S

MENSCHENF ÜRMENSCHENFOUNDATI
ON
AGRO-TECHNI
CALANDTECHNOLOGYCOLLEGE

Depar
tmentofAut
omot
iveTechnol
ogy

Lect
urenot
es

On

Engi
neer
ingMechani
csI
:St
ati
cs

(
MEng2108)

Compi
ledby:EndeshawMandef
ro(
MSc)
Sept
ember2019

Har
ar,
Ethi
opi
a
1.Basi
cinf
ormat
ionont
hesubj
ect
MenschenfϋrMenschenFoundati
onAgr oTechni
caland
Col
lege
Technol
ogyColl
ege,Harar
Depar tment Aut omotiveTechnol
ogy
Degr eecour se Bachel orofSci
enceinAutomoti
veTechnology
st
Semest er 1 semest er
Modul ecode MEng1102 Engi neeri
ngMechanicsI(St
ati
cs)
ECP( ECTS) 5
Cont act
5
hours
Status Obligatory
Number of
Max.35
parti
ci pants
Responsi blelect urer ATDSt aff
Involvementofot herstaff
None
member s
2.Cour sewi llbet akeni nt hef ol
lowingPr ograms:
BSci nAut omot i
v eTechnol ogy
B.Sc.i nManuf acturingTechnol ogy
3.Compet encet obeat t
ainedi nt hesubject/contr i
but i
ontothequal i
fi
cationoft
hedegree:
Theobj ectivesoft heModul ear eto:
o appr eciatehowphy si
calbodi esint
eractwiththei rsurr
oundingandat tainast
ateofrest
o knowhowt oisolateast r
uct ureorpartofitandshowt hef orcesacti
ngoni t
o appl ythepr inciplesoff orcesy stemsf oranalyzingofst r
uctures
o i nt erprett heconceptofc.g, c.m andcent roi
dasappl iedtodistr
ibut
edf or
ces
o knowsect ionpr oper t
iesofmember sofast ructur ewhicharemeasur esofstif
fness

Thi
sModul ei
salsointendedtointr
oducest
udent sto:
o Givebasicconcept
si nmechanicsofmateri
als;
o Strengt
handdef or
mat i
oncalcul
ati
onsofloadedmember
s;
o Stabil
it
ycri
ter
iaofcompr essi
onmembers;
o Designmethodsofsi mplemachinemember s

4.Pre-r
equisi
te
Math1101,AppliedMat
hemati
csI
5.Examinat
ion&Assessmentdet
ail
s:
Durat
ion i
n Parti
cipat
ion Percentage of
Exam.&AssessmentNumber Ty
pe
minut
es requi
rements fi
nalgrade
xxxx-1(MidExam) Writ
ten 90 None 35%
xxxx-2(Fi
nalexam) Writ
ten 60 I
nvigi
lat
or 50%
xxxx-a(Assi
gnment)
. Writ
ten NA None 150%
6.TotalSt
udentwor
kloadforthecourses
Contacthours Student’
s
Teaching Tot
al
Module Hours Total addit
ional ECP
method wor
kload
/week hours workload
MEng1102 Lectur
e 2 30 30 60 2
Tutori
al 3 45 45 90 3
TOTAL 5 75 75 150 5
7.Detaileddescr i
ptionoft hecoursecont ents
MEng1102, Engineer ingMechani csI(Statics)
Lecturers’names ATDSt af
f
Modul econt ent
1.Basi csofSt atics:Introducti
on;BasicConcept si nMechani cs;ScalarsandVect ors;Newton’
sLaws;
FreeBodyDi agram
2.Forcesyst ems:Introduct i
on;CoplanarFor ceSyst ems( 2-D) ;Resoluti
onofaFor ce;Moment ,Couple
& Force-Coupl esy stems;Resul tants;Non-Copl anarFor ceSy stems( 3-D);ResolutionofaFor ce;
Moment ,Couple&For ce-Couplesy st
ems; Resul
tant s
3.Equi l
ibri
um: I
ntroduct i
on;Equil
ibr
ium inTwo-Di mensi ons; Equi l
ibri
um inThree-Dimensions
4.Anal ysisofst r
uct ur es:
Int
roducti
on;Tr usses;PlaneTr usses;Met hodofJoints;Met hodofSecti
ons;
Pin-endedMul ti
-For ceSt ructur
es;Frames; SimpleMachi nes( opti
onal)
5.Cent roid&Ar eaMomentofI nerti
a:I ntr
oduction;Cent erofGr avit
y,CenterofMass&Cent roid;
Composi t
ebodi es

Teachingmet hods/sizeofcl ass/AttendanceRequi rement s

Lectur
ef oramaxi mum of35st udent s
Practi
cal/l abdemonst rationi ngroupsof7t o10st udent smax.
Studentat tendance100%f orlecture&100%f ort utorials
Generalcondi ti
ons/organi sat i
onalnecessi t i
es
Classr oom wi t
hpossi bili
tyofusi ngpowerpoi ntpr esentations,over
headproject
orsandbl
ackand
whiteboar d.
Inschedul ingt helect uresacl eardi visionoft hehour smustbeunder takenbefor
ethebegi
nni
ngof
thesemest er.
Lit
eratureandmat erials
o Mer r
iam, J.L.“Engi neer i
ngMechani cs( Stat
ics) ”,6thed.
,2003.
o “ Vect orMechani csf orEngi neer s”byP. Beer.
o “ Element aryEngineer i
ngMechani cs”byWi ley .
o Beer, FerdinandP.andJohnst onE.R. l,Mechani csofMat eri
als,
o Hear n, E.S.,Mechani csofMat erialsPopov ,Mechani csofMat eri
als
o Si nger ,StrengthofMat erials
o Nash, W.A. ,St
rengt hofMat eri
als( Schaum’ sOut li
neSer ies)
o Rober tL. Mot t
,Appl iedSt rengthofMat eri
als, 2001

Remarks/fur
therexpl
anat
ions
Semester
: 15weeks
 Menschenf
ürMenschenFoundat
ion

Agr
oTechni
calandTechnol
ogyCol
lege

Aut
omot
iveTechnol
ogyDepar
tment

Cour
seout
li
ne

Cour
seTi
tl
e:Engi
neer
ingMechani
csI(
Stat
ics)
Cour
seNumber
:MEng1102
ECTSCr
edi
ts:5
Academi
cyear
:2019/
2020
Cour
seObj
ect
ives:Theobj
ect
ivesoft
heModul
ear
eto:
 Appr
eci
atehow phy
sicalbodi
esi
nter
actwi
tht
hei
rsur
roundi
ngandat
tai
nast
ateof
r
est
.
 Knowhowt
oisol
ateast
ruct
ureorpar
tofi
tandshowt
hef
orcesact
ingoni
t.
 Appl
ythepr
inci
plesoff
orcesy
stemsf
oranal
yzi
ngofst
ruct
ures.
 I
nter
prett
heconceptofc.g,
c.m andcent
roi
dasappl
iedt
odi
str
ibut
edf
orces.
 Knowsect
ionpr
oper
ti
esofmember
sofast
ruct
urewhi
char
emeasur
esofst
if
fness.
Cour
se Descr
ipt
ion:Thi
s cour
se pr
esent
sthe f
undament
alphy
sicalconcept
s,l
aws and
pr
inci
pleswhi
char
eessent
ialf
orsol
vingengi
neer
ingpr
obl
ems.Asi
tisapr
e-r
equi
sit
etot
he
seni
orengi
neer
ingcour
ses,st
udent
sar
eexpect
edt
ogr
aspt
hebasi
csoft
hecour
sest
hrough
di
scussi
on,
readi
ngandexer
cisi
ng.
1.Basi
csofSt
ati
cs
1.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
1.
2.Basi
cConcept
sinMechani
cs
1.
3.Scal
arsandVect
ors
1.
4.Newt
on’
sLaws
2.For
cesyst
ems
2.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
2.
2.Copl
anarFor
ceSy
stems(
2-D)
;Resol
uti
onofaFor
ce;Moment
,Coupl
e& For
ce-
Coupl
esy
stems;
Resul
tant
s;
2.
3.Non-Copl
anarFor
ceSy
stems(
3-D)
;Resol
uti
onofaFor
ce;Moment
,Coupl
e&For
ce-
Coupl
esy
stems;
Resul
tant
s
3.Equi
li
bri
um
3.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
3.
2.Equi
li
bri
um i
nTwo-Di
mensi
ons
3.
3.Equi
li
bri
um i
nThr
ee-Di
mensi
ons
4.Anal
ysi
sofst
ruct
ures
4.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
4.
2.Tr
usses;
PlaneTr
usses;
Met
hodofJoi
nts;
Met
hodofSect
ions
4.
3.Pi
n-endedMul
ti
-For
ceSt
ruct
ures;
Frames;
Simpl
eMachi
nes(
opt
ional
)
5.Di
str
ibut
edf
orces
5.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
5.
2.Cent
erofGr
avi
ty,
Cent
erofMass&Cent
roi
d
5.
3.Composi
tebodi
es
5.
4.Theor
em ofPappus(
opt
ional
)
5.
5.Beams-Ext
ernalef
fect
s(opt
ional
)
6.Ar
eamoment
sofi
ner
ti
a
6.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
6.
2.Composi
teAr
eas
6.
3.Pr
oductofI
ner
ti
a
6.
4.Tr
ansf
erofAxes
6.
5.Rot
ati
onofAxes(
opt
ional
)
7. Fr
ict
ion(
opt
ional
)
7.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
7.
2.Ty
pesofFr
ict
ion
7.
3.Dr
yFr
ict
ion
AssessmentMode
I
ndi
vidualassi
gnment
-----------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------15%
Mi
d-Semest
erExam------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------35%
Fi
nalExam--------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------50%
Li
ter
atur
e
 TextBook:Mer
ri
am,
J.L.
“Engi
neer
ingMechani
cs(
Stat
ics)
”,6thed.
,2003.
 Ref
erenceBooks:
1.“
Vect
orMechani
csf
orEngi
neer
s”byP.
Beer
.
2.“
Element
aryEngi
neer
ingMechani
cs”byWi
ley
.
3.Anyot
herr
elev
antEngi
neer
ingMechani
csBooks.

Chapt
erI
I
ntr
oduct
iont
oSt
ati
cs
1.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oSt
ati
cs
1.
1. Mechani
cs
Mechani
csi
saphy
sicalsci
ence(
theol
destofphy
sicalsci
ences)whi
chdeal
swi
tht
heef
fect
s
off
orceson obj
ect
s.oral
ter
nat
ivel
ywemaydef
inemechani
csast
hest
udyoff
orce,
def
ormat
ion,andmot
ion,andt
her
elat
ionsbet
weent
hem.Noot
hersubj
ectpl
aysagr
eat
er
r
olei
nengi
neer
inganal
ysi
sthanmechani
cs.Wecar
eaboutf
orcesbecausewewantt
oknow
howhar
dtopushsomet
hingt
omov
eitorwhet
heri
twi
llbr
eakwhenwepushoni
tforot
her
r
easons.Wecar
eaboutdef
ormat
ionandmot
ionbecausewewantt
hingst
omov
eornot
mov
eincer
tai
nway
s.Towar
dst
heseendswear
econf
ront
edwi
tht
hisgener
almechani
cs
pr
obl
em:
Gi
vensome(
possi
blyi
deal
ized)i
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hepr
oper
ti
es,f
orces,def
ormat
ions,and
mot
ions ofa mechani
calsy
stem,make usef
ulpr
edi
cti
ons aboutot
heraspect
s ofi
ts
pr
oper
ti
es,
for
ces,
def
ormat
ions,
andmot
ions.
Bysy
stem,wemeanat
angi
blet
hingsuchasawheel
,agear
,acar
,ahumanf
inger
,abut
ter
fl
y,
askat
eboar
dandr
ider
,aquar
tzt
imi
ngcr
yst
al,
abui
ldi
ngi
nanear
thquake,
api
anost
ri
ng,
and
aspaceshut
tl
e.Wi
llawheelsl
ip?ageart
oot
hbr
eak?acart
ipov
er?Whatmuscl
esar
eused
wheny
ouhi
takeyony
ourcomput
er?How dopeopl
ebal
anceonskat
eboar
ds?Whi
ch
bui
ldi
ngsar
emor
eli
kel
ytof
alli
nwhatki
ndsofear
thquakes?Whyar
elowpi
tchpi
anost
ri
ngs
madewi
thhel
icalwi
ndi
ngsi
nst
eadofst
rai
ghtwi
res?Howf
asti
sthespaceshut
tl
emov
ing
wheni
nlowear
thor
bit
?
I
nmechani
cswet
ryt
osol
vespeci
alcasesoft
hegener
almechani
cspr
obl
em abov
eby
i
deal
izi
ng t
he sy
stem,usi
ng cl
assi
calEucl
idean geomet
ryt
o descr
ibe def
ormat
ion and
mot
ion,and assumi
ng t
hatt
he r
elat
ion bet
ween f
orce and mot
ion i
s descr
ibed wi
th
Newt
oni
anmechani
cs,or“
Newt
on’
sLaws”
.Newt
oni
anmechani
cshashel
dup,wi
thmi
nor
r
efi
nement
,forov
ert
hreehundr
edy
ear
s.Thosewhowantt
oknowhowmachi
nes,
str
uct
ures,
pl
ant
s,ani
mal
sandpl
anet
shol
dtoget
herandmov
eaboutneedt
oknow mechani
cs.I
n
anot
hert
woort
hreehundr
edy
ear
speopl
ewhowantt
odesi
gnr
obot
s,bui
ldi
ngs,ai
rpl
anes,
boat
s,pr
ost
het
icdev
ices,andl
argeormi
croscopi
cmachi
neswi
llpr
obabl
yst
il
luset
he
equat
ionsandpr
inci
pleswenowcal
lNewt
oni
anmechani
cs.
Anymechani
cspr
obl
em canbedi
videdi
nto3par
tswhi
chwet
hinkofast
he3pi
ll
arst
hathol
d
upt
hesubj
ect
:
1.t
hemechani
calbehav
iorofobj
ect
sandmat
eri
al const
s( it
uti
vel
aws)
;
2.t
hegeomet
ryofmot
ionanddi
stor
ti
on(
kinemat
ics)
;and
3.Thel
awsofmechani F=ma,et
cs( c.)
.

