12/12/2024

FUNCTIONS as OBJECTS

FUNCTION FROM LAST LECTURE

def is_even( i ):
"""
Input: i, a positive int
Returns True if i is even and False otherwise
"""
return i%2 == 0

 A function always returns something

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WHAT IF THERE IS
NO return KEYWORD

def is_even( i ):
"""
Input: i, a positive int
Does not return anything
"""
i%2 == 0

 Python returns the value None, if no return given

 Represents the absence of a value
 If invoked in shell, nothing is printed
 No static semantic error generated

def is_even( i ):
"""
Input: i, a positive int
Does not return anything
"""
i%2 == 0
return None

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YOU TRY IT!

 What is printed if you run this code as a file?
def add(x,y):
return x+y
def mult(x,y):
print(x*y)

add(1,2)
print(add(2,3))
mult(3,4)
print(mult(4,5))

return vs. print

 return only has meaning print can be used outside
inside a function functions
 only one return executed can execute many print
inside a function statements inside a function
 code inside function, but code inside function can be
after return statement, executed after a print
not executed statement
 has a value associated has a value associated with
with it, given to function it, outputted to the console
caller
 print expression itself returns
None value

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YOU TRY IT!

 Fix the code that tries to write this function
def is_triangular(n):
""" n is an int > 0
Returns True if n is triangular, i.e. equals a continued
summation of natural numbers (1+2+3+...+k), False otherwise """
total = 0
for i in range(n):
total += i
if total == n:
print(True)
print(False)

FUNCTION SCOPE

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UNDERSTANDING FUNCTION
CALLS

 How does Python execute a function call?

 How does Python know what value is associated with a variable
name?
 It creates a new environment with every function call!
 Like a mini program that it needs to complete
 The mini program runs with assigning its parameters to some inputs
 It does the work (aka the body of the function)
 It returns a value
 The environment disappears after it returns the value

ENVIRONMENTS

 Global environment
 Where user interacts with Python interpreter
 Where the program starts out
 Invoking a function creates a new environment (frame/scope)

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VARIABLE SCOPE

 Formal parameters get bound to the value of input parameters

 Scope is a mapping of names to objects
 Defines context in which body is evaluated
 Values of variables given by bindings of names
 Expressions in body of function evaluated wrt this new scope
def f( x ):
x = x + 1
print('in f(x): x =', x)
return x

xxy = 3
z = f( x )

VARIABLE SCOPE
after evaluating def

This is my “black box”

def f( x ):
Global scope
x = x + 1
function
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f object
code
return x

x = 3
z = f( x )

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VARIABLE SCOPE
after exec 1st assignment

This is my “black box”

def f( x ):
Global scope
x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
return x
3
x
x = 3
z = f( x )

VARIABLE SCOPE
after f invoked

def f( x ): Global scope

f scope
x = x + 1 Some
f
print('in f(x): x =', x) code x 3
return x
x 3

x = 3
z = f( x )

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VARIABLE SCOPE
after f invoked

Global scope
def f( x ):
Some f scope
x = x + 1 f
code 3
print('in f(x): x =', x) x
return x 3
y

y = 3
z = f( y )

VARIABLE SCOPE
eval body of f in f’s scope

in f(x): x = 4 printed out

Global scope
def f( x ): f scope
x = x + 1 f Some
code x 4
3
print('in f(x): x =', x)
return x
x 3

x = 3
z = f( x )

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VARIABLE SCOPE
during return

Global scope
def f( x ): f scope
x = x + 1 f Some
code x
print('in f(x): x =', x) 4
return x 3
x
returns 4
x = 3
z = f( x )

VARIABLE SCOPE
after exec 2nd assignment

def f( x ):
Global scope
x = x + 1
Some
print('in f(x): x =', x) f code
return x
3
x
x = 3
4
z = f( x )
z

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BIG IDEA
You need to know what
expression you are executing
to know the scope you are in.

ANOTHER SCOPE EXAMPLE

 Inside a function, can access a variable defined outside

 Inside a function, cannot modify a variable defined outside
(can by using global variables, but frowned upon)
 Use the Python Tutor to step through these!

def f(y): def g(y): def h(y):

x = 1 print(x) x += 1
x += 1 print(x + 1)
print(x) x = 5
x = 5 h(x)
x = 5 g(x) print(x)
f(x) print(x)
print(x)

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ANOTHER SCOPE EXAMPLE

 Inside a function, can access a variable defined outside

 Inside a function, cannot modify a variable defined outside
(can by using global variables, but frowned upon)
 Use the Python Tutor to step through these!

def f(y): def g(y): def h(y):

x = 1 print(x) x += 1
x += 1 print(x + 1)
print(x) x = 5
x = 5 h(x)
x = 5 g(x) print(x)
f(x) print(x)
print(x) 5
2 6 Error
5 5

FUNCTIONS as
ARGUMENTS

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HIGHER ORDER PROCEDURES

 Objects in Python have a type

 int, float, str, Boolean, NoneType, function
 Objects can appear in RHS of assignment statement
 Bind a name to an object
 Objects
 Can be used as an argument to a procedure
 Can be returned as a value from a procedure
 Functions are also first class objects!
 Treat functions just like the other types
 Functions can be arguments to another function
 Functions can be returned by another function

OBJECTS IN A PROGRAM
function
object with
my_func
some code
is_even

def is_even(i): r int object 2

return i%2 == 0
float object
pi 3.14285714
r = 2

pi = 22/7 False
a
my_func = is_even
b True
a = is_even(3)

b = my_func(4)

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BIG IDEA
Everything in Python is
an object.

