CENGR4150 – Irrigation Engineering 1

MODULE NO. 1
CHAPTER 1
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

Learning Objectives:

1. Understand Irrigation Engineering.

2. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of irrigation.

3. Identify Types of irrigation.

4. Discuss the Soil-Water Relationship.

Introduction
Water is the greatest resource of humanity. It not only helps in survival but also helps in
making life comfortable and luxurious. Besides various other uses of water, the largest use of water
in the world is made for irrigating lands. Irrigation, in fact, is nothing but a “a continuous and
reliable water supply to the different crops in accordance with their different needs”. When
sufficient and timely water does not become available to the crops, the crops fade away, resulting
in lesser crop yield, consequently creating famines and disasters. Irrigation can, save us from such
disaster.

Irrigation Techniques and Quality of Irrigation Water

Definition of Irrigation
Plants and living beings and do require water and air for their survival, as do human beings
require. Their requirement of water varies with their type. Different types of plants require different
quantities of water, and at different times, till they grow up completely. Water is normally supplied
to these plants by nature through direct rain or through the flood waters of rivers which inundate
large land areas during floods. The flood water may saturate the land before the flood is subsided.
The water absorbed by the and during floods, supplements the water requirement of the crop during
dry season. This natural process, whereby the water is supplied to the crops for their growth, are
dependent upon “nature” or ‘God’, whatever we may call. Sometimes, there may be very heavy
rains creating serious floods and damaging the crops, and sometimes, there may not be any rains
at all, creating scarcity of water for the crops. Thus, famine and scarcity conditions are created. In
his bid to control the nature, man discovered various methods by which the water can be stored
during periods of excess rainfall, and to use that stored water during periods of “less rainfall” or
“no rainfall”. The art or the science by which it is accomplished, is generally, termed, as irrigation.
Irrigation may, therefore, be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the “crop requirements” throughout the “cop period” for full-fledged nourishment
of the crops.
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Advantages so of Irrigation
Every irrigation project is designed, keeping in view of its economics. There is hardly any
point in emphasizing the importance and advantages of irrigation during the times of acute food
shortages and growing population of our country.

1. Increase in Food Production

Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields, and hence, to attain self-sufficiency in food.

2. Optimum Benefits
Optimum utilization of water is made possible by irrigation. By optimum utilization, we
generally, mean, obtaining maximum crop yield with required amount of water. In other words,
yield will be smaller for any quantity lesser than or in excess of this optimum quantity.

3. Elimination of Mixed Cropping

4. General Prosperity
Revenue returns with well developed irrigation, are sometimes, quire high, and helps in
all around development of the country and prosperity of the entire nation and community.

5. Generation of Hydro-electric power

Cheaper power generation can be obtained from water development projects, primarily
designed for irrigation alone. Canal outlets from dams and canal falls on irrigation canals can be
used for power generation.

6. Domestic Water Supply

Development of irrigation facilities in an area helps in augmenting the water supply in
nearby villages and towns, where other sources of water are not available or are scarcely available.
It also helps in providing drinking water for animals, and water for swimming, bathing, etc.

7. Facilities of Communication
Irrigation channels are generally provided with embankments and inspection roads. These
inspection paths provide good roadways to the villagers for walking, cycling or sometimes even
for motoring.

8. Inland Navigation
Sometimes, larger irrigation canals can be used and developed for navigation purposes.

9. Afforestation
Trees are generally grown along the banks of the channels, which increase the timber
wealth of the country and also help in reducing soil erosion and air pollution.

Disadvantages and Effects of Irrigation

1. Irrigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of water pollution. One of these is
the seepage into ground water of the nitrates, that have been applied to the soil as fertilizer.
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2. Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate, resulting in marshy lands and breeding of
mosquitos, causing outbreak of disease like malaria and dengue.
3. Over-irrigation may lead to water-logging and may reduce crop yields.
4. Procuring and supplying irrigation water is complex and expensive in itself.

