of its tangent
on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then the graph of 𝑓 is concave upwards on [𝑎, 𝑏] (Fig 3.32) On the
other hand, if the graph of 𝑓 lies below all of its tangent on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then the
graph of 𝑓 is concave down wards on [𝑎, 𝑏] (Fig 3.32 b)

NOTE:

64
The point where concavity changes is the point of inflection

C
𝑦

− +
B

Point of inflection
(concavity changes point)
from concave downwards to
concave upwards
A
𝑥

Fig 3.32b

Now, try the following example:

ACTIVITY 3.4.4

Example 1
For the function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 , find:

(a) critical numbers

(b) intervals on which 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing
(c) intervals on which 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing
(d) turning point (s)
(e) Intervals on which 𝑓(𝑥) is concave upwards
(f) intervals on which 𝑓(𝑥) is concave downwards
(g) point (s) of inflection

65
Hence, sketch the curve
Solution

Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2

(a) For critical numbers, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 = 0
Dividing. through by 4
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 3) = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 2 − 3 = 0
𝑥2 = 3
𝑥 = ±√3
∴ The critical numbers are 0, √3, −√3

With the critical numbers, we form the table of intervals below to answer (b) and (c)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥

Intervals (−∞, −√3) (−√3, 0) (0, √3) (√3, +∞)

𝑥 −2 −1 1 2

𝑓′(𝑥) −8 8 −8 8
Sign − + − +

Nature of Curve

(d) Substituting the critical numbers into 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(−√3) = (−√3)4 − 6(−√3)2 = −9
𝑓(0) = (0)4 − 6(0)2 = 0
𝑓(√3) = (√3)4 − 6(√3)2 = −9

66
So, the turning points are (−√3, −9), (0,0) and (√3, −9)

(e) / (f) For concavity, the second derivative is required.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 12
⇒ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12(𝑥 2 − 1)

For critical numbers; 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0

𝑥2 − 1 = 0
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = −1,1

Available partitions include: (−∞, −1), (−1,1) and (1, ∞)

Given that 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12(𝑥 2 − 1)

Intervals (−∞, −1) (−1,1) (1, +∞)

𝑥 −2 0 2
𝑓′′(𝑥) 36 −12 36
Sign of 𝑓′′(𝑥) + − +
Direction of 𝑓

Concave upward Concave downward Concave upward

(g) Considering the three partitions, there are three points of inflections. At −1 and 1
(two points at which sign changes)
For points of inflection

𝑓(−1) = (−1)4 − 6(−1)2 = −5, (−1, −5)

𝑓(1) = (1)4 − 6(1)2 = −5, (1, −5)

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The curve is as follows:

−√3 1 1 √3

(−1, −5) (1, −5)

Fig 3.33

Example 2
Go through all the stages and sketch the curve, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
Solution
Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2
For critical points/number (s); 𝑦 ′ = 0
3𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥=0
With only one critical number (𝑥 = 0), two partitions can be developed as follows:
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2

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 Intervals (−∞, 0) (0, +∞)

𝑥 −1 1

𝑓′(𝑥) 3 3

Sign + +

Nature of Curve

Turning point? No turning point

We move on to Concavity (find second derivative)

𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥

For critical point, 𝑦 ′′ = 0

6𝑥 =0
⇒𝑥 =0

Again, two partitions can be developed as follows

Intervals (−∞, 0) (0, +∞)

𝑥 −1 1

𝑓′′(𝑥) −6 6
Sign − +
Nature of Curve

Concave downward Concave upward

So, point of inflection

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Point of inflection since there is a change in sign of the second derivative

Inflection occurs at 0

𝑓(0) = 0; (0,0)

Sketch

(0,0)

Fig 3.34

NB: Here is a typical example where the critical number is NOT a turning point.

Trial Question 3.4.2

2
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 − 9), determine the critical numbers, intervals at which 𝑓(𝑥)
increases and decreases, turning point(s), concavity and point(s) of inflection, if any.
Hence, sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).

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Required Reading and Reference List

Backhouse, J. K., Houldsworth, S. P. T. & Horril, P. J. F. (2005). Pure mathematics 1. (Seventh

edition). London Longman.
Gordor, B. K., Naandam, S. M., & Nkansah, B. K. (2012). Core mathematics for senior high
schools. Accra: Sam- Woode Ltd
Hesse, C. A. (2012). Core mathematics for senior high schools. Accra: Akrong Publications Ltd.
Martin, J. et. al. (1994). Mathematics for teacher training in Ghana: Tutor notes. Accra:
Unimax Publishers. Martin, J. et. al. (1994). Mathematics for teacher training in
Ghana: Students activities. Accra: Unimax Publishers.
Ministry of Education (2015). Core mathematics modules for SEIP. Accra: Ministry of
Education.
Ministry of Education. (2010). Teaching syllabus for core mathematics (Senior High School).
Accra: Ministry of Education, Science and Sports.

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