FUNCTION AS A PARAMETER
def calc(op, x, y):
return op(x,y)

def add(a,b):
return a+b

def div(a,b): if
b != 0:
return a/b
print("Denominator
was 0.")

print(calc(add, 2, 3))

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STEP THROUGH THE CODE

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some
object
code
def div(a,b):
Some
function
if b != 0: add
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some
div
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

CREATE calc SCOPE

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some
object
code
def div(a,b):
Some
function
if b != 0: add
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some
div
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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MATCH FORMAL PARAMS in calc

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc Some
function op add
code
object
def div(a,b):
Some
function 2
if b != 0: add x
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
Some
function 3
div y
code
object
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

FIRST (and only) LINE IN calc

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)

Program Scope
def add(a,b): calc scope
return a+b calc function
Some add
object
code op
def div(a,b):
Some
function 2
if b != 0: add x
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some 3
div y
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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CREATE SCOPE OF add

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope add scope
def add(a,b): calc scope
return a+b calc function
Some add
object
code op
def div(a,b):
Some
function 2
if b != 0: add x
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some 3
div y
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

MATCH FORMAL PARAMS IN add

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope
def add(a,b): calc scope add scope
return a+b calc function
Some add 2
object
code op a
def div(a,b):
Some
function 2 3
if b != 0: add x
code
object b
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some 3
div y
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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EXECUTE LINE OF add

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope add scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op add a 2
object
code
def div(a,b):
Some
function 2 3
if b != 0: add x b
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some
div y 3
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res
returns 5

REPLACE FUNC CALL WITH RETURN

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)

Program Scope
def add(a,b): calc scope
return a+b calc function
Some add
object
code op
def div(a,b):
Some
function 2
if b != 0: add x
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some 3
div y
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res

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EXECUTE LINE OF calc

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope calc scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some op add
object
code
def div(a,b):
Some
function 2
if b != 0: add x
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some 3
div y
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)

res
returns 5

REPLACE FUNC CALL WITH RETURN

def calc(op, x, y):

return op(x,y)
Program Scope
def add(a,b):
return a+b calc function
Some
object
code
def div(a,b):
Some
function
if b != 0: add
code
object
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")
function
Some
div
object
code
res = calc(add, 2, 3)
5
res

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YOU TRY IT!

 Do a similar trace with the function call
def calc(op, x, y):
return op(x,y)

def div(a,b):
if b != 0:
return a/b
print("Denom was 0.")

res = calc(div,2,0)

What is the value of res and what gets printed?

ANOTHER EXAMPLE:
FUNCTIONS AS PARAMS

def func_a():
print('inside func_a')
def func_b(y):
print('inside func_b')
return y
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c')
return f(z)

print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

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FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

func_a scope
Global scope
def func_a(): Some
print('inside func_a') func_a code
def func_b(y): Some
print('inside func_b') func_b code
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): code
func_c
print('inside func_c')
return f(z)
print(func_a())

print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_a scope

def func_a():
func_a Some
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
print('inside func_b') func_b code
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): func_c code
print('inside func_c')
None
return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

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FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope
def func_a():
Some
print('inside func_a') func_a code
def func_b(y): Some
print('inside func_b') func_b code
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): code
func_c
print('inside func_c')
return f(z)
print(func_a())

print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_b scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a y 2
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): func_c code

print('inside func_c') None

return f(z)

print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

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FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_b scope

def func_a(): func_a')
Some 2
func_a code y
print('inside
def func_b(y): Some
print('inside func_b') func_b code

def return y func_c') Some

code
func_c(f, z): func_c
None
print('inside
return f(z)
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_b scope

def func_a():
func_a Some y 2
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
code
def func_c(f, z): func_c') func_c
None
print('inside
return f(z)
print(func_a()) 7 returns 2

print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

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FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope
def func_a():
func_a Some
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some
print('inside func_b') func_b code
return y Some
def func_c(f, z): func_c code
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)

print(func_a()) 7
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_c scope

def func_a(): Some
func_a f func_b
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some z
3
func_b code
print('inside func_b')
return y Some
func_c code
def func_c(f, z):
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)

print(func_a()) 7
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

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FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_c scope

def func_a(): func_a') func_b
func_a Some f
print('inside code
def func_b(y): Some z
3
print('inside func_b') func_b code
return y Some 3
def func_c(f, z): func_c') func_c code

print('inside None
returns 3 func_b scope
return f(z)
y 3
print(func_a()) 7
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3))

FUNCTIONS AS PARAMETERS

Global scope func_c scope

def func_a(): func_b
func_a Some f
print('inside func_a') code
def func_b(y): Some z 3
print('inside func_b') func_b code
return y Some 3
def func_c(f, z): func_c code
print('inside func_c') None
return f(z)
7
print(func_a())
print(5 + func_b(2))
print(func_c(func_b, 3)) 3
48 returns 3

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YOU TRY IT!

 Write a function that meets these specs.
def apply(criteria,n):
"""
* criteria is a func that takes in a number and returns a bool
* n is an int
Returns how many ints from 0 to n (inclusive) match
the criteria (i.e. return True when run with criteria)
"""

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SUMMARY

 Functions are first class objects

 They have a type
 They can be assigned as a value bound to a name
 They can be used as an argument to another procedure
 They can be returned as a value from another procedure
 Have to be careful about environments
 Main program runs in the global environment
 Function calls each get a new temporary environment
 This enables the creation of concise, easily read code

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