Types of Irrigation

a. SURFACE IRRIGATION
Surface irrigation stands for a large group of irrigation methods in which water is
distributed by gravity over the surface of the field and one of the oldest methods of
irrigating fields is surface irrigation (also known as flood or furrow irrigation), where
farmers flow water down small trenches running through their crops.

Advantages
1. Because it is so widely utilized, local irrigators generally have at least minimal
understanding of how to operate and maintain the system.
2. Surface irrigation systems can be developed at the farm level with minimal capital
investment.
3. The essential structural elements are located at the edges of the fields, which facilitates
operation and maintenance activities.
4. The gravity flow system is a highly flexible, relatively easily managed method of
irrigation.

Disadvantages
1. The soil, which must be used to convey the water over the field, has properties that are
highly varied both spatially and temporally.
2. Surface irrigation systems are typically less efficient in applying water than either
sprinkler or trickle systems.
3. The need to use the field surface as a conveyance and distribution facility requires that
fields be well graded if possible.
4. Surface systems tend to be labor-intensive.

a.1. Flow Irrigation

When the water is available at a higher level, and it is supplied to lower level, then it is
called Flow Irrigation.
a.1.1. Flood Irrigation
It is sometimes called inundation irrigation. In this method of irrigation, soil is
kept submerged and thoroughly flooded with water, so as to cause thorough saturation of
the land.

a.1.2. Perennial Irrigation

In this perennial irrigation, constant and continuous water supply is assured to the
crops in accordance with the requirements of the crop throughout the crop period.

a.1.2.1. Direct Irrigation

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When irrigation is done from the direct runoff of a river, or by diverting

the river runoff into some canal by constructing a diversion weir or a barrage
across the river.

a.1.2.2. Storage Irrigation

When a dam is constructed across a river to store water during monsoons,
so as to supply water in the off-taking channels during periods of low flow.

a.2. Lift Irrigation

If water is lifter up by some mechanical or manual means, such as by pumps, etc. and then
supplied for irrigation, it is called Lift Irrigation.

b. SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION
It is termed as sub-surface irrigation, because in this type of irrigation, water does
not wet the soil surface. The underground water nourishes the plant roots by capillarity.
Subsurface irrigation requires less maintenance than surface irrigation, and there is also
less chance of surface saturation and effluent runoff.

Advantages
1. There is an immediate reduction in costs simply because there is no need for a worker to
water plants since the subsurface irrigation waters automatically.
2. It costs less to water plants more fully. Less water is lost in the process and there’s no run-
off.
3. Subsurface irrigation systems can free up above ground space. This can increase the
number of crops produced and less equipment required.

Disadvantages
1. Driving vehicles over a subsurface irrigation system will likely damage piping.
2. Storage facilities for effluent must exist for extended periods of time when the ground for
subsurface irrigation systems is wet or frozen.
3. Wind obstructions may be necessary with a subsurface irrigation system to prevent off-
site air transportation of effluent.

b.1. Natural Irrigation

Leakage water from sources of water such as streams, lakes, ponds, canals, etc. goes
underground and during the passage to the subsoil, it may irrigate crop by capillarity.

b.2. Artificial Irrigation

In this method, water is applied beneath the land surface through a network of buried
perforated or open jointed pipes. As water is passed under pressure in these pipes, it comes
out through open joints.
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Basic Soil-Water Relation

Soil Development and Layering

Layers (soil horizons) form in the soil with different structures and textures.
Understanding the response of soil layers to irrigation and agricultural practices is essential to
maintaining a productive soil environment.

Soil Texture
Soil particles are classified based on particle diameter. There are three major categories of
soil particle size: sand, silt, and clay. The USDA particle size classification scheme is in Table
3.1.

Soil textures can also be classified (NRCS-NEH Part 652-2) based on the way that the
soil responds in the hand (the feel and appearance method).

Sand
Sand is loose and single-grained. The individual grains can be readily seen and felt.

Sandy loam
A sandy loam is soil containing a high percentage of sand, but having enough silt and
clay to make it somewhat coherent. The individual sand grains can be readily seen and felt.