Mechani
calbehavi
or
Thef
ir
stpi
ll
arofmechani
csi
smechani
calbehav
i .TheMechani
or calbehavi
orofsomet
hing
i
sthedescr
ipt
ionofhowl
oadscausedef
ormat
ion(
orv
isav
ersa)
.Whensomet
hingcar
ri
esa
f
orcei
tst
ret
ches,
shor
tens,
shear
s,bends,
orbr
eaks.Yourf
ingert
ipsqui
sheswheny
oupoke
somet
hing.Tool
argeaf
orceonageari
nanengi
necausesi
ttobr
eak.Thef
orceofai
ronan
i
nsectwi
ngmakesi
tbend.Var
iousgeol
ogi
cfor
cesbend,
compr
essandbr
eakr
ock.
Thegeomet
ryofdef
ormat
ionandmot
ion
Thesecondpi
ll
arofmechani
csconcer
nst
hegeomet
ryofdef
ormat
ionandmot
ion.Cl
assi
cal
Gr
eek(
Eucl
idean)geomet
ryconcept
sar
eused.Def
ormat
ioni
sdef
inedbychangesofl
engt
hs
andangl
esbet
weenset
sofpoi
nts.Mot
ioni
sdef
inedbyt
hechangesoft
heposi
ti
onofpoi
nts
i
nti
me.Concept
sofl
engt
h,angl
e,si
mil
art
ri
angl
es,
thecur
vest
hatpar
ti
clesf
oll
owandsoon
canbest
udi
edandunder
stoodwi
thoutNewt
on’
slawsandt
husmakeupani
ndependent
pi
ll
aroft
hesubj
ect
.
Rel
ati
onoff
orcet
omot
ion,
thel
awsofmechani
cs
Thet
hir
dpi
ll
arofmechani
csi
sloosel
ycal
led Newt
on’
slaws.OneofNewt
on’
sbr
il
li
ant
i
nsi
ght
swast
hatt
hesamei
ntui
ti
ve‘
for
ce’t
hatcausesdef
ormat
ional
socausesmot
ion,or
mor
epr
eci
sel
y,accel
erat
ionofmass.For
cei
srel
atedt
odef
ormat
ionbymat
eri
alpr
oper
ti
es
(
elast
ici
ty,v
iscosi
ty,et
c.)andt
omot
ionbyt
hel
awsofmechani
cssummar
izedi
nthef
ront
cov
er.I
nwor
dsandi
nfor
mal
ly,
thesear
e:
i
.Thel
awsofmechani
csappl
ytoanysy
stem (
ri
gidornot
):
a.For et
ceandmomentar hemeasur
eofmechani
cali
nter
act
ion;
and
 b.Act
ionDmi
nusr
eact
ionappl
iest
oal
lint
eract
ions,(‘
ever
yact
ionhasanequaland
opposi
ter
eact
ion’
);
i
i.Thenetf
orceonasy
stem causesanetl
inearaccel
erat
i l
on(i
nearmoment
um bal
ance)
,
i
ii
.Thenett
urni
ngef
fectoff
orcesonsy
stem causesi
ttor
otat
ional
lyaccel
erat
e(angul
ar
moment
um bal
ance)
,and
i
v.Thechangeofener
gyofasy
stem i
sduet
otheener
gyf
low i
ntot
hesy
st ener
em ( gy
bal
ance)
.
Al
otf
oll
owsf
rom t
hel
awsofNewt
oni
anmechani
cs,
andwhent
hesei
deasar
esuppl
ement
ed
wi
thmodel
sofpar
ti
cul
arsy
stems(
e.g.
,ofmachi
nes,bui
ldi
ngsorhumanbodi
es)andwi
th
Eucl
ideangeomet
ry,t
heyl
eadt
opr
edi
cti
onsaboutt
hemot
ionsoft
hesesy
stemsandabout
t
hef
orceswhi
chactupont
hem.Ther
eisanendl
essst
ream ofr
esul
tsaboutt
hemechani
cs
ofoneoranot
herspeci
alsy
stem.Someoft
heser
esul
tsar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntoent
ir
efi
eldsof
r
esear
chsuchas‘
fl
uidmechani
cs,
’‘v
ibr
ati
ons,
’‘sei
smol
ogy
,’‘
granul
arf
low,
’‘bi
omechani
cs,
’
or‘
cel
est
ialmechani
cs.
’
Thef
ourbasi
cideasal
so l
eadt
o ot
hermor
emat
hemat
ical
lyadv
ancedf
ormul
ati
onsof
mechani
cswi
thnamesl
ike‘
Lagr
ange’
sequat
ions,
’‘
Hami
lt
on’
sequat
ions,
’‘
vi
rt
ualwor
k’,and
‘
var
iat
ionalpr
inci
ples.
’Shoul
dyout
akeani
nter
esti
ntheor
eti
calmechani
cs,y
oumayl
ear
n
t
heseappr
oachesi
nmor
eadv
ancedcour
sesandbooks,
mostl
ikel
yingr
aduat
eschool
.
St
ati
cs,
dynami
cs,
andst
rengt
hofmat
eri
als
El
ement
ary mechani
cs i
str
adi
ti
onal
ly par
ti
ti
oned i
ntot
hree cour
ses named ‘
stat
ics’
,
‘
dynami
cs’
,and‘
str
engt
hofmat
eri
als’
.Thesesubj
ect
svar
yinhow mucht
heyemphasi
ze
mat
eri
alpr
oper
ti
es,
geomet
ry,
andNewt
on’
slaws.
St
ati
cs(
thi se)i
scour smechani
cswi
tht
hei
deal
izat
iont
hatt
heaccel
erat
ionofmassi
s
negl
igi
blei
n Newt
on’
slaws.The f
ir
stf
ourchapt
ers oft
his book pr
ovi
de a t
hor
ough
i
ntr
oduct
iont
ost
ati
cs.St
ri
ctl
yspeaki
ngt
hingsneednotbest
andi
ngst
il
ltobewel
lideal
ized
wi
thst
ati
cs.But
,ast
henamei
mpl
ies,
stat
icsi
sgener
all
yaboutt
hingst
hatdon’
tmov
emuch.
Thef
ir
stpi
ll
arofmechani
cs,const
it
uti
vel
aws,i
sgener
all
yint
roducedwi
thoutf
anf
arei
nto
st
ati
cspr
obl
emsbyt
he(
impl
ici
t)assumpt
ionofr
igi
dit
y.Ot
herconst
it
uti
veassumpt
ionsused
i
ncl
udei
next
ensi
bler
opes,
linearspr
ings,
andf
ri
cti
onalcont
act
.Themat
eri
alpr
oper
ti
esused
asexampl
esi
nel
ement
aryst
ati
csar
ever
ysi
mpl
e.Al
so,becauset
hingsdon’
tmov
eor
def
orm muchi
nst
ati
cs,t
hegeomet
ryofdef
ormat
ionandmot
ionar
eal
lbuti
gnor
ed.Despi
te
t
hecommonl
yappl
iedv
astsi
mpl
if
icat
ions,st
ati
csi
susef
ul,f
orexampl
e,f
ort
heanal
ysi
sof
st
ruct
ures,
slowmachi
nesort
hel
ightpar
tsoff
astmachi
nes,
andt
hest
abi
li
tyofboat
s.
Dynami
csconcer
nsmot
ionassoci
atedwi
tht
henon-negl
igi
bleaccel
erat
ionofmass.Aswi
th
st
ati
cs,t
hef
ir
stpi
ll
arofmechani
cs,const
it
uti
vel
aws,i
sgi
venar
elat
ivel
ymi
norr
olei
nthe
el
ement
arydy
nami
cspr
esent
edher
e.Fort
hemostpar
t,t
hesamel
ibr
aryofel
ement
ary
pr
oper
ti
esar
eusedwi
thl
it
tl
efanf
are(
ri
gidi
ty,i
next
ensi
bil
it
y,l
inearel
ast
ici
ty,andf
ri
cti
on)
.
Dy
nami
cst
husconcer
nst
het
wopi
ll
arst
hatar
elabel
ledbyt
heconf
usi
ngl
ysi
mil
arwor
ds
ki
nemat
icsandki
net
ics.Ki
nemat
icsconcer
nsgeomet
rywi
thnoment
ionoff
orceandki
net
ics
concer
nst
her
elat
ionoff
orcet
omot
ion.Onceonehasmast
eredst
ati
cs,t
hehar
dpar
tof
dy
nami
cs i
sthe ki
nemat
ics.Dy
nami
cs i
s usef
ulf
ort
he anal
ysi
s of
,forexampl
e,f
ast
machi
nes,
vibr
ati
ons,
andbal
li
sti
cs.
St
rengt
hofmat
eri
alsexpandsst
ati
cst
oincl
udemat
eri
alpr
oper
ti
esandal
sopay
smor
e
at
tent
iont
odi
str
ibut
edf
orces(
tract
ionandst
ress)
.Thi
sbookonl
yoccasi
onal
lyt
ouches
l
ight
lyonst
rengt
hofmat
eri
alst
opi
csl
ikest
ress(
loosel
y,f
orceperuni
tar
ea)
,st
rai
n(awayt
o
measur
edef
ormat
ion)
,andl
inearel
ast
ici
ty(
acommonl
yusedconst
it
uti
vemodelofsol
ids)
.
St
rengt
hofmat
eri
alsgi
vesequalemphasi
stoal
lthr
eepi
ll
arsofmechani
cs.St
rengt
hof
mat
eri
alsi
susef
ulf
orpr
edi
cti
ngt
heamountofdef
ormat
ioni
nast
ruct
ureormachi
neand
whet
herornoti
tisl
ikel
ytobr
eakwi
thagi
venl
oad.

1.
2.Evol
uti
onanddevel
opmentofMechani
cs
Foral
ongt
ime,
themanhadbeent
ryi
ngt
oimpr
ovehi
sway
sofwor
king.Thef
ir
stst
ep,
int
his
di
rect
ion,wast
hedi
scov
eryofaci
rcul
arwheel
,whi
chl
edt
otheuseofani
maldr
ivencar
ts.
Thest
udyofanci
entci
vil
izat
ionofBaby
loni
ans,Egy
pti
ans,Gr
eeksandRomanr
evealt
heuse
ofwat
erwheel
sandwi
ndmi
ll
sev
endur
ingt
hepr
e-hi
stor
icday
s.
I
tis bel
iev
ed t
hatt
he wor
d‘Mechani
cs’was coi
ned bya Gr
eek phi
losopherAr
ist
otl
e
(
384–322BC)
.Heusedt
hiswor
dfort
hepr
obl
emsofl
everandt
heconceptofcent
reof
gr
avi
ty.Att
hatt
ime,i
tincl
udedaf
ewi
deas,whi
chwer
eodd,unsy
stemat
icandbasedmost
ly
onobser
vat
ionscont
aini
ngi
ncompl
etei
nfor
mat
ion.Thef
ir
stmat
hemat
icalconceptoft
his
subj
ectwasdev
elopedbyAr
chi
medes(
287–212BC)
.Thest
ory
,fort
hedi
scov
eryofFi
rstLaw
ofHy
drost
ati
cs,i
sver
ypopul
arev
ent
odayi
nthehi
stor
yoft
hedev
elopmentofEngi
neer
ing
Mechani
cs.I
nthenor
malcour
se,Hi
eronki
ngofSy
racusegotagol
dencr
ownmadef
orhi
s
use.Hesuspect
edt
hatt
hecr
ownhasbeenmadewi
thanadul
ter
atedgol
d.Theki
ngl
ikedt
he
desi
gnoft
hecr
ownsomucht
hathedi
dnotwanti
ttobemel
ted,i
nor
dert
ochecki
tspur
it
y.
I
tissai
dthatt
heki
ngannouncedahuger
ewar
dforaper
son,
whocancheckt
hepur
it
yoft
he
cr
owngol
dwi
thoutmel
ti
ngi
t.Thel
egendgoest
hatAr
chi
medes,apur
emat
hemat
ici
an,one
daysi
tt
ingi
nhi
sbat
hroom t
ubr
eal
isedt
hati
fabodyi
simmer
sedi
nwat
er,i
tsappar
ent
wei
ghti
sreduced.
Het
houghtt
hatt
heappar
entl
ossofwei
ghtoft
hei
mmer
sedbodyi
sequalt
othewei
ghtof
t
hel
iqui
ddi
spl
aced.I
tisbel
iev
edt
hatwi
thoutf
urt
hert
hought
,Ar
chi
medesj
umpedoutoft
he
bat
htubandr
annakeddownt
hest
reetshout
ing‘
Eur
eka,eur ’i
eka! e.Ihavef
. oundi
t,Ihav
e
f
oundi
t!’

Thesubj
ectdi
dnotr
ecei
veanyconcr
etecont
ri
but
ionf
ornear
ly1600y
ear
s.I
n1325,Jean
Bur
idanofPar
isUni
ver
sit
ypr
oposedani
deat
hatabodyi
nmot
ionpossessedacer
tai
n
i usi
mpet .e.mot
ion.I
ntheper
iod1325–1350,agr
oupofsci
ent
ist
sledbyt
heThomas
Br
adwar
deneofOxf
ordUni
ver
sit
ydi
dlotofwor
konpl
anemot
ionofbodi
es.Leonar
odoDa
Vi
nci(
1452–1519)
,agr
eatengi
neerandpai
nter
,gav
emanyi
deasi
nthest
udyofmechani
sm,
f
ri
cti
onandmot
ionofbodi
esoni
ncl
inedpl
anes.Gal
il
eo(
1564–1642)est
abl
ishedt
het
heor
y
ofpr
oject
il
esandgav
ear
udi
ment
aryi
deaofi
ner
ti
a.Huy
ghens(
1629–1695)dev
elopedt
he
anal
ysi
sofmot
ionofapendul
um.

Asamat
teroff
act
,sci
ent
if
ichi
stor
yofEngi
neer
ingMechani
csst
art
swi
thSi
rIssacNewt
on
(
1643–1727)
.Hei
ntr
oducedt
heconceptoff
orceandmass,
andgav
eLawsofMot
ioni
n1686.
JamesWat
tint
roducedt
het
erm hor
sepowerf
orcompar
ingper
for
manceofhi
sengi
nes.
JohnBer
noul
li
(
1667–1748)enunci
atedt
hepr
ici
pleofv
irt
ualwor
k.I
nei
ght
eent
hcent
ury
,thesubj
ectof
Mechani
cswast
ermedasNewt
oni
anMechani
cs.Af
urt
herdev
elopmentoft
hesubj
ectl
edt
o
acont
rov
ersybet
weent
hosesci
ent
ist
swhof
eltt
hatt
hepr
opermeasur
eoff
orceshoul
dbe
changei
nki
net
icener
gypr
oducedbyi
tandt
hosewhopr
efer
redt
hechangei
nmoment
um.I
n
t
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
,manysci
ent
ist
swor
kedt
ir
elessl
yandgav
eano.ofpr
ici
ples,whi
ch
enr
ichedt
hesci
ent
if
ichi
stor
yoft
hesubj
ect
.
I
ntheear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
ury
,anew t
echni
queofr
esear
chwaspumpedi
nal
lact
ivi
ti
esof
sci
ence.I
twasbasedont
hef
actt
hatpr
ogr
essi
nonebr
anchofsci
ence,
enr
ichedmostoft
he
bor
der
ingbr
anchesoft
hesamesci
enceorot
hersci
ences.Si
mil
arl
ywi
tht
hepassageoft
ime,
t
heconceptofEngi
neer
ingMechani
csai
dedbyMat
hemat
icsandot
herphy
sicalsci
ences,
st
art
edcont
ri
but
inganddev
elopmentoft
hissubj
ectgai
nednew moment
um i
nthesecond
hal
foft
hiscent
ury
.Today
,knowl
edgeofEngi
neer
ingMechani
cs,
coupl
edwi
tht
heknowl
edge
ofot
herspeci
ali
sedsubj se.
ect g.Cal
cul
us,Vect
orAl
gebr
a,St
rengt
hofMat
eri
als,Theor
yof
Machi
neset
c.hast
ouchedi
tspr
esenthei
ght
.Theknowl
edgeoft
hissubj
ecti
sver
yessent
ial
f
oranengi
neert
oenabl
ehi
mindesi
gni
nghi
sal
lty
pesofst
ruct
uresandmachi
nes.
1.
3.Basi
cConcept
s
Thef
oll
owi
ngconcept
sdef
ini
ti
onsandi
deal
izat
ionsar
ebasi
ctot
hest
udyofmechani
cs,
and
t
heyshoul
dbeunder
stoodatt
heout
set
.
Spacei
sthegeomet
ri
cregi
onoccupi
edbybodi
eswhoseposi
ti
onsar
edescr
ibedbyl
inear
andangul
armeasur
ement
srel
ati
vet
oacoor
dinat
esy
stem.Fort
hree-di
mensi
onalpr
obl
ems,
t
hree i
ndependentcoor
dinat
es ar
e needed.Fort
wo-di
mensi
onalpr
obl
ems,onl
ytwo
coor
dinat
esar
erequi
red.
Ti
mei
sthemeasur
eoft
hesuccessi
onofev
ent
sandi
sabasi
cquant
it
yindy
nami
cs.Ti
mei
s
notdi
rect
lyi
nvol
vedi
ntheanal
ysi
sofst
ati
cspr
obl
ems.
Massi
sameasur
eoft
hei
ner
ti
aofabody
,whi
chi
sit
sresi
stancet
oachangeofv
eloci
ty.
Masscanal
sobet
houghtofast
hequant
it
yofmat
teri
nabody
.Themassofabodyaf
fect
s
t
hegr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ionf
orcebet
weeni
tandot
herbodi
es.Thi
sfor
ceappear
sinmany
appl
icat
ionsi
nst
ati
cs.
For
cei
stheact
ionofonebodyonanot
her
.Af
orcet
endst
omov
eabodyi
nthedi
rect
ionof
i
tsact
ion.Theact
ionofaf
orcei
schar
act
eri
zedbyi
tsmagni
tude,byt
hedi
rect
ionofi
ts
act
ion,
andbyi
tspoi
ntofappl
icat
ion.
Thusf
orcei
sav
ect
orquant
it
y,andi
tspr
oper
ti
esar
edi
scussedi
ndet
aili
nChapt
er2oft
his
st
udymat
eri
al.
Apar
ti
clei
sabodyofnegl
igi
bledi
mensi
ons.I
nthemat
hemat
icalsense,apar
ti
clei
sabody
whosedi
mensi
onsar
econsi
der
edt
obenearzer
osot
hatwemayanal
yzei
tasamass
concent
rat
edatapoi
nt.Weof
tenchooseapar
ti
cleasadi
ff
erent
ialel
ementofabody
.We
mayt
reatabodyasapar
ti
clewheni
tsdi
mensi
onsar
eir
rel
evantt
othedescr
ipt
ionofi
ts
posi
ti
onort
heact
ionoff
orcesappl
iedt
oit
.
Ri
gidbody.Abodyi
sconsi
der
edr
igi
dwhent
hechangei
ndi
stancebet
weenanyt
woofi
ts
poi
ntsi
snegl
igi
blef
ort
hepur
poseathand.Fori
nst
ance,t
hecal
cul
ati
onoft
het
ensi
oni
nthe
cabl
ewhi
chsuppor
tst
heboom ofamobi
lecr
aneunderl
oadi
sessent
ial
lyunaf
fect
edbyt
he
smal
lint
ernaldef
ormat
ionsi
nthest
ruct
uralmember
soft
heboom.Fort
hepur
pose,t
hen,of
det
ermi
ningt
heext
ernalf
orceswhi
chactont
heboom,
wemayt
reati
tasar
igi
dbody
.St
ati
cs
deal
spr
imar
il
ywi
tht
hecal
cul
ati
onofext
ernalf
orceswhi
chactonr
igi
dbodi
esi
nequi
li
bri
um.
Det
ermi
nat
ion oft
he i
nter
naldef
ormat
ions bel
ongs t
othe st
udy oft
he mechani
cs of
def
ormabl
ebodi
es,
whi
chnor
mal
lyf
oll
owsst
ati
csi
nthecur
ri
cul
um.
1.
4.Scal
arsandVect
ors
Weuset
woki
ndsofquant
it
iesi
nmechani
cs—scal
arsandv
ect
ors.Scal
arquant
it
iesar
ethose
wi
thwhi
chonl
yamagni
tudei
sassoci
ated.Exampl
esofscal
arquant
it
iesar
eti
me,v
olume,
densi
ty,
speed,
ener
gy,
andmass.
Vect
orquant
it
ies,ont
heot
herhand,possessdi
rect
ionaswel
lasmagni
tude,andmustobey
t
hepar
all
elogr
am l
aw ofaddi
ti
on asdescr
ibed l
ateri
nthi
sar
ti
cle.Exampl
esofv
ect
or
quant
it
iesar
edi
spl
acement
,vel
oci
ty,accel
erat
ion,f
orce,moment
,andmoment
um.Speedi
s
ascal
ar.I
tist
hemagni
tudeofv
eloci
ty,whi
chi
sav
ect
or.Thusv
eloci
tyi
sspeci
fi
edbya
di
rect
ionaswel
lasaspeed.
Vect
orsr
epr
esent
ingphy
sicalquant
it
iescanbecl
assi
fi
edasf
ree,
sli
ding,
orf
ixed.
Af
reevect
ori
sonewhoseact
ioni
snotconf
inedt
oorassoci
atedwi
thauni
quel
inei
nspace.
Forexampl
e,i
fabodymov
eswi
thoutr
otat
ion,t
hent
hemov
ementordi
spl
acementofany
poi
nti
nthebodymaybet
akenasav
ect
or.Thi
svect
ordescr
ibes
equal
lywel
lthedi
rect
ionandmagni
tudeoft
hedi
spl
acementof
ev
erypoi
nti
nthebody
.Thus,wemayr
epr
esentt
hedi
spl
acement
ofsuchabodybyaf
reev
ect
or.
A sl
idi
ngvect
orhasauni
quel
ineofact
ioni
nspacebutnota
uni
quepoi
ntofappl
icat
ion.Forexampl
e,whenanext
ernalf
orceact
sonar
igi
dbody
,the
f
orcecanbeappl
iedatanypoi
ntal
ongi
tsl
ineofact
ionwi
thoutchangi
ngi
tsef
fectont
he
bodyasawhol
e,andt
husi
tisasl
idi
ngv
ect
or.
Af
ixedvect
ori
sonef
orwhi
chauni
quepoi
ntofappl
icat
ioni
sspeci
fi
ed.Theact
ionofaf
orce
on adef
ormabl
eornonr
igi
d bodymustbespeci
fi
ed byaf
ixed v
ect
oratt
hepoi
ntof
appl
icat
ionoft
hef
orce.I
nthi
sinst
ancet
hef
orcesanddef
ormat
ionswi
thi
nthebodydepend
ont
hepoi
ntofappl
icat
ionoft
hef
orce,
aswel
lasoni
tsmagni
tudeandl
ineofact
ion.
Convent
ionsf
orEquat
ionsandDi
agr
amsandvect
oroper
ati
on
Av
ect
orquant
it
yVi
srepr
esent
edbyal
inesegment
,Fi
g.1/
1,hav
ingt
hedi
rect
ionoft
he
v
ect
orandhav
inganar
rowheadt
oindi
cat
ethesense. Thel
engt
hoft
hedi
rect
edl
ine
segmentr
epr
esent
stosomeconv
eni
entscal
ethemagni
tude/
V/oft
hev
ect
or,whi
chi
s
pr
int
edwi
thl
ight
facei
tal
ict
ypeV.Forexampl
e,wemaychooseascal
esucht
hatanar
row
onecent
imet
erl
ongr
epr
esent
saf
orceoft
went
ynewt
ons.
I
nscal
arequat
ions,andf
requent
lyondi
agr
amswher
eonl
ythemagni
tudeofav
ect
ori
s
l
abel
ed,t
hesy
mbolwi
llappeari
nli
ght
facei
tal
ict
ype.Bol
dfacet
ypei
susedf
orv
ect
or
quant
it
ies whenev
ert
he di
rect
ionalaspectoft
he v
ect
ori
s a par
tofi
ts mat
hemat
ical
r
epr
esent
ati
on. When wr
it
ing v
ect
or equat
ions, al
ways be cer
tai
n t
o pr
eser
vet
he
mat
hemat
icaldi
sti
nct
ion bet
ween v
ect
ors and scal
ars.I
n handwr
it
ten wor
k,use a
di
sti
ngui
shi
ngmar
kforeachv
ect
orquant
it
y,suchasanunder
lne,V,oranar
i row ov
ert
he
sy →t
mbol
, ot
aket
hepl
aceofbol
dfacet
ypei
npr
int
.
V

Thedi
rect
ionoft
hev
ect
orVmaybemeasur
edbyan
eθf
angl rom some known r
efer
ence di
rect
ion as
showni
nFi
g.1/
1.Thenegat
iveofVi
sav
ect
or-V
hav
ingt
hesamemagni
tudeasVbutdi
rect
edi
nthe
senseopposi
tet
oV,asshowni
nFi
g.1/
1.Vect
orsmustobeyt
hepar
all
elogr
am l
aw of
combi
nat
ion.Thi
slaw st
atest
hatt
wov
ect
orsV1 andV2,t
reat
edasf
reev
ect
ors,Fi 2a,
g.1/
mayber
epl
acedbyt
hei
requi
val
entv
ect
orV,whi
chi
sthedi
agonaloft
hepar
all
elogr
am
f
ormedbyV1andV2asi
tst
wosi
des,
asshowni
nFi 2b.
g.1/

.
Thi
scombi
nat
ioni
scal
l hev
edt ect
orsum,andi
srepr
esent
edbyt
hev
ect
orequat
ion
V=V1+V2
Wher
ethepl
ussi
gn,whenusedwi
tht
hev
ect
orquant
it
ies(
inbol
dfacet
y ,meansv
pe) ect
or
andnotscal
araddi
ti
on.Thescal
arsum oft
hemagni
tudesoft
het
wov
ect
orsi
swr
it
teni
nthe
usualwayasV1+V2.Thegeomet
ryoft
hepar
all
elogr hatV≠V1+V2.
am showst
Thet
wov
ect
orsV1 andV2,agai
ntr
eat
edasf
reev
ect
ors,mayal
sobeaddedhead-t
o-t
ailby
t
het
ri
angl
elaw,asshowni
nFi 2c,t
g.1/ oobt
aint
hei
dent
icalv
ect
orsum V.Weseef
rom t
he
di
agr
am t
hatt
heor
derofaddi
ti
onoft
hev
ect
orsdoesnotaf
fectt
hei
rsum,sot
hatV1 +V2 =
V2+V1.
Thedi
ff
erenceV1 -V2 bet
weent
het
wov
ect
orsi
seasi
lyobt
ainedbyaddi
ng-V2 t
oV1 as
showni
nFi
g.1/
3,wher
eei
thert
het
ri
angl
eorpar
all
elogr
am pr
ocedur
emaybeused.The
di
ff
erenceV’
bet
weent
het
wov
ect
orsi
sexpr
essedbyt
hev
ect
orequat
ion
 V’
=V1–V2
Wher
ethemi
nussi esv
gndenot ect
orsubt
ract
ion.
Anyt
woormor
evect
orswhosesum equal
sacer
tai
nvect
orVar
e
sai
dt hecomponent
obet soft
hatv
ect
or.Thus,
thev
ect
orsV1andV2
i
nFi 4a ar
g.1/ ethecomponent
sofV i
nthedi
rect
ions1and2,
r
espect
ivel
y.I
tis usual
ly mostconv
eni
entt
o dealwi
thv
ect
or
component
s whi
ch ar
e mut
ual
ly per
pendi
cul
ar;t
hese ar
e cal
led
r
ect
angul
arcomponent
s.Thevect
orsVxandVyi
nFi
g.1/
4b,ar
ethex
-andy
-component
sofV.

Whenexpr
essedi
nrect
angul
arcomponent
s,t
hedi
rect
ionoft
hev
ect
orwi
thr
espectt
o,say
,
hex-axi
t siscl
ear
lyspeci
fi
edbyt eθ.Wher
heangl e

Av
ect
orVmaybeexpr
essedmat
hemat
ical
lybymul
ti
ply
ingi
tsmagni
tudeV byav
ect
orn
whosemagni
tudei
soneandwhosedi
rect
ioncoi
nci
deswi
tht
hatofV.Thev
ect
orni
scal
leda
uni
tvect
or.Thus,
V=Vn
I
nthi
swaybot
hthemagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionoft
hev
ect
orar
econv
eni
ent
lycont
ainedi
none
mat
hemat
icalexpr
essi
on.I
n many pr
obl
ems,par
ti
cul
arl
ythr
ee-di
mensi
onalones,i
tis
conv
eni
entt
oexpr
esst
her
ect
angul
ar component
sofV,
Fig.1/
5,i
nter
msofuni
tvect
orsi
,j,
andk,whi
char
evect
orsi
nthex-,y
-,andz-di
rect
ions,r
espect
ivel
y,wi
thuni
tmagni
tudes.
Becauset
hev
ect
orVi
sthev
ect
orsum oft
hecomponent
si hex-,y
nt ,andz-di
rect
ions,we
canexpr
essVasf
oll
ows:

hedi
Wenowmakeuseoft rect
ioncosi
nesl
,m,andnofV,whi
char
edef
inedby
Thus,
wemaywr
it
ethemagni
tudesoft
hecomponent
sofVas

Wher
e,f
rom t
hePy
thagor
eanTheor
em,

1.
5.Newt
on’
SLaws
Si
rIsaacNewt
onwast
hef
ir
stt
ost
atecor
rect
lyt
hebasi
clawsgov
erni
ngt
hemot
ionofa
par
ti
cleandt
odemonst
rat
ethei
rval
idi
ty.
Sl
ight
lyr
ewor
dedwi
thmoder
nter
minol
ogy
,thesel
awsar
e:
Law I
.A par
ti
cler
emai
nsatr
estorcont
inuest
omov
ewi
th
uni
for
m vel
oci
ty(
inast
rai
ghtl
inewi
thaconst
antspeed)i
fther
e
i
snounbal
ancedf
orceact
ingoni
t.
LawI
I.Theaccel
erat
ionofapar
ti
clei
spr
opor
ti
onalt
othev
ect
or
sum off
orcesact
ingoni
t,andi
sint
hedi
rect
ionoft
hisv
ect
or
sum.
Law I
II
.Thef
orcesofact
ionandr
eact
ionbet
weeni
nter
act
ing
bodi
es ar
e equali
n magni
tude,opposi
tei
n di
rect
ion,and
col
li
near(
theyl
ieont
hesamel
ine)
.
Thecor
rect
nessoft
hesel
awshasbeenv
eri
fi
edbyi
nnumer
abl
e
accur
atephy
sicalmeasur
ement
s.Newt
on’
ssecondl
aw f
orms
t
hebasi
sformostoft
heanal
ysi
sindy
nami
cs.Asappl
iedt
oa
par
ti
cleofmassm,
itmaybest
atedas

Wher
eFi
sthev
ect
orsum off
orcesact
ingont
hepar
ti
cleandai
sther
esul
ti
ngaccel
erat
ion.
Thi
sequat
i sav
oni ect
orequat
ionbecauset
hedi
rect
ionofFmustagr
eewi
tht
hedi
rect
ionof
a,
andt
hemagni
tudesofFandmamustbeequal
.
Newt
on’
sfi
rstl
awcont
ainst
hepr
inci
pleoft
heequi
li
bri
um off
orces,whi
chi
sthemai
ntopi
c
ofconcer
ninst
ati
cs.Thi
slawi
sact
ual
lyaconsequenceoft
hesecondl
aw,si
ncet
her
eisno
accel
erat
ionwhent
hef
orcei
szer
o,andt
hepar
ti
cleei
theri
satr
estori
smov
ingwi
tha
uni
for
mvel
oci
ty.Thef
ir
stl
awaddsnot
hingnewt
othedescr
ipt
ionofmot
ionbuti
sincl
uded
her
ebecausei
twaspar
tofNewt
on’
scl
assi
calst
atement
s.
Thet
hir
dlawi
sbasi
ctoourunder
standi
ngoff
orce.I
tst
atest
hatf
orcesal
way
soccuri
npai
rs
ofequalandopposi
tef
orces.Thus,t
hedownwar
dfor
ceexer
tedont
hedeskbyt
hepenci
lis
accompani
edbyanupwar
dfor
ceofequalmagni
tudeexer
tedont
hepenci
lbyt
hedesk.Thi
s
pr
inci
plehol
dsf
oral
lfor
ces,v
ari
abl
eorconst
ant
,regar
dlessoft
hei
rsour
ce,andhol
dsat
ev
eryi
nst
antoft
imedur
ingwhi
cht
hef
orcesar
eappl
ied.Lackofcar
efulat
tent
iont
othi
s
basi
clawi
sthecauseoff
requenter
rorbyt
hebegi
nner
.
I
ntheanal
ysi
sofbodi
esundert
heact
ionoff
orces,i
tisabsol
utel
ynecessar
ytobecl
ear
aboutwhi
chf
orceofeachact
ion-r
eact
ionpai
risbei
ngconsi
der
ed.I
tisnecessar
yfi
rstofal
l
oi
t sol
atet
hebodyunderconsi
der
ati
onandt
hent
oconsi
deronl
ytheonef
orceoft
hepai
r
whi sont
chact hebodyi
nquest
ion.
1.
6.Uni
tsandSt
andar
ds
I
nmechani
csweusef
ourf
undament
alquant
it
iescal
leddi
mensi
ons.Thesear
elengt
h,mass,
f
orce,and t
ime.The uni
ts used t
o measur
ethese quant
it
ies cannotal
lbe chosen
i
ndependent
lybecauset
heymustbeconsi
stentwi
thNewt
on’
ssecondl
aw,Eq.1/
1.Al
though
t
her
ear
eanumberofdi
ff
erentsy
stemsofuni
ts,onl
ythet
wosy
stemsmostcommonl
yused
i
nsci
enceandt
echnol
ogywi
llbeusedi
nthi
stext
.Thef
ourf
undament
aldi
mensi
onsand
t
hei
runi
tsandsy
mbol
sint
het
wosy
stemsar
esummar
izedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
e.

SIUni
ts
TheI
nter
nat
ionalSy
stem ofUni
ts,abbr
evi
atedSI(
from t
heFr
ench,Sy
stèmeI
nter
nat
ional
d’
Uni
tés)
,isaccept
edi
ntheUni
tedSt
atesandt
hroughoutt
hewor
ld,andi
samoder
nver
sion
oft
hemet
ri
csy
stem.Byi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
,SIuni
tswi
lli
nti
mer
epl
aceot
hersy
stems.
Asshowni
nthet
abl
e,i
nSI
,theuni
tski
logr
am (
kg)f
ormass,met
er(
m)f
orl
engt
h,and
second(
s)f
ort
imear
esel
ect
edast
hebaseuni
ts,andt
heNewt
on(
N)f
orf
orcei
sder
ived
f
rom t
hepr
ecedi
ngt
hreebyEq.1/
1.Thus,
for
ce(
N)=mass(
kg)xaccel
erat
ion(
m/s2)or

Thus,1Newt
oni
sthef
orcer
equi
redt
ogi
veamassof1kganaccel
erat
i s2.
onof1m/
derabodyofmassm whi
Consi chi
sal
lowedt
ofal
lfr
eel
yneart
hesur
faceoft
heear
th.Wi
th
onl
ythef
orceofgr
avi
tat
ionact
ingont
hebody
,itf
all
swi
thanaccel
erat
iongt
owar
dthe
cent
eroft
heear
th.Thi
sgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orcei
sthewei
ghtW oft
hebody
,andi
sfoundf
rom Eq.
1/
1:

U.
S.Cust
omar
yUni
ts
TheU.
S.cust
omar
y,orBr
it
ishsy
stem ofuni
ts,al
socal
ledt
hef
ootpound-second(
FPS)
sy
stem,has been t
he common sy
stem i
n busi
ness and i
ndust
ryi
n Engl
ish-speaki
ng
count
ri
es.Al
thought
hissy
stem wi
lli
nti
meber
epl
acedbySIuni
ts,f
ormanymor
eyear
s
engi
neer
smustbeabl
etowor
kwi
thbot
hSIuni
tsandFPSuni
ts.
Asshowni
nthet
abl
e,i
ntheU.
S.orFPSsy
stem,
theuni
tsoff
eet(
ft)f
orl
engt
h,seconds(
sec)
f
ort
ime,
andpounds(
lb)f
orf
orcear
esel
ect
edasbaseuni
ts,
andt
hesl
ugf
ormassi
sder
ived
f
rom Eq.1/
1.Thus,
for
ce(
lb)=mass(
slugs)xaccel
erat
ion(
ftsec2)
/ ,or

Ther
efor
e,1sl
ugi
sthemasswhi
chi
sgi
venanaccel
erat
ionof1f
t/sec2 whenact
edonbya
f
orceof1l fW i
b.I sthegr
avi
tat
ionalf
or ghtandgi
ceorwei stheaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty,
Eq.1/
1gi
ves

Not
ethatsecondsi
sabbr
evi
atedassi
nSIuni
t andasseci
s, nFPSuni
ts.
I
nU.
S.uni
tst
hepoundi
sal
sousedonoccasi
onasauni
tofmass,especi
all
ytospeci
fy
t
her
malpr
oper
ti
esofl
iqui
dsandgases.Whendi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
het
wouni
tsi
snecessar
y,
t
hef
orceuni
tisf
requent
lywr
it
tenasl
bfandt
hemassuni
tasl
bm.I
nthi
smat
eri
alweuse
al
mostexcl
usi
vel
ythef
orceuni
t,whi
chi
swr
it
tensi
mpl
yasl
b.Ot
hercommonuni
tsoff
orce
i
ntheU.
S.sy
stem ar
etheki
lopound(
kip)
,whi
chequal
s1000l het
b,andt on,whi
chequal
s
2000l
b.
The I
nter
nat
ionalSy
stem of Uni
ts(
SI)i
st med an absol
er ute syst
em because t
he
measur
ementoft
hebasequant
it
ymassi
sindependentofi
tsenv
ironment
.Ont
heot
herhand,
t
heU.
S.sy
stem (
FPS)i
st medagr
er avi
tat
ionalsyst
em becausei
tsbasequant
it
yfor
cei
s
def
inedast
hegr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ion(
wei
ght
)act
ingonast
andar
dmassunderspeci
fi
ed
condi
ti
ons(
seal
eveland45o l
ati
tude)
.Ast
andar
dpoundi
sal
sot
hef
orcer
equi
redt
ogi
vea
one-pound mass an accel
erat
ion of32.
1740 f
t/sec2.I
n SIuni
tst
he ki
logr
am i
s used
excl
usi
vel
yasauni
tofmassnev
erf
orce.I
ntheMKS(
met
er,ki
logr
am,second)gr
avi
tat
ional
sy
stem,whi
ch has been used f
ormany y
ear
sin non-Engl
ish-speaki
ng count
ri
es,t
he
ki
logr
am,
li
ket
hepound,
hasbeenusedbot
hasauni
toff
orceandasauni
tofmass.
Pr
imar
ySt
andar
ds
Pr
imar
yst
andar
dsf
ort
hemeasur
ement
sofmass,l
engt
h,andt
imehav
ebeenest
abl
ishedby
i
nter
nat
ionalagr
eementandar
easf
oll
ows:
Mass.Theki
logr
am i
sdef
inedast
hemassofaspeci
fi
cpl
ati
num–i
ri
dium cy
linderwhi
chi
s
keptatt
heI
nter
nat
ionalBur
eauofWei
ght
sandMeasur
esnearPar
is,Fr
ance.Anaccur
ate
copyoft
hiscy
linderi
skepti
ntheUni
tedSt
atesatt
heNat
ionalI
nst
it
uteofSt
andar
dsand
Technol
ogy(
NIST)
,for
mer
lyt
heNat
ionalBur
eauofSt
andar
ds,andser
vesast
hest
andar
dof
massf
ort
heUni
tedSt
ates.
Lengt
h.Themet
er,
ori
ginal
lydef
inedasonet
en-mi
ll
iont
hoft
hedi
stancef
rom t
hepol
etot
he
equat
oral
ongt
hemer
idi
ant
hroughPar
is,wasl
aterdef
inedast
hel
engt
hofaspeci
fi
c
pl
ati
num–i
ri
dium barkeptatt
heI
nter
nat
ionalBur
eauofWei
ght
sandMeasur
es.Thedi
ff
icul
ty
ofaccessi
ngt
hebarandr
epr
oduci
ngaccur
atemeasur
ement
spr
ompt
edt
headopt
ionofa
mor
eaccur
ateandr
epr
oduci
blest
andar
dofl
engt
hfort
hemet
er,whi
chi
snow def
inedas
1650763.
73wav
elengt
hsofaspeci
fi
cradi
ati
onoft
hekr
ypt
on-86at
om.
Ti
me.Thesecondwasor
igi
nal
lydef
inedast
hef
ract
ion1/(
86400)oft
hemeansol
arday
.
Howev
er,
irr
egul
ari
ti
esi
ntheear
th’
srot
ati
onl
edt
odi
ff
icul
ti
eswi
tht
hisdef
ini
ti
on,
andamor
e
accur
ateandr
epr
oduci
blest
andar
dhasbeenadopt
ed.Thesecondi
snow def
inedast
he
dur
ati
onof9192631770per
iodsoft
her
adi
ati
onofaspeci
fi
cst
ateoft
hecesi
um 133at
om.
Formostengi
neer
ingwor
k,andf
orourpur
posei
nst
udy
ingmechani
cs,
theaccur
acyoft
hese
st
andar
dsi
sconsi
der
abl
ybey
ondour
1.
7.LawofGr
avi
tat
ion
I
nst
ati
csaswel
lasdy
nami
csweof
tenneedt
ocomput
ethewei
ghtofabody
,whi
chi
sthe
gr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceact
ingoni
t.Thi
scomput
ati hel
ondependsont aw ofgr
avi
tat
ion,whi
ch
wasal
sof
ormul
atedbyNewt
on.Thel
awofgr
avi
tat
ioni
sexpr
essedbyt
heequat
ion

eFi
Wher sthemut
ualf
orceofat
tract
ionbet
weent
wopar
ti
cles,G i
sauni
ver
salconst
ant
heconst
knownast antofgr
avi
tat
ion,m1,m2 ar
ethemassesoft
het
wopar
ti
clesandri
sthe
di
stancebet
weent
hecent
ersoft
hepar
ti
cles.
Themut
ualf
orcesFobeyt
hel
awofact
ionandr
eact
ion,si
ncet
heyar
eequalandopposi
te
andar
edi
rect
edal
ongt
hel
inej
oini
ngt
hecent
ersoft
hepar
ti
cles,asshowni
nFi
g.1/
7.By
exper
imentt
hegr
avi
tat
ionalconst
anti
sf obeG=6.
oundt 10-11)m3/(
673( s2)
Kg. .

Gr
avi
tat
ionalAt
tract
ionoft
heEar
th

Gr
avi
tat
ionalf
orcesexi
stbet
weenev
erypai
rofbodi
es.Ont
hesur
faceoft
heear
tht
heonl
y
gr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceofappr
eci
abl
emagni
tudei
sthef
orceduet
otheat
tract
ionoft
heear
th.For
exampl
e,eachoft
woi
ronspher
es100mm i
ndi
amet
eri
sat
tract
edt
otheear
thwi
tha
gr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceof37.
1N,whi
chi
sit
swei
ght
.Ont
heot
herhand,t
hef
orceofmut
ual
at
tract
ionbet
weent
hespher
esi
ftheyar
ejustt
ouchi
ngi
s0.
0000000951N.Thi
sfor
cei
s
cl
ear
ly negl
igi
ble compar
ed wi
tht
he ear
th’
s at
tract
ion of37.
1 N.Consequent
lyt
he
gr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ionoft
heear
thi
stheonl
ygr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceweneedt
oconsi
derf
or
mostengi
neer
ingappl
icat
ionsont
heear
th’
ssur
face.
Thegr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ionoft
heear
thonabody(
it
swei
ght
)exi
stswhet
hert
hebodyi
sat
r
estori
nmot
ion.Becauset
hisat
tract
ioni
saf
orce,
thewei
ghtofabodyshoul
dbeexpr
essed
i
nNewt
on(
N)i
nSIuni
tsandi
npounds(
lb)i
nU.
S.cust
omar
yuni
ts.Unf
ort
unat
elyi
ncommon
pr
act
icet
hemassuni
tki
logr
am (
kg)hasbeenf
requent
lyusedasameasur
eofwei
ght
.Thi
s
usageshoul
ddi
sappeari
nti
measSIuni
tsbecomemor
ewi
del
yused,becausei
nSIuni
tst
he
ki
logr
am i
susedexcl
usi
vel
yformassandt
heNewt
oni
susedf
orf
orce,
incl
udi
ngwei
ght
.
Forabodyofmassm neart
hesur
faceoft
heear
th,t
hegr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ionFont
hebody
i
sspeci
fi
edbyEq.1/
2.Weusual
lydenot
ethemagni
tudeoft
hisgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceorwei
ght
wi
tht mbolW.Becauset
hesy hebodyf
all
swi
thanaccel
erat
iong,
Eq.1/
1gi
ves

ghtW wi
The wei llbe i
n Newt
on ( he mass m i
N)when t sin ki
logr
ams (
kg)and t
he
accel
erat
ionofgr
avi
tygi
sinmet
erspersecondsquar
ed(
m/s2)
.InU.
S.cust
omar
yuni
ts,t
he
ghtW wi
wei llbei
npounds(
lb)whenm i
si ugsandgi
nsl sinf
eetpersecondsquar
ed.The
st
andar
dval org of9.
uesf s2 and32.
81m/ 2ft
/sec2 wi
llbesuf
fi
cient
lyaccur
atef
orour
cal
cul
ati
onsi
nst
ati
cs.
Thet
ruewei
ght(
grav
itat
ionalat
tract
ion)andt
heappar
entwei
ght(
asmeasur
edbyaspr
ing
scal
e)ar
esl
ight
lydi
ff
erent
.Thedi
ff
erence,whi
chi
sduet
other
otat
ionoft
heear
th,i
squi
te
smal
landwi
llbenegl
ect
ed.
1.
8.Accur
acy,
Limi
ts,
andAppr
oxi
mat
ions
Thenumberofsi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
esi
nananswershoul
dbenogr
eat
ert
hant
henumberof
f
igur
esj
ust
if
iedbyt
heaccur
acyoft
hegi
vendat
a.Forexampl
e,supposet
he24-mm si
deofa
squar
ebarwasmeasur
edt
othenear
estmi
ll
imet
er,soweknow t
hesi
del
engt
htot
wo
si
gni
fi
cantf
igur
es.Squar
ingt
hesi
del
engt
hgi
v eaof576mm2.Howev
esanar er,
accor
dingt
o
ourr
ule,
weshoul
dwr
it
et eaas580mm2,
hear usi
ngonl
ytwosi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
es.
Whencal
cul
ati
onsi
nvol
vesmal
ldi
ff
erencesi
nlar
gequant
it
ies,
great
eraccur
acyi
nthedat
ais
r
equi
redt
oachi
eveagi
venaccur
acyi
nther
esul
ts.Thus,
forexampl
e,i
tisnecessar
ytoknow
t
henumber
s4.
2503and4.
2391t
oanaccur
acyoff
ivesi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
est
oexpr
esst
hei
r
di
ff
erence0.
0112t
othr
ee-f
igur
eaccur
acy
.Iti
sof
tendi
ff
icul
tinl
engt
hycomput
ati
onst
o
know att
heout
sethow manysi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
esar
eneededi
ntheor
igi
naldat
atoensur
e
cer
tai
n accur
acy i
nthe answer
.Accur
acy t
othr
ee si
gni
fi
cantf
igur
es i
s consi
der
ed
sat
isf
act
oryf
ormostengi
neer
ingcal
cul
ati
ons.
I
nthi
smat
eri
al,answer
swi
llgener
all
ybeshownt
othr
eesi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
esunl
esst
he
answerbegi
nswi
tht
hedi
git1,i
nwhi
chcaset
heanswerwi
llbeshownt
ofoursi
gni
fi
cant
f
igur
es.Forpur
posesofcal
cul
ati
on,
consi
deral
ldat
agi
veni
nthi
sbookt
obeexact
.

Di
ff
erent
ial
s
Theor
derofdi
ff
erent
ialquant
it
iesf
requent
lycausesmi
sunder
standi
ngi
ntheder
ivat
ionof
equat
ions.Hi
gher
-or
derdi
ff
erent
ial
smayal
way
sbenegl
ect
edcompar
edwi
thl
ower
-or
der
di
ff
erent
ial
swhent
hemat
hemat
icall
imi
tisappr
oached.Forexampl
e,t
heel
ementofv
olume
∆Vofar
ightci
rcul
arconeofal
ti
tudehandbaser usrmaybet
adi akent
obeaci
rcul
arsl
icea
di
stancexf
rom t
hev
ert
exandoft
hickness∆x.Theexpr
essi
onf
ort
hev
olumeoft
heel
ement
i
s

_
Not
ethat
,whenpassi
ngf
rom t
hel
imi
tingoi
ngf
rom ∆Vt
odVandf
rom ∆xt
odx,t
het
erms
2 3
cony
aini ∆x)
ng( ∆x)
and( dr
opout
,leav
ingmeer
ly
whi
chgi
vesanexactexpr
essi
onwheni
ntegr
eted.
1.
9.Pr
obl
em Sol
vingi
nSt
ati
cs
West
udyst
ati
cst
oobt
ainaquant
it
ati
vedescr
ipt
ionoff
orceswhi
chactonengi
neer
ing
st
ruct
ures i
n equi
li
bri
um.Mat
hemat
ics est
abl
ishes t
he r
elat
ions bet
ween t
he v
ari
ous
quant
it
iesi
nvol
vedandenabl
esust
opr
edi
ctef
fect
sfr
om t
heser
elat
ions.Weuseadual
t
houghtpr
ocessi
nsol
vingst
ati
cspr
obl
ems:Wet
hinkaboutbot
hthephy
sicalsi
tuat
ionand
t
hecor
respondi
ngmat
hemat
icaldescr
ipt
ion.I
ntheanal
ysi
sofev
erypr
obl
em,wemakea
t
ransi
ti
onbet
weent
hephy
sicalandt
hemat
hemat
ical
.
Oneoft
hemosti
mpor
tantgoal
sfort
hest
udenti
stodev
elopt
heabi
li
tyt
omaket
his
t
ransi
ti
onf
reel
y.
Maki
ngAppr
opr
iat
eAssumpt
ions
Weshoul
drecogni
zet
hatt
hemat
hemat
icalf
ormul
ati
onofaphy
sicalpr
obl
em r
epr
esent
san
i
dealdescr
ipt
ion,ormodel
,whi
chappr
oxi
mat
esbutnev
erqui
temat
chest
heact
ualphy
sical
si
tuat
ion.
Whenweconst
ructani
deal
izedmat
hemat
icalmodelf
oragi
venengi
neer
ingpr
obl
em,
cer
tai
n
appr
oxi
mat
ionswi
llal
way
sbei
nvol
ved.Someoft
heseappr
oxi
mat
ionsmaybemat
hemat
ical
,
wher
easot
her
swi
llbephy
sical
.
Fori
nst
ance,
iti
sof
tennecessar
ytonegl
ectsmal
ldi
stances,
angl
es,
orf
orcescompar
edwi
th
l
argedi
stances,
angl
es,
orf
orces.Supposeaf
orcei
sdi
str
ibut
edov
erasmal
lar
eaoft
hebody
onwhi
chi
tact
s.Wemayconsi
deri
ttobeaconcent
rat
edf
orcei
fthedi
mensi
onsoft
hear
ea
i
nvol
vedar
esmal
lcompar
edwi
thot
herper
ti
nentdi
mensi
ons.Wemaynegl
ectt
hewei
ghtofa
st
eelcabl
eift
het
ensi
oni
nthecabl
eismanyt
imesgr
eat
ert
hani
tst
otalwei
ght
.Howev
er,i
f
wemustcal
cul
atet
hedef
lect
ionorsagofasuspendedcabl
eundert
heact
ionofi
tswei
ght
,
wemaynoti
gnor
ethecabl
ewei
ght
.
Thus,whatwemayassumedependsonwhati
nfor
mat
ioni
sdesi
redandont
heaccur
acy
r
equi
red.Wemustbeconst
ant
lyal
ertt
othev
ari
ousassumpt
ionscal
ledf
ori
nthef
ormul
ati
on
ofr
ealpr
obl
ems.Theabi
li
tyt
ounder
standandmakeuseoft
heappr
opr
iat
eassumpt
ionsi
n
t
hef
ormul
ati
onandsol
uti
onofengi
neer
ingpr
obl
emsi
scer
tai
nlyoneoft
hemosti
mpor
tant
char
act
eri
sti
csofasuccessf
ulengi
neer
.
Usi
ngGr
aphi
cs
Gr
aphi
csi
sani
mpor
tantanal
yti
calt
oolf
ort
hreer
easons:
 1.Weusegr
aphi
cst
orepr
esentaphy
sicalsy
stem onpaperwi
thasket
chordi
agr
am.
Repr
esent
ingapr
obl
em geomet
ri
cal
lyhel
psuswi
thi
tsphy
sicali
nter
pret
ati
on,especi
all
y
whenwemustv
isual
izet
hree-di
mensi
onalpr
obl
ems.
2.Wecanof
tenobt
ainagr
aphi
calsol
uti
ont
opr
obl
emsmor
eeasi
lyt
hanwi
thadi
rect
mat
hemat
icalsol
uti
on.Gr
aphi
calsol
uti
onsar
ebot
hapr
act
icalwayt
oobt
ainr
esul
ts,
and
anai
dinourt
houghtpr
ocesses.Becausegr
aphi
csr
epr
esent
sthephy
sicalsi
tuat
ionand
i
ts mat
hemat
icalexpr
essi
on si
mul
taneousl
y,gr
aphi
cs hel
ps us make t
he t
ransi
ti
on
bet
weent
het
wo.
3.Char
tsorgr
aphsar
eval
uabl
eai
dsf
orr
epr
esent
ingr
esul
tsi
naf
orm whi
chi
seasyt
o
under
stand.
TheFr
ee-BodyDi
agr
am
Thesubj
ectofst
ati
csi
sbasedonsur
pri
singl
yfewf
undament
alconcept
sandi
nvol
vesmai
nly
t
heappl
icat
ionoft
hesebasi
crel
ati
onst
oav
ari
etyofsi
tuat
ions.I
nthi
sappl
icat
iont
he
met
hodofanal
ysi
sisal
limpor
tant
.Insol
vingapr
obl
em,i
tisessent
ialt
hatt
hel
awswhi
ch
appl
ybecar
eful
lyf
ixedi
nmi
ndandt
hatweappl
ythesepr
inci
plesl
it
eral
lyandexact
ly.I
n
appl
yingt
hepr
inci
plesofmechani
cst
oanal
yzef
orcesact
ingonabody
,iti
sessent
ialt
hatwe
i
sol
atet
hebodyi
nquest
ionf
rom al
lot
herbodi
essot
hatacompl
eteandaccur
ateaccountof
al
lfor
cesact
ingont
hisbodycanbet si
aken.Thi sol
ati
onshoul
dexi
stment
all
yandshoul
dbe
r
epr
esent
edonpaper
.Thedi
agr
am ofsuchani
sol
atedbodywi
tht
her
epr
esent
atonofal
i l
ext
ernalf
orcesact
ingoni
tiscal
ledaf
reebodydi
agr
am.
Thef
ree-body
-di
agr
am met
hodi
sthekeyt
otheunder
standi
ngofmechani
cs.Thi
sisso
hei
becauset sol
ati
onofabodyi
sthet chcauseandef
oolbywhi fectar
ecl
ear
lysepar
ated,
andbywhi
chourat
tent
ioni
scl
ear
lyf
ocusedont
hel
it
eralappl
icat
ionofapr
inci
pleof
mechani
cs.Thet
echni
queofdr
awi
ngf
ree-bodydi
agr
amsi
scov
eredi
nChapt
er3,
wher
ethey
ar
efi
rstused.
Sol
uti
onMet
hods
Sol
uti
onst
othepr
obl
emsofst
ati
csmaybeobt
ainedi
noneormor
eoft
hef
oll
owi
ngway
s.
1.Obt
ainmat
hemat
icalsol
uti
onsbyhand,usi
ngei
theral
gebr
aicsy
mbol
sornumer
ical
v
alues.Wecansol
vemostpr
obl
emst
hisway
.
2.Obt
aingr
aphi
calsol
uti
onsf
orcer
tai
npr
obl
ems.
3.Sol
vepr
obl
emsbycomput
er.Thi
sisusef
ulwhenal
argenumberofequat
ionsmustbe
sol
ved,whenapar
amet
erv
ari
ati
onmustbest
udi
ed,orwhenani
ntr
act
abl
eequat
ion
mustbesol
ved.
Manypr
obl
emscanbesol
vedwi
tht
woormor
eoft
hesemet
hods.Themet
hodut
il
ized
dependspar
tl
yont
heengi
neer
’spr
efer
enceandpar
tl
yont
het
ypeofpr
obl
em t
obesol
ved.

Chapt
erI
I
For
ceSy
stems
2.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
Thef
orcei
sani
mpor
tantf
act
ori
nthef
iel
dofMechani
cs,
whi
chmaybebr
oadl
ydef
inedasan
agentwhi
chpr
oducesort
endst
opr
oduce,dest
roy
sort
endst
odest
roymot
ion.e.
g.,ahor
se
appl
iesf
orcet
opul
lacar
tandt
oseti
tinmot
ion.For
cei
sal
sor
equi
redt
owor
konabi
cycl
e
pump.I
nthi
scase,
thef
orcei
ssuppl
iedbyt
hemuscul
arpowerofourar
msandshoul
der
s.
I
tmaybenot
edt
hatt
hef
orcemayhav
eei
theroft
het
wof
unct
ionsi
.e.
,pr
oducesort
endst
o
pr
oducemot
ion.Thesecondpar
toft
hedef
ini
ti
oni
sanappl
icat
ionoft
hef
ir
stpar
t.I
nst
ati
cs,
weconsi
dert
hesecondf
unct
ionoft
hef
or yi
ceonl e.
. ,
‘tendst
opr
oducemot
ion.
’

Somet
imes,t
heappl
iedf
orcemaynotbesuf
fi
cientt
omov ,e.
eabody g.,i
fwet
ryt
oli
fta
st
onewei
ghi
ng2or3qui
ntal
s,wef
ailt
odoso.I
nthi
scaseweexer
taf
orce,
nodoubt
,butno
mot
ioni
spr
oduced.Thi
sshowst
hataf
orcemaynotnecessar
il
ypr
oduceamot
ioni
nabody
;
buti
tmay
,si
mpl
y,t
endt
odoso.I
nat
ug-of
-wart
het
wopar
ti
es,whenbal
anced,neut
ral
ize
eachot
her
’sf
orce.Butt
hemomentonepar
tyget
sweaker
;theot
herpar
typul
lsof
f,i
nspi
teof
f
ir
stpar
ty’
sbestef
for
ttodest
roymot
ion.
Af
orcemaypr
oducet
hef
oll
owi
ngef
fect
sinabody
,onwhi
chi
tact
s:
1.I
tmaychanget
hemot
i .i
onofabody e.i
. fabodyi
satr
est
,thef
orcemayseti
tin
mot
ionandi
fthebodyi
sal
readyi
nmot
ion,
thef
orcemayaccel
erat
eit
.
2.I
tmayr
etar
dthemot
ionofabody
.
3.I
tmayr
etar
dthef
orces,al
readyact
ing onabody
,thusbr
ingi
ng i
ttor
estori
n
equi
li
bri
um.
4.I
tmaygi
ver
iset
othei
nter
nalst
ressesi
nthebody
,onwhi
chi
tact
s.
2.
2.For
ce
Bef
oredeal
ingwi
t ouporsy
hagr stem off
orces,
iti
snecessar
ytoexami
net
hepr
oper
ti
esofa
si
ngl
efor
cei
nsomedet
ail
.Af
orcehasbeendef
inedi
nChapt
er1asanact
ionofonebodyon
anot
her
.Indy
nami
cswewi
llseet
hataf
orcei
sdef
inedasanact
ionwhi
cht
endst
ocause
accel
erat
ionofabody
.
Af
or sav
cei ect
orquant
it
y,becausei
tsef
fectdependsont
hedi
rect
ionaswel
lasont
he
magni
tudeoft
heact
ion.Thus,
for
cesmaybecombi
nedaccor
dingt
othepar
all
elogr
am l
awof
v
ect
oraddi
ti
on.
Theact
ionoft
hecabl
etensi
onont
hebr
acketi
nFi 1ai
g.2/ srepr
esent
edi
nthesi
dev
iew,
Fig.
 1b,byt
2/ hef
orcev
ect
orP ofmagni
tudeP.Theef
fectoft
his
act
ionont acketdependsonP,t
hebr e_,andt
heangl hel
ocat
ion
oft
hepoi
ntofappl
icat
ionA.Changi
nganyoneoft
heset
hree
speci
fi
cat
ionswi
llal
tert
heef
fectont
hebr
acket
,suchast
hef
orce
i
noneoft
hebol
tswhi
chsecur
ethebr
ackett
othebase,ort
he
i
nter
nalf
orceanddef
ormat
ioni
nthemat
eri
aloft
hebr
acketatany
poi
nt.Thus,t
hecompl
etespeci
fi
cat
ionoft
heact
ionofaf
orce
musti
ncl
udei
tsmagni
tude,di
rect
ion,andpoi
ntofappl
icat
ion,and
t
her
efor
ewemustt
reati
tasaf
ixedv
ect
or.

Ext
ernalandI
nter
nalEf
fect
s
Wecansepar
atet
heact
ionofaf
orceonabodyi
ntot
woef
fect
s,
ext
ernalandi
nter
nal
.Fort
hebr
acketofFi
g.2/
1theef
fect
sofP
ext
ernalt
othebr
acketar
ether
eact
ivef
orces(
notshown)exer
ted
ont
hebr
acketbyt
hef
oundat
ionandbol
tsbecauseoft
heact
ion
ofP.For
cesext
ernalt
oabodycanbeei
therappl
iedf
orcesor
r
eact
ivef
orces.Theef
fect
sofPi
nter
nalt
othebr
acketar
ethe
r
esul
ti
ngi
nter
nalf
orcesanddef
ormat
ionsdi
str
ibut
edt
hroughout
t
hemat
eri
aloft
hebr
acket
.Ther
elat
ionbet
weeni
nter
nalf
orces
andi
nter
naldef
ormat
ionsdependsont
hemat
eri
alpr
oper
ti
esof
t
hebodyandi
sst
udi
edi
nst
rengt
hofmat
eri
als,el
ast
ici
ty,and
pl
ast
ici
ty.
Pr
inci
pleofTr
ansmi
ssi
bil
it
y
Whendeal
ingwi
tht
hemechani
csofar
igi
dbody
,wei
gnor
edef
ormat
ionsi
nthebodyand
concer
n our
sel
veswi
th onl
ythenetext
ernalef
fect
sofext
ernalf
orces.I
n such cases,
exper
ienceshowsust
hati
tisnotnecessar
ytor
est
ri
ctt
heact
ionofanappl
iedf
orcet
oa
gi
venpoi
nt.Forexampl
e,t
hef
orcePact
ingont
her
igi
dpl
atei
nFi
g.2/
2maybeappl
iedatA
oratBoratanyot
herpoi
ntoni
tsl
ineofact
ion,andt
henetext
ernalef
fect
sofPont
he
br
acketwi
llnotchange.Theext
ernalef
fect
sar
ethef
orceexer
tedont
hepl
atebyt
hebear
ing
tatOandt
suppor hef
orceexer
tedont
hepl
atebyt
her
oll tatC.
ersuppor
Thi
sconcl
usi
oni
ssummar
i hepr
zedbyt inci
pleoft
ransmi
ssi
bil
it
y,whi
chst
atest
hataf
orce
maybeappl
iedatanypoi
ntoni
tsgi
venl
ineofact
ionwi
thoutal
ter
ingt
her
esul
tantef
fect
sof
t
hef
orceext
ernalt
other
igi
dbodyonwhi
chi
tact
s.Thus,whenev
erwear
eint
erest
edi
nonl
y
t
her
esul
tantext
ernalef
fect
sofaf
orce,t
hef
orcemaybet
r edasasl
eat idi
ngvect
or,andwe
needspeci
fyonl
ythemagni
tude,di
rect
ion,andl
ineofact
ionoft
hef
orce,andnoti
tspoi
ntof
appl
icat
ion.Becauset
hisbookdeal
sessent
ial
lywi
tht
hemechani
csofr
igi
dbodi
es,wewi
ll
t
reatal
mostal
lfor
cesassl
idi
ngv
ect
orsf
ort
her
igi
dbodyonwhi
cht
heyact
.
For
ceCl
assi
fi
cat
ion
For
cesar
ecl
assi
fi
edasei
thercont
actorbodyf
orces.Acont
actf
orcei
s
pr
oducedbydi
rectphy
sicalcont
act
;anexampl
eist
hef
orceexer
tedon
abodybyasuppor
ti
ngsur
face.Ont
heot
herhand,abodyf
orcei
s
gener
atedbyv
irt
ueoft
heposi
ti
onofabodywi
thi
naf
orcef
iel
dsuchas
agr
avi
tat
ional
,el
ect
ri
c,ormagnet
icf
iel
d.Anex
ampl
eofabodyf
orcei
s
y
ourwei
ght
.
For
cesmaybef
urt
hercl
assi
fi
edasei
therconcent
rat
edordi
str
ibut
ed.
Ev
erycont
actf
orcei
sact
ual
lyappl
iedov
eraf
ini
tear
eaandi
sther
efor
e
r
eal
lyadi
str
ibut
edf
orce.Howev
er,whent
hedi
mensi
onsoft
hear
eaar
e
v
erysmal
lcompar
edwi
tht
heot
herdi
mensi
onsoft
hebody
,wemay
consi
dert
hef
orcet
obeconcent
rat
edatapoi
ntwi
thnegl
igi
blel
ossof
accur
acy
.For
cecan bedi
str
ibut eran ar
ed ov ea,asi
nthecaseof
mechani
calcont
act erav
,ov olumewhenabodyf
orcesuchaswei
ghti
s
act
ing, eral
orov ine,asi
nthecaseoft
hewei
ghtofasuspendedcabl
e.
Thewei
ghtofabodyi
sthef
orceofgr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
iondi
str
ibut
ed
ov
eri
tsv
olumeandmaybet
akenasconcent
rat
edf
orceact
ingt
hrough
t
hecent
erofgr
avi
ty.Theposi
ti
onoft
hecent
erofgr
avi
tyi
sfr
equent
ly
obv
iousi
fthebodyi
ssy
mmet
ri
c.I
ftheposi
ti
oni
snotobv
ious,t
hena
separ
atecal
cul
ati
on,expl
ainedi
nChapt
er5,wi
llbenecessar
ytol
ocat
e
t
hecent
erofgr
avi
ty.
Wecanmeasur
eaf
orceei
therbycompar
isonwi
thot
herknownf
orces,
usi
ngamechani
calbal
ance,
orbyt
hecal
ibr
atedmov
ementofanel
ast
ic
el
ement
.Al
lsuchcompar
isonsorcal
ibr
ati
onshav
east
hei
rbasi
sa
pr
imar
yst
andar
d.
Act
ionandReact
ion
Accor
dingt
oNewt
on’
sthi
rdl
aw,
theact
ionofaf
orcei
sal
way edbyanequaland
saccompani
opposi
ter
eact
ion.I
tisessent
ialt
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
heact
ionandt
her
eact
ioni
napai
rof
f
orces.Todoso,wef
isti
r sol
atet
hebodyi
nquest
ionandt
heni
dent
if
ythef
orceexer
tedon
t
hatbody(
nott
hef
orceexer
tedbyt
hebody
).I
tisv
eryeasyt
omi
stakenl
yuset
hewr
ongf
orce
oft
hepai
runl
esswedi
sti
ngui
shcar
eful
lybet
weenact
ionandr
eact
ion.
Concur
rentFor
ces
Twoormor
efor
cesar
esai
dtobeconcur
rentatapoi
nti
fthei
rli
nesofact
ioni
nter
sectatt
hat
poi
nt.Thef
orcesF1 andF2 showni
nFi 3ahav
g.2/ eacommonpoi
ntofappl
icat
ionandar
e
concur
rentatt ntA.Thus,t
hepoi heycanbeaddedusi
ngt
hepar
all
elogr
am l
aw i
nthei
r
commonpl
anet
oobt
aint rsum orr
hei esul
tantR,asshowni
nFi 3a.Ther
g.2/ esul
tantl
iesi
n
t
hesamepl
aneasF1andF2.Supposet
het
woconcur
rentf
orcesl
iei
nthesamepl
anebutar
e
appl
iedatt
wodi
ff
erentpoi
ntsasi
nFi 3b.Byt
g.2/ hepr
inci
pleoft
ransmi
ssi
bil
it
y,wemay
mov
ethem al
ongt
hei
rli
nesofact
ionandcompl
etet
hei
rvect
orsum R att
hepoi
ntof
concur
rencyA,
asshowni
nFi 3b.
g.2/
Wecanr
epl
aceF1andF2wi
tht
her
esul
tantRwi
thoutal
ter
ingt
heext
ernalef
fect
sont
hebody
uponwhi
cht
heyact
.
Wecanal
souset
het
ri
angl
elawt
oobt
ainR,butweneedt
omov
ethel
ineofact
ionofoneof
t
hef
orces,asshowni
nFi 3c.I
g.2/ fweaddt
hesamet
wof
orcesasshowni
nFi 3d,we
g.2/
cor
rect
lypr
eser
vet
hemagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionofR,butwel
oset
hecor
rectl
ineofact
ion,
becauseRobt
ainedi
nthi
swaydoesnotpasst
hroughA.Ther
efor
ethi
sty
peofcombi
nat
ion
shoul
dbeav
oided.
Wecanexpr
esst
hesum oft
het
wof
orcesmat
hemat
ical
lybyt
hev
ect
orequat
ion
R=F1+F2
Vect
orComponent
s
I
naddi
ti
ont
ocombi
ningf
orcest
oobt
aint
hei
rresul
tant
,weof
tenneedt
orepl
aceaf
orceby
i
tsv
ect
orcomponent
sindi
rect
ionswhi
char
econv
eni
entf
oragi
venappl
icat
ion.Thev
ect
or
sum oft
hecomponent
smustequalt
heor
igi
nalv
ect
or.Thus,t
hef
orceRi
nFi 3amaybe
g.2/
r
epl ,orr
acedby esol
vedi
nto,t
wov
ect
orcomponent
sF1 andF2 wi
tht
hespeci
fi
eddi
rect
ions
bycompl
eti
ngt
hepar
all
elogr
am asshownt
oobt
aint
hemagni
tudesofF1andF2.
Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenaf
orceandi
tsv
ect
orcomponent
sal
onggi
venaxesmustnotbe
conf
usedwi
tht
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenaf
orceandi
tsper
pendi
cul
arpr
oject
ionsont
othe
sameaxes.Fi
gur 3eshowst
e2/ heper
pendi
cul
arpr
oject
ionsFa andFb oft
hegi
venf
orceR
oaxesaandb,
ont whi
char
epar
all
elt
othev
ect
orcomponent
sF1andF2of
Fi 3a.Fi
g.2/ gur 3eshowst
e2/ hatt
hecomponent
sofav
ect
orar
enotnecessar
il
yequalt
othe
pr
oject
ionsoft
hev
ect
oront
othesameaxes.Fur
ther
mor
e,t
hev
ect
orsum oft
hepr
oject
ions
Fa andFb i
snott
hev
ect
orR,becauset
hepar
all
elogr
am l
awofv
ect
oraddi
ti
onmustbeused
t
ofor
mthesum.Thecomponent
sandpr
oject
ionsofRar
eequalonl heaxesaandb
ywhent
ar
eper
pendi
cul
ar.
ASpeci
alCaseofVect
orAddi
ti
on
Toobt
aint
her
esul
tantwhent
het
wof
orcesF1andF2ar
epar
all
elasi
nFi
g.
2/
4,weuseaspeci
alcaseofaddi
ti
on.Thet
wov
ect
orsar
ecombi
nedby
f
ir
staddi
ng t
wo equal
,opposi
te,and col
li
nearf
orcesF and -F of
conv
eni
entmagni
tude,
whi
cht
akent
oget
herpr
oducenoext
ernalef
fecton
t
hebody
.Addi
ngF1andFt
opr
oduceR1,
andcombi
ningwi
tht
hesum R2of
F2 and-Fy
iel
dther
esul
tantR,whi
chi
scor
recti
nmagni
tude,di
rect
ion,
andl
ineofact
ion.Thi
spr
ocedur
eisal
sousef
ulf
orgr
aphi
cal
lycombi
ning
t
wof
orceswhi
chhav
ear
emot
eandi
nconv
eni
entpoi
ntofconcur
rency
because t
heyar
e al
mostpar
all
el.I
tisusual
lyhel
pfult
o mast
ert
he
anal
ysi
soff
orcesy
stemsi
ntwodi
mensi
onsbef
oreunder
taki
ngt
hree-
di
mensi
onalanal
ysi
s.Thust
her
emai
nderofChapt
er2i
ssubdi
videdi
nto
t
heset
wocat
egor
ies

SECTI
ONA:TWO-DI
MENSI
ONALFORCESYSTEMS

2.
3.Rect
angul
arComponent
s
Themostcommont
wo-di
mensi
onalr
esol
uti
onofaf
orcev
ect
ori
sint
o
r
ect
angul
arcomponent
s.I
tfol
lowsf
rom t
hepar
all
elogr
am r
ulet
hatt
he
v
ect
orFofFi
g.2/
5maybewr
it
tenas

Wher ev
eFx andFy ar ect
orcomponent
sofFi
nthex-andy
-di
rect
ions.
Eachoft
het
wov
ect
orcomponent
smaybewr
it
tenasascal
art
imest
he
appr
opr
iat
euni
tvect
or.I
nter
msoft
heuni
tvect
orsiandjofFi
g.2/
5,Fx
=FxiandFy=Fyj
,andt
huswemaywr
it
e

Wher
ethescal
arsFx andFy ar
ethexandyscal
arcomponent
sof
t
hev
ect
orF.Thescal
arcomponent
scanbeposi
ti
veornegat
ive,
dependi
ngont
hequadr
anti
ntowhi
chFpoi
nts.Fort
hef
orcev
ect
or
ofFi
g.2/
5,hexandyscal
t arcomponent
sar
ebot
hposi
ti
veandar
e
r
elat
edt
othemagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionofFby
Convent
ionsf
orDescr
ibi
ngVect
orComponent
s
Weexpr
esst
hemagni
tudeofav
ect
orwi
thl
ight
facei
tal
ict
ypei
npr
int
;thati
s,/
F/i
sindi
cat
ed
byF,aquant
it
ywhi
chi
sal snonnegat
way ive.However
,thescal
arcomponent
s,al
sodenot
ed
byl
ight
facei
tal
ict
ype,
wil
lincl
udesi
gni
nfor
mat
ion.
Whenbot
haf
orceandi
tsv
ect
orcomponent
sappeari
nadi
agr
am,i
tisdesi
rabl
etoshowt
he
v
ect
orcomponent
soft
hef
orcewi
thdashedl
ines,asi
nFi
g.2/
5,andshowt
hef
orcewi
tha
sol
idl
ine,orv
icev
ersa.Wi
thei
theroft
heseconv
ent
ionsi
twi
llal
way
sbecl
eart
hataf
orce
andi
tscomponent
sar
ebei
ngr
epr
esent
ed,
andnott
hreesepar
atef
orces,
aswoul
dbei
mpl
ied
byt
hreesol
id-l
inev
ect
ors.
Act
ualpr
obl
emsdonotcomewi
thr
efer
enceaxes,
sot
hei
rassi
gnmenti
samat
terofar
bit
rar
y
conv
eni
ence,andt
hechoi
cei
sfr
equent
lyupt
othest
udent
.Thel
ogi
calchoi
cei
susual
ly
i
ndi
cat
edbyt
hewayi
nwhi
cht
hegeomet
ryoft
hepr
obl
em i
sspeci
fi
ed.Whent
hepr
inci
pal
di
mensi
onsofabodyar
egi
veni
nthehor
izont
alandv
ert
icaldi
rect
ions,f
orexampl
e,y
ou
woul
dty
pical
lyassi
gnr
efer
enceaxesi
nthesedi
rect
ions.
Det
ermi
ningt
heComponent
sofaFor
ce
Di
mensi
onsar
enotal
way
sgi
veni
nhor
izont
alandv
ert
icaldi
rect
ions,angl
esneednotbe
measur
edcount
ercl
ockwi
sef
r hex-axi
om t s,andt
heor
igi
nofcoor
dinat
esneednotbeont
he
l
ineofact
ionofaf
orce.Ther
efor
e,i
tisessent
ialt
hatwebeabl
etodet
ermi
net
hecor
rect
component
sofaf
orcenomat
terhowt
heaxesar
eor
ient
edorhowt
heangl
esar
emeasur
ed.
Fi
gur
e2/
6suggest
saf
ewt
ypi
calexampl
esofv
ect
orr
esol
uti
oni
ntwodi
mensi
ons.
Memor
izat
ionofEqs.2/
3isnotasubst
it
utef
orunder
standi
ngt
hepar
all
elogr
am l
awandf
or
cor
rect
lypr
oject
ingav
ect
oront
oar
efer
enceaxi
s.Aneat
lydr
awnsket
chal
way
shel
pst
o
cl
ari
fyt
hegeomet
ryandav
oider
ror
.
Rect
angul
arcomponent
sar
econv
eni
entf
orf
indi
ngt
hesum orr
esul
tantRoft
wof
orces
whi
char
econcur
rent
.Consi
dert
wof
orcesF1andF2whi
char
eor
igi
nal
lyconcur
rentatapoi
nt
O.
I
naddi
ngt
hef
orcev
ect
orsF1andF2,
wemaywr
it
e

Or
Fr
om whi
chweconcl
udet
hat
Thet
erm ΣFxmeans“
theal
gebr
ai hexscal
csum oft arcomponent
s”.
2.
4.Moment
I
naddi
ti
ont
othet
endencyt
omov
eabodyi
nthedi
rect
ionofi
tsappl
icat
ion,af
orcecanal
so
t
endt
orot
ateabodyaboutanaxi
s.Theaxi
smaybeanyl
inewhi
chnei
theri
nter
sect
snori
s
par
all
elt
othel
ineofact
ionoft
hef
orce.Thi
srot
ati
onalt
endencyi hemomentM
sknownast
oft
hef
orce.Momenti
sal
sor
efer
r oast
edt orque.
Asaf
ami
li
arexampl
eoft
heconceptofmoment
,consi
dert
he
pi
pe wr
ench ofFi 8a.One ef
g.2/ fectoft
he f
orce appl
ied
per
pendi
cul
art
othehandl
eoft
hewr
enchi
sthet
endencyt
o
r
otat
ethepi
peabouti
tsv
ert
icalaxi
s.Themagni
tudeoft
his
t
endencydependsonbot
hthemagni
tudeFoft
hef
orceandt
he
ef
fect
ivel h d oft
engt hewr
enchhandl
e.Commonexper
ience
showst
hatapul
lwhi
chi
snotper
pendi
cul
art
othewr
enchhandl
e
i
slessef
fect
ivet
hant
her
ight
-angl
epul
lshown.
MomentaboutaPoi
nt
Fi
gur 8bshowsat
e2/ wo-di
mensi
onalbodyact
edonbyaf
orceF
i
nit
spl
ane.Themagni
tudeoft
hemomentort
endencyoft
he
f
orcet
orot
atet
hebodyaboutt sO-Oper
heaxi pendi
cul
art
othe
pl
aneoft
hebodyi
spr
opor
ti
onalbot
htot
hemagni
tudeoft
he
f
orce and t
othe momentar
m d,whi
ch i
sthe per
pendi
cul
ar
di
stancef
rom t
heaxi
stot
hel
ineofact
ionoft
hef
orce.Ther
efor
e,
t
hemagni
tudeoft
hemomenti
sdef
inedas

Themomenti
sav
ect
orM per
pendi
cul
art
othepl
aneoft
hebody
.
ThesenseofM dependsont
hedi
rect
ioni
nwhi
chFt
endst
o
r
otat
ethebody
.Ther
ight
-handr
ule,Fi 8c,i
g.2/ susedt
oident
if
y
t
hissense.Wer
epr hemomentofFaboutO-Oasav
esentt ect
orpoi
nti
ngi
nthedi
rect
ionof
t
het
humb,
wit
hthef
inger
scur
ledi
nthedi
rect
ionoft
her
otat
ionalt
endency
.
ThemomentM obey
sal
lther
ulesofv
ect
orcombi
nat
ionandmaybeconsi
der
edasl
idi
ng
v
ect
orwi
thal
ineofact
ioncoi
nci
dingwi
tht
hemomentaxi
s.Thebasi
cuni
tsofmomenti
nSI
uni
tsar
enewt
on-met
ersandi
ntheU.
S.cust
omar
ysy
stem ar
epound-f
eet(
lb-f
t).When
deal
ingwi
thf
orceswhi
chal
lacti
nagi
venpl
ane,wecust
omar
il hemomentabout
yspeakoft
apoi
nt.Byt
hiswemeant
hemomentwi
thr
espectt
oanaxi
snor
malt
othepl
aneandpassi
ng
t
hrought
hepoi
nt.Thus,t
hemomentoff
or ntAi
ceFaboutpoi nFi 8dhast
g.2/ hemagni
tude
M =Fdandi
scount
ercl
ockwi
se.
Momentdi
rect
ionsmaybeaccount
edf
orbyusi
ngast
atedsi
gnconv
ent
ion,suchasapl
us
si
gn(
+)f
orcount
ercl
ockwi
semoment
sandami
nussi
gn(
-)f
orcl
ockwi
semoment
s,orv
ice
v
ersa.Si
gnconsi
stencywi
thi
nagi
venpr
obl
em i
sessent
ial
.Fort
hesi
gnconv
ent
ionofFi
g.
8d,
2/ t ntA(
hemomentofFaboutpoi hez-axi
oraboutt spassi
ngt
hr ntA)i
oughpoi sposi
ti
ve.
Thecur
vedar
rowoft
hef
igur
eisaconv
eni
entwayt
orepr
esentmoment
sint
wo-di
mensi
onal
anal
ysi
s.
TheCr
ossPr
oduct
I
n somet
wo-di
mensi
onaland manyoft
het
hree-di
mensi
onalpr
obl
emst
ofol
low,i
tis
conv
eni
entt
ouseav
ect
orappr
oachf
ormomentcal
cul
ati
ons.
ntAofFi
ThemomentofFaboutpoi 8bmayber
g.2/ epr
esent
edbyt
hecr
oss-pr
oduct
expr
essi
on

Wher
eri
saposi
ti
onv
ect
orwhi
chr
unsf
rom t
hemomentr
efer ntAt
encepoi oanypoi
ntont
he
l
ineofact
ionofF.Themagni
tudeoft
hisexpr
essi
oni
sgi
venby

Whi
chagr
eeswi
tht
hemomentmagni
tudeasgi
venbyEq.2/
5.Not
ethatt m d=
hemomentar
r
sinαdoesnotdependont
hepar
ti
cul
arpoi
ntont
hel
ineofact
ionofFt
owhi
cht
hev
ect
orri
s
di
rect
ed.Weest
abl
isht
hedi
rect
ionandsenseofM byappl
yingt
her
ight
-handr
ulet
othe
sequencerxF.I
fthef
inger
soft
her
ighthandar
ecur
ledi
nthedi
rect
ionofr
otat
ionf
rom t
he
posi
ti
vesenseofrt
otheposi
ti
vesenseofF,
thent
het
humbpoi
ntsi
ntheposi
ti
vesenseofM.
Wemustmai
ntai
nthesequencerxF,becauset
hesequenceFxrwoul
dpr
oduceav
ect
or
wi
thasenseopposi
tet
othatoft
hecor
rectmoment
.Aswast
hecasewi
tht
hescal
ar
appr
oach,t
hemomentM maybet
houghtofast ntAorast
hemomentaboutpoi hemoment
aboutt
hel
ineO-Owhi
chpassest
hr ntAandi
oughpoi sper
pendi
cul
art
othepl
anecont
aini
ng
t
hev
ect
orsrandF.Whenweev
aluat
ethemomentofaf
orceaboutagi
venpoi
nt,t
hechoi
ce
bet
ween usi
ng t
he v
ect
orcr
osspr
oductort
he scal
arexpr
essi
on dependson how t
he
geomet
ryoft
hepr
obl
em i
sspeci
fi
ed.I
fweknoworcaneasi
lydet
ermi
net
heper
pendi
cul
ar
di
stancebet
weent
hel
ineofact
ionoft
hef
orceandt
hemomentcent
er,t
hent
hescal
ar
appr
oachi
sgener
all
ysi
mpl
er.I
f,howev
er,Fandrar
enotper
pendi
cul
arandar
eeasi
ly
expr
essi
blei
nvect
ornot
ati
on,t
hent
hecr
oss-pr
oductexpr
essi
oni
sof
tenpr
efer
abl
e.I
n
Sect
ionBoft
hischapt
er,wewi
llseehowt
hev
ect
orf
ormul
ati
onoft
hemomentofaf
orcei
s
especi
all
yusef
ulf
ordet
ermi
ningt
hemomentofaf
orceaboutapoi
nti
nthr
ee-di
mensi
onal
si
tuat
ions.
Var
ignon’
sTheor
em
Oneoft
hemostusef
ulpr
inci
plesofmechani sVar
csi ignon’
stheor
em t
hatst
atest
hemoment
ofaf
orceaboutanypoi
nti
sequalt
othesum of
t
he moment
soft
he component
soft
he f
orce
aboutt
he same poi
nt.To pr
ovet
hist
heor
em,
consi
dert
hef
orceR act
ingi
nthepl
aneoft
he
bodyshowni
nFi 9a.Thef
g.2/ orcesP andQ
r
epr
esentanyt
wononr
ect
angul
arcomponent
sof
ntOi
R.ThemomentofRaboutpoi s

BecauseR=P+Q,
wemaywr
it
e

Usi
ng t
he di
str
ibut
ive l
aw f
or cr
oss pr
oduct
s, we hav
e

Whi
chsay
st hemomentofRaboutO equal
hatt sthesum oft saboutO ofi
hemoment ts
component
sPandQ.Thi
spr
ovest
het
heor
em.Var
ignon’
stheor
em neednotber
est
ri
ctedt
o
t
hecaseoft
wocomponent
s,buti
tappl
iesequal
lywel
ltot
hreeormor
e.Thuswecoul
dhav
e
usedanynumberofconcur
rentcomponent
sofRi
nthef
oregoi
ngpr
oof
.
Fi
gur 9bi
e2/ ll
ust
rat
est
heusef
ulnessofVar
ignon’
stheor ntO
em.ThemomentofRaboutpoi
sRd.Howev
i er fdi
,i smor
edi
ff
icul
ttodet
ermi hanpandq,wecanr
net esol
veRi
ntot
he
component
sPandQ,
andcomput
ethemomentas

Wher
ewet
aket
hecl
ockwi
semomentsenset
obeposi
ti
ve.
2.
6.Coupl
e
Themomentpr
oducedbyt
woequal
,opposi
te,andnoncol
li
nearf
orcesi
scal
ledacoupl
e.
Coupl
eshav
ecer
tai
nuni
quepr
oper
ti
esandhav
eimpor
tantappl
icat
ionsi
nmechani
cs.
Consi
dert
heact
ionoft
woequalandopposi
tef
orcesFand-Fadi
stancedapar
t,asshowni
n
Fi 10a.Theset
g.2/ wof
orcescannotbecombi
nedi
ntoasi
ngl
efor
cebecauset
hei
rsum i
n
ev
erydi
rect
ioni
szer
o.Thei
ronl
yef
fecti
stopr
oduceat
endencyof
r
otat
ion.Thecombi
nedmomentoft
het
wof
orcesaboutanaxi
s
nor
malt
othei
rpl
aneandpassi
ngt
hr ntsuchasO i
oughanypoi n
t
hei
rpl
anei
sthecoupl
eM.Thi
scoupl
ehasamagni
tude

I
tsdi
rect
ioni
scount
ercl
ockwi
sewhenv
iewedf
rom abov
efort
he
casei
ll
ust
rat
ed.
Not
eespeci
all
ythatt
hemagni
tudeoft
hecoupl
eisi
ndependentof
t
hedi
stanceawhi
chl
ocat
est
hef
orceswi
thr
espectt
othemoment
erO.I
cent tfol
lowst
hatt
hemomentofacoupl
ehast
hesamev
alue
f
oral
lmomentcent
ers.
Vect
orAl
gebr
aMet
hod
Wemayal
soexpr
esst
hemomentofacoupl
ebyusi
ngv
ect
oral
gebr
a.
Wi
tht
hecr
oss-pr
oductnot
ati
onofEq.2/
6,t
hecombi
nedmoment
ntOoft
aboutpoi hef
orcesf
ormi
ngt
hecoupl
eofFi 10bi
g.2/ s

Wher
erA and r
B ar
eposi
ti
on v
ect
orswhi
ch r
un f
r ntO t
om poi o
ar
bit
rar
y poi
nts A and B on t
he l
ines ofact
ion ofF and -F,
r
espect
ivel
y.
Becauser
A =r
B +r
,wecanexpr
essM as

Her
eagai
n,t
hemomentexpr
essi
oncont
ainsnor
efer
encet
ot erO and,
hemomentcent
t
her
efor
e,i
sthesamef
oral
lmomentcent
ers.Thus,wemayr
epr
esentM byaf
reev
ect
or,as
show i
nFi 10c,wher
g.2/ ethedi
rect
ionofM i
snor
malt
othepl
aneoft
hecoupl
eandt
he
senseofM i
sest
abl
ishedbyt
her
ight
-handr
ule.Becauset
hecoupl
evect
orM i
sal
way
s
per
pendi
cul
art
othepl
aneoft
hef
orceswhi
chconst
it
utet
hecoupl
e,i
ntwo-di
mensi
onal
anal
ysi
swecanr
epr
esentt
hesenseofacoupl
evect
orascl
ockwi
seorcount
ercl
ockwi
seby
oneoft
heconv
ent
ionsshowni
nFi 10d.Lat
g.2/ er,
whenwedealwi
thcoupl
evect
orsi
nthr
ee-
di
mensi
onalpr
obl
ems,wewi
llmakef
ulluseofv
ect
ornot
ati
ont
orepr
esentt
hem,andt
he
mat
hemat
icswi
llaut
omat
ical
lyaccountf
ort
hei
rsense.
Equi
val
entCoupl
es
Changi
ngt
hev
aluesofFandddoesnotchangeagi
vencoupl
easl
ongast oductFd
hepr
r
emai
nst
hesame.Li
kewi
se,
acoupl
eisnotaf
fect
edi
fthef
orcesacti
nadi
ff
erentbutpar
all
el
pl
ane.Fi
gur
e2/
11showsf
ourdi
ff
erentconf
igur
ati
onsoft
hesamecoupl
eM.I
neachoft
he
f
ourcases,t
hecoupl
esar
eequi
val
entandar
edescr
ibedbyt
hesamef
reev
ect
orwhi
ch
r
epr
esent
sthei
dent
icalt
endenci
est
orot
atet
hebodi
es.

For
ce–Coupl
eSyst
ems
Theef
fectoff
orceact
ingonabodyi
sthet
endencyt
opushorpul
lthebodyi
nthedi
rect
ionof
t
hef
orce,andt
orot
atet
hebodyaboutanyf
ixedaxi
swhi
chdoesnoti
nter
sectt
hel
ineoft
he
f
orce.Wecanr
epr
esentt
hisdualef
fectmor
eeasi
lybyr
epl
aci
ngt
hegi
venf
orcebyanequal
par
all
elf
orceandacoupl
etocompensat
efort
hechangei
nthemomentoft
hef
orce.
Ther
epl
acementofaf
orcebyf
orceandcoupl
eisi
ll
ust
rat
edi
nFi
g.2/
12,wher
ethegi
ven
f
orce F act
i ntA i
ng atpoi srepl
aced by an equalf
or ntB and t
ce F atsome poi he
count
ercl
ockwi eM =Fd.
secoupl
Thet
ransf
eri
sseeni
nthemi
ddl
efi
gur
e,wher
etheequalandopposi
tef
orcesFand-Far
e
ntBwi
addedatpoi thouti
ntr
oduci
nganynetex
ter
nalef
fect
sont
hebody
.Wenowseet
hat
t
heor
igi
nalf
orceatA andt
heequalandopposi
teoneatB const
it
utet eM = Fd,
hecoupl
whi
chi
scount
ercl
ockwi
sef
ort
hesampl
echosen,asshowni
nther
ight
-handpar
toft
he
f
igur
e.Thus,wehav
erepl
acedt
heor
igi
nalf
orceatAbyt
hesamef
orceact
ingatadi
ff
erent
ntBandacoupl
poi e,wi
thoutal
ter
ingt
heext
ernalef
fect
soft
heor
igi
nalf
orceont
hebody
.
Thecombi
nat
ionoft
hef
orceandcoupl
eint
her
ight
-handpar
tofFi
g.2/
12i
sref
err
edt
oasa
f
orce–coupl
esyst
em.

Byr
ever
singt
hispr
ocess,wecancombi
neagi
vencoupl
eandaf
orcewhi
chl
iesi
nthepl
ane
oft
he coupl
e(nor
malt
othe coupl
evect
or)t
o pr
oduce a si
ngl
e,equi
val
entf
orce.
Repl
acementofaf
orcebyanequi
val
entf
orce–coupl
esy
stem,andt
her
ever
sepr
ocedur
e,
hav
emanyappl
icat
ionsi
nmechani
csandshoul
dbemast
ered.
 2.
6.Resul
tant
s
Thepr
oper
ti
esoff
orce,moment
,andcoupl
ewer
edev
elopedi
n
t
hepr
evi
ousf
ourar
ti
cles.Now wear
ereadyt
o descr
ibet
he
r
esul
tantact
i ouporsy
onofagr stem off
orces.Mostpr
obl
emsi
n
mechani
csdealwi
thasy
stem off
orces,andi
tisusual
lynecessar
ytor
educet
hesy
stem t
o
i
tssi
mpl
estf
ormt
odescr
ibei
tsact
ion.Ther
esul
tantofasyst
em off
orcesi
sthesi
mpl
est
f
orcecombi
nat
ionwhi
chcanr
epl
acet
heor
igi
nalf
orceswi
thoutal
ter
ingt
heext
ernalef
fecton
t
her
igi
dbodyt
owhi
cht
hef
orcesar
eappl
ied.Equi
li
bri
um ofabodyi
sthecondi
ti
oni
nwhi
ch
t
her
esul
tantofal
lfor
cesact
ingont
hebodyi
szer
o.Thi
scondi
ti
oni
sst
udi
edi
nst
ati
cs.When
t
her
esul
tantofal
lfor
cesonabodyi
snotzer
o,t
heaccel
erat
ionoft
hebodyi
sobt
ainedby
equat
ingt
hef
orcer
esul
tantt
othepr
oductoft
hemassandaccel
erat
ionoft
hebody
.Thi
s
condi
ti
oni
sst
udi
edi
ndy
nami
cs.Thus,
thedet
ermi
nat
ionofr
esul
tant
sisbasi
ctobot
hst
ati
cs
anddy
nami
cs.
Themostcommont
ypeoff
orcesy
stem occur
swhent
hef
orcesal
lacti
nasi
ngl
epl
ane,say
,
hex-ypl
t ane,asi
ll
ust
rat
edbyt
hesy
stem oft
hreef
orcesF1,F2,andF3 i
nFi 13a.We
g.2/
obt
aint
hemagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionoft
her
esul
tantf
orceRbyf
ormi hef
ngt orcepol
ygon
showni tboft
npar hef
igur
e,wher
ethef
orcesar
eaddedhead-t
o-t
aili
nanysequence.Thus,
f
oranysy
stem ofcopl
anarf
orceswemaywr
it
e
Gr
aphi
cal
ly,t
hecor
rectl
ineofact
ionofRmaybeobt
ainedbypr
eser
vingt
hecor
rectl
inesof
act
ionoft
hef
orcesandaddi
ngt
hem byt
hepar
all
elogr
am l
aw.Weseet
hisi taoft
npar he
f
igur
efort
hecaseoft
hreef
orceswher
ethesum R1 ofF2 andF3 i
saddedt
oF1 t
oobt
ainR.
Thepr
inci
pleoft
ransmi
ssi
bil
it
yhasbeenusedi
nthi
spr
ocess.
Al
gebr
aicMet
hod
Wecanuseal
gebr
atoobt
aint
her
esul
tantf
orceandi
tsl
ineofact
ionasf
oll
ows:
1.Chooseaconv
eni
entr
efer
encepoi
ntandmov
eal
lfor
cest
othatpoi
nt.Thi
spr
ocessi
s
depi
ctedf
orat
hree-f
orcesy
stem i
nFi 14aandb,wher
gs.2/ eM1,M2,andM3 ar
ethe
coupl
esr
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
het
ransf
eroff
orcesF1,
F2,
andF3f
rom t
hei
rrespect
iveor
igi
nal
l
inesofact
iont
oli
nesofact
iont
hr ntO.
oughpoi
2.Addal
lf cesatO t
or ofor
mther
esul
tantf
orceR,andaddal
lcoupl
est
ofor
mthe
r
esul
t eMO.Wenowhav
antcoupl ethesi
ngl
efor
ce–coupl
esy
stem,asshowni
nFi
g.
14c.
2/
3.I
nFi 14d,f
g.2/ indt
hel
ineofact
ionofRbyr
equi
ri
ngRt eamomentofMOabout
ohav
ntO.Not
poi ethatt
hef
orcesy
stemsofFi 14aand2/
gs.2/ 14dar
eequi
val
ent
,andt
hat
Fd)i
∑( nFi 14ai
g.2/ oRdi
sequalt nFi 14d.
g.2/
Pr
inci
pleofMoment
s
Thi
spr
ocessi
ssummar
izedi
nequat
ionf
orm by

Thef
ir
stt
woofEqs.2/
10r
educesagi
vensy
stem off
orcest
oaf
orce–coupl
esy
stem atan
ar
bit
rar
il
ychosenbutconv
eni ntO.Thel
entpoi astequat
ionspeci
fi
est
hedi
stancedf
rom
ntOt
poi othel
ineofact
ionofR,andst
atest
hatt
hemomentoft
her
esul
tantf
orceaboutany
ntOequal
poi sthesum oft
hemoment
soft
heor
igi
nalf
orcesoft
hesy
stem aboutt
hesame
poi
nt.Thi
sext
endsVar
ignon’
stheor
em t
othecaseofnonconcur
rentf
orcesy
stems;wecal
l
t
hisext
ensi hepr
ont inci
pleofmoment
s.
Foraconcur
rentsy
stem off
orceswher
ethel
inesofact
ionofal
lfor
cespasst
hrougha
ntO,
commonpoi themomentsum ∑MO aboutt
hatpoi
nti
szer
o.Thus,
thel
ineofact
ionoft
he
r
esul
tantR=∑F,det
ermi
nedbyt
hef
ir
stofEqs.
2/10,passest
hr ntO.Forapar
oughpoi all
el
f
orcesy
stem,
sel
ectacoor
dinat
eaxi
sint
hedi
rect
ionoft
hef
orces.
I
fther
esul
tantf
orceRf
oragi
venf
orcesy
stem i
szer
o,t
her
esul
tantoft
hesy
stem neednot
bezer
obecauset
her
esul
tantmaybeacoupl
e.
Thet
hreef
orcesi
nFi
g.2/
15,f
ori
nst
ance,hav
eazer
oresul
tantf
orcebuthav
ear
esul
tant
cl
ockwi eM =F3d.
secoupl
SECTI
ONB:THREE-DI
MENSI
ONALFORCESYSTEMS
2.
7.Rect
angul
arComponent
s
Many pr
obl
ems i
n mechani
cs r
equi
re anal
ysi
sint
hree
di
mensi
ons,andf
orsuchpr
obl
emsi
tisof
tennecessar
yto
r
esol
ve a f
orce i
nto i
ts t
hree mut
ual
ly per
pendi
cul
ar
component
s.Thef
orceFact
i ntOi
ngatpoi nFi
g.2/
16hast
he
r
ect
angul
arcomponent
sFx,Fy,Fz,wher
e

Theuni
tvect
orsi
,j,andkar
ei hex-,y
nt -,andz-di
rect
ions,
r
espect
ivel
y.
2
Usi
ngt
hedi
rect
ioncosi
nesofF,
whi el=cosθx,
char m =cosθy,andn=cosθz,wher
el +m2+
n2=1,wemaywr
it
ethef
orceas

Wemayr
egar
dther
ight
-si
deexpr
essi
onofEq.2/
12ast
hef
orcemagni
tudeFt
imesauni
t
v
ect
ornwhi
chchar
act
eri
zest
hedi
rect
ionofF,
or

I
n sol
ving t
hree-di
mensi
onalpr
obl
ems,one mustusual
lyf
i he x,y
nd t ,and z scal
ar
component
sofaf
orce.I
nmostcases,t
hedi
rect
ionofaf
orcei
sdescr
i a)byt
bed( wopoi
nts
ont
hel
ineofact
ionoft
hef
or b)byt
ceor( woangl
eswhi
chor
ientt
hel
ineofact
ion.
(
a)Speci
fi
cat
ionbyt
wopoi
ntsont
hel
ineofact
ionof
t
hef
orce.
I
fthecoor
dinat
esofpoi
ntsAandBofFi
g.2/
17ar
eknown,
t
hef
orceFmaybewr
it
tenas

hex,y
Thust ,andzscal
arcomponent
sofFar
ethescal
ar
coef
fi
cient
soft
heuni
tvect
orsi
,j,
andk,
respect
ivel
y.
(
b)Speci
fi
cat
ionbyt
woangl
eswhi
chor
ientt
hel
ineofact
ion
oft
hef
orce.
Consi
dert
he geomet
ryofFi
g.2/
18.We assume t
hatt
he
esθandφ ar
angl eknown.Fi
rstr
esol
veFi
ntohor
izont
aland
v
ert
icalcomponent
s.

Then r
esol
vet
hehor
i alcomponentFxy i
zont nto x-and y
-
component
s.

Thequant
it
iesFx,
Fy,andFzar
ethedesi
redscal
arcomponent
sofF.
Thechoi
ceofor
ient
ati
onoft
hecoor
dinat
esy
stem i
sar
bit
rar
y,wi
th
conv
eni
encebei
ngt
hepr
imar
yconsi
der
ati
on.Howev
er,wemustusear
ight
-handedsetof
axesi
nourt
hree-di
mensi
onalwor
kto
beconsi
stentwi
tht
her
ight
-hand-r
ule
def
ini
ti
on oft
hecr
osspr
oduct
.When
we r
otat
efr he x- t
om t othe y
-axi
s
t
hr he 90o angl
ough t e,t
he posi
ti
ve
di
rect
ion f he z-axi
or t sinar
ight
-
handedsy
stem i
sthatoft
headv
ancementofar
ight
-handedscr
ewr
otat
edi
nthesamesense.
Thi
sisequi
val
entt
other
ight
-handr
ule.
DotPr
oduct
Wecanexpr
esst
her
ect
angul
arcomponent
sofaf
orceF(
oranyot
herv
ect
or)wi
tht
heai
dof
t
hev
ect
oroper
ati hedotorscal
onknownast arpr
oduct
).Thedotpr
oductoft
wov
ect
orsP
andQ,
Fi 19a,
g.2/ isdef
inedast
hepr
oductoft
hei
rmagni
tudest
imest
hecosi
neoft
heangl
e
bet
weent
hem.I
tiswr
it
tenas

Wecanv
iewt
hispr
oductei
therast
heor
thogonalpr
oject
ionPcosαofPi
nthedi
rect
ionofQ
mul
ti
pledbyQ,orast
i heor
thogonalpr
oject
ionQcosαofQi
nthedi
rect
ionofPmul
ti
pli
edby
P.I
nei
thercaset
hedotpr
oductoft
het
wov
ect
orsi
sascal
arquant
it
y.Thus,
fori
nst
ance,
we
canexpr
esst arcomponentFx=Fcosθxoft
hescal hef
orceFi
nFi 16asFx=Fx
g.2/ i,wher
ei
i
stheuni
tvect
ori
nthex-di
rect
ion.I
nmor
egener
alt
ermsi
fni
sauni
tvect
ori
naspeci
fi
ed
di
rect
ion,t
hepr
oject
ionofFi
nthen-di
rect
ion,Fi 19b,hast
g.2/ hemagni
tudeFn =F.
n.I
fwe
wantt
oexpr
esst
hepr
oject
ioni
nthen-di
rect
ionasav
ect
orquant
it
y,t
henwemul
ti
plyi
ts
scal
arcomponent
,expr
essedF.
nbyt
heuni
tvect
ornt
ogi
veFn=(
F.n)
n.
I
fthedi
rect
ioncosi
nesofnwi
thr
espectt
oref
erenceaxesx-y
-zar
eα,ẞ,γ,t
henwemay
wr
it
eni
nvect
orcomponentf
orml
ikeanyot
herv
ect
oras

I
fthedi
rect
ioncosi
nesofFwi
thr
espectt
oref
erenceaxesx-y
-zar
el,m,andn,t
hent
he
pr
oject
ionofFi
nthen-di
rect
ionbecomes

Thel
att
ert
woset
sofequat
ionsar
etr
uebecausei
,j,andkhav
euni
tlengt
handar
emut
ual
ly
per
pendi
cul
ar.
Angl
ebet
weenTwoVect
ors
I
ftheangl
ebet
weent
hef
orceFandt
hedi
rect
ionspeci
fi
edbyt
heuni
tvect sθ,
orni thenf
rom
t
hedot
-pr
oductdef
ini
ti
onwehav n=Fncosθ=Fcosθ,wher
eF. e/n/=n=1.Thus,t
heangl
e
bet
weenFandni
sgi
venby

I
ngener
al,
theangl
ebet
weenanyt
wov
ect
orsPandQi
s

I
faf
orceFi
sper
pendi
cul
art
oal
inewhosedi
rect
ioni
sspeci
fi
edbyt
heuni
tvect
orn,t
hen
cosθ=0,andF.
n=0.Not
ethatt
hisr
elat
ionshi
pdoesnotmeant
hatei
therForni
szer
o,as
woul
dbet
hecasewi
thscal
armul
ti
pli
cat
ionwher
e(A)(
B)=0r
equi
rest
hatei
therAorB(
or
bot
h)bezer
o.
Thedot
-pr
oductr
elat
ionshi
pappl
iest
ononi
nter
sect
ingv
ect
orsaswel
last
oint
ersect
ing
v
ect
ors.Thus,t
hedotpr
oductoft
henoni
nter
sect
ingv
ect
orsPandQi
nFi
g.2/ sQt
20i imes
t
hepr
oject
ionofP’onQ,orP’
Qcosα=PQcosαbecauseP’andPar
ethesamewhent
reat
ed
asf
reev
ect
ors.
2.
8.MomentandCoupl
e
I
ntwo-di
mensi
onalanal
ysesi
tisof
tenconv
eni
entt
odet
ermi
neamomentmagni
tudeby
scal
armul
ti
pli
cat
ion usi
ng t
he moment
-ar
m r
ule.I
nthr
ee di
mensi
ons,howev
er,t
he
det
ermi
nat
ionoft
heper
pendi
cul
ardi
stancebet
weenapoi
ntorl
ineandt
hel
ineofact
ionof
t
hef
orcecanbeat
edi
ouscomput
ati
on.Av
ect
orappr
oachwi
thcr
oss-pr
oductmul
ti
pli
cat
ion
t
henbecomesadv
ant
ageous.
Moment
sinThr
eeDi
mensi
ons
Consi
deraf
orceFwi
thagi
venl
ineofact
ionact
ingonabody
,Fi 21a,
g.2/ ntOnot
andanypoi
ont
hisl
i ntO andt
ne.Poi hel
ineofFest
abl
i aneA.The
shapl
momentMO ofFaboutanaxi
st oughO nor
hr malt
othepl
ane
has t
he magni
tude MO = Fd,wher
edi
sthe per
pendi
cul
ar
di
stancef
rom Ot
othel
ineofF.Thi
smomenti
sal
sor
efer
redt
o
ast hepoi
hemomentofFaboutt ntO.
Thev
ect
orMO i
snor
malt
othepl
aneandi
sdi
rect
edal
ongt
he
axi
st oughO.Wecandescr
hr ibebot
hthemagni
tudeandt
he
di
rect
ionofMO byt
hev
ect
orcr
oss-pr
oductr
elat
ioni
ntr
oduced
i
nAr
t.2/
4.Thev
ect
orrr
unsf
rom Ot
oanypoi
ntont
hel
ineof
act
ionofF.Asdescr
ibedi
nAr
t.2/
4,t
hecr
osspr
oductofrand
Fi
swr
it
tenrxFandhast
hemagni
t r
ude(si F,whi
nα) chi
sthe
sameasFd,
themagni
tudeofMO.
Thecor
rectdi
rect
ionandsenseoft
hemomentar
eest
abl
ished
byt
her
ight
-handr
ule,
descr
ibedpr
evi
ousl
yinAr
ts.2/
4and2/
5.
Thus,
wit
hrandFt
reat
edasf
reev
ect
orsemanat
ingf
rom O,
Fig.
21b,t
2/ het
humbpoi
ntsi
nthedi
rect
ionofMOi
fthef
inger
sof
t
her
ighthand cur
lint
hedi
rect
ion ofr
otat
ion f
rom rt
oF
t
hrought eα.Ther
heangl efor
e,wemaywr
it
ethemomentofFaboutt
heaxi
st oughOas
hr

Theor
derrxFoft
hev
ect
orsmustbemai
ntai
nedbecauseFxrwoul
dpr
oduceav
ect
orwi
tha
senseopposi
tet
othatofMO;
thati
s,Fxr=-MO.
Eval
uat
ingt
heCr
ossPr
oduct
Thecr
oss-pr
oductexpr
essi orMOmaybewr
onf it
teni
nthedet
ermi
nantf
orm
Not
ethesy
mmet
ryandor
deroft
het
erms,andnot
ethata
r
ight
-handedcoor
dinat
esy
stem mustbeused.Expansi
onof
t
hedet
ermi
nantgi
ves

Togai
nmor
econf
idencei
nthecr
oss-pr
oductr
elat
ionshi
p,
exami
net
het
hreecomponent
soft
hemomentofaf
orce
aboutapoi
ntasobt
ainedf
rom Fi
g.2/
22.Thi
sfi
gur
eshowst
het
hreecomponent
soff
orceF
act
i ntA l
ngatapoi ocat
edr
elat
iv oO byt
et hev
ect
orr
.The
scal
armagni
tudesoft
hemoment
soft
hesef
orcesaboutt
he
posi
ti
vex-,y
-,andz-axest
hroughOcanbeobt
ainedf
rom t
he
moment
-ar
mrul
e,andar
e

Whi
ch agr
ee wi
tht
he r
espect
ivet
erms i
nthe det
ermi
nant
expansi
onf
ort
hecr
osspr
oductrxF.
MomentaboutanAr
bit
rar
yAxi
s
Wecannowobt
ainanexpr
essi
onf
ort
hemomentMλofFabout
anyaxi
sλt
hroughO,
asshowni
nFi
g.2/
23.I
fni
sauni
tvect
ori
nthe
λ-di
rect
ion,t
henwecanuset
hedot
-pr
oductexpr
essi
onf
ort
hecomponentofav
ect
oras
descr
ibedi
nAr
t.2/
7toobt
ain,t
hecomponentofMO i
nthedi
rect
ionof
.Thi
sscal
ari
sthe
magni
t hemomentMλofFaboutλ.
udeoft
Toobt
aint
hev
ect
orexpr
essi
onf hemomentMλ ofFaboutλ,mul
ort ti
plyt
hemagni
tudeby
t
hedi
rect
ionaluni
tvect
ornt
oobt
ain

Wher
erxFr
epl
acesMO.Theexpr
essi sknownasat
oni ri
plescal
arpr
oduct
.Thet
ri
plescal
ar
pr
oductmayber
epr
esent
edbyt
hedet
ermi
nant
 eα,
Wher ẞand,γar
ethedi
rect
ioncosi
nesoft
heuni
tvect
or
n.

Var
ignon’
sTheor
em i
nThr
eeDi
mensi
ons
I
nAr
t.2/
4wei
ntr
oducedVar
ignon’
stheor
em i
ntwodi
mensi
ons.Thet
heor
em i
seasi
ly
ext
endedt
othr
eedi
mensi
ons.Fi
gur
e2/
24showsasy
stem ofconcur
rentf
orcesF1,
F2,
F3...
Thesum oft saboutOoft
hemoment hesef
orcesi
s

Wher
ewehav
eusedt
hedi
str
ibut
ivel
aw f
orcr
osspr
oduct
s.
Usi
ngt
hesy
mbolMO t
orepr
esentt
hesum oft
hemoment
son
t
hel
eftsi
deoft
heabov
eequat
ion,
wehav
e

Thi
sequat
ionst
atest
hatt
hesum oft
hemoment
sofasy
stem of
concur
rentf
orcesaboutagi
venpoi
ntequal
sthemomentoft
hei
r
sum aboutt
he same poi
nt.As ment
ioned i
n Ar
t.2/
4,t
his
pr
inci
plehasmanyappl
icat
ionsi
nmechani
cs.
Coupl
esi
nThr
eeDi
mensi
ons
Theconceptoft
hecoupl
ewasi
ntr
oducedi
nAr
t.2/
5 andi
seasi
lyext
endedt
othr
ee
di
mensi
ons.Fi
gur
e2/
25showst
woequalandopposi
tef
orcesFand-Fact
ingonabody
.The
v
ect
orrr
unsf
rom anypoi
ntBont
hel
ineofact
i oanypoi
onof-Ft ntAont
hel
ineofact
ionof
F.Poi
ntsAandBar
elocat
edbyposi
ti
onv
ect
orsr
Aandr
Bfom anypoi
r ntO.Thecombi
ned
momentoft
het
wof
orcesaboutOi
s

Howev
er,
rA =r
B +r
,sot
hatal
lref
erencet
ot erOdi
hemomentcent sappear
s,andt
hemoment
oft
hecoupl
ebecomes
Thus,t
hemomentofacoupl
ei hesameaboutal
st lpoi
nts.Themagni
t sM =Fd,
udeofM i
ed i
wher stheper
pendi
cul
ardi
stancebet
weent
hel
inesofact
ionoft
het
wof
orces,as
descr
ibedi
nAr
t.2/
5.Themomentofacoupl
eisaf
reevect
or,wher
east
hemomentofa
f
orceaboutapoi
nt(
whi
chi
sal
sot
hemomentaboutadef
inedaxi
sthr
ought
hepoi
nt)i
sa
sl
idi
ngvect
orwhosedi
rect
ioni
sal
ongt
heax
ist
hrought
hepoi
nt.Asi
nthecaseoft
wo
di
mensi
ons,
acoupl
etendst
othef
orceswhi
chconst
it
utet
hecoupl
e.
Coupl
evect
orsobeyal
loft
her
uleswhi
chgov
ernv
ect
orquant
it
ies.Thus,i
nFi
g.2/
26t
he
coupl
evect
orM1 duet
oF1 and-F1 maybeaddedasshownt
othecoupl
evect
orM2 duet
oF2
and-F2t
opr
oducet
hecoupl
eM,
whi
ch,
int
urn,
canbepr
oducedbyFand-F.
I
nAr
t.2/
5wel
ear
nedhow t
orepl
aceaf
orcebyi
tsequi
val
entf
orce–coupl
esy
stem.You
shoul
dal
sobeabl
etocar
ryoutt
hisr
epl
acementi
nthr
eedi
mensi
ons.Thepr
ocedur
eis
r
epr
esent
edi
nFi
g.2/
27,wher
ethef
orceFact
ingonar
igi ntAi
dbodyatpoi srepl
acedbyan
equalf
or ntBandt
ceatpoi hecoupl
eM =rxF.Byaddi
ngt
heequalandopposi
tef
orcesFand
-FatB,
weobt
aint
hecoupl
ecomposedof-Fandt
heor
igi
nalF.Thus,
weseet
hatt
hecoupl
e
v
ect
ori
ssi
mpl
ythemomentoft
heor
igi
nalf
orceaboutt
hepoi
ntt
owhi
cht
hef
orcei
sbei
ng
mov
ed.Weemphasi
zet
hatri
sav
ect
orwhi
chr
unsf
rom Bt
oanypoi
ntont
hel
ineofact
ionof
t
heor
igi
nalf
orcepassi
ngt
hroughA.
2.
9.Resul
tant
s
I
nAr
t.2/
6wedef
inedt
her
esul
tantast
hesi
mpl
estf
orcecombi
nat
ionwhi
chcanr
epl
acea
gi
vensy
stem off
orceswi
thoutal
ter
ingt
heex
ter
nalef
fectont
her
igi
dbodyonwhi
cht
he
f
orcesact