Loam
A loam is soil having a relatively even mixture of different grades of sand, silt, and clay.
It is friable with a somewhat gritty feel, but is fairly smooth and slightly plastic.

Clay loam
Clay loam is moderately fine-textured soil that generally breaks into clods or lumps that
are hard when dry.
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Silt loam
A silt loam is soil having a moderate amount of fine sand with a small amount of clay.
Over half of the particles are silt size particles.

Clay
A clay is fine-textured soil that usually forms very hard lumps or clods when dry and is
very sticky and plastic when
wet.
Soil Structure
Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of soil particles into natural units of
aggregation. These units are separated from one another by weakness planes that persist through
cycles of wetting and drying and cycles of freezing and thawing. Structure influences air and
water movement, root development, and nutrient supply.

Soil-Water Relationship
The two most important parameters that describe the status of water in soil are water
content and total water potential.

Water Content
Water content refers to the fraction of the soil that is occupied by water and can be
measured by mass or volume.

Total Water Potential

Total water potential refers to the energy of the water in soil and generally includes matric
potential (also called capillary potential or moisture potential), gravitational potential due to
elevation, and osmotic potential due to salinity.

Soil Sample
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For fully saturated soil sample:

𝐕𝐚 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐕𝐯 = 𝐕𝐰

For completely dry soil sample

𝐕𝐰 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐕𝐯 = 𝐕𝐚

where:
V = volume of soil sample
Vs = volume of solids
Vw = volume of water (liquid)
Va = volume of gas (air)
Vv = volume of voids (pore space)

1. Void ratio – the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solid. May be less than, equal
to, or greater than 1.0.
𝐕𝐯
e= 𝐕𝐬

2. Porosity– the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.

𝐕𝐯
n= 𝐕

𝐞
n=
𝟏+𝐞

3. Degree of Saturation – the ratio of volume of water to volume of voids.

𝐕𝐰
S=
𝐕𝐯

𝛚𝐆𝐬
S= 𝐞

4. Moisture Content – the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given
volume of soil.
𝐖𝐰
𝛚= 𝐖𝐬

5. Unit Weight – the weight of soil per unit volume or sometimes called the moist unit weight.

𝐖
𝛄= 𝐕
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6. Dry Unit Weight – the weight per unit volume of soil, excluding water.

𝐖𝐬
𝛄𝐝 = 𝐕
If the volume of soil solid is one:

𝐆𝐬 𝛄𝐰
𝛄𝐝 = 𝟏+𝐞

7. Moist Unit Weight

𝛄 = 𝛄𝐝 (𝟏 + 𝛚)

8. Saturated Unit Weight of Soil – the weight per unit volume of soil, excluding water.

(𝐆𝐬 +𝐞)𝛄𝐰
𝛄𝐬𝐚𝐭 = 𝟏+𝐞

9. Density of Soil
(𝟏+ 𝛚)𝐆𝐬 𝛒𝐰
𝛒=
𝟏+𝐞

10. Dry Density

𝐆𝐬 𝛒𝐰
𝛒𝐝 = 𝟏+𝐞

11. Saturated Density

(𝐆𝐬 +𝐞)𝛒𝐰
𝛒𝐬𝐚𝐭 = 𝟏+𝐞

Sample Problem

1. The moist unit weight of a soil is 19.2 kN/m³. Given that the specific gravity is 2.69 and
water content is 9.8%. Determine the following:
a. Dry Unit Weight
b. Void Ratio
c. Porosity
d. Degree of Saturation

2. The moist unit weight of a soil is 16.5 kN/m³. If the water content is 15% and specific
gravity of soil is 2.7, determine the following:
a. Dry unit weight
b. Porosity
c. Degree of Saturation
d. Mass of water in kg/m³ to be added to reach full saturation
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References

Garg, S.K. Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures

Besavilla, Geotechnical Engineering

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/irrigation-methods-furrow-or-
flood-irrigation?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects

https://sswm.info/sswm-university-course/module-4-sustainable-water-supply/further-
resources-water-use/surface-irrigation

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/irrigation-methods-furrow-or-
flood-irrigation?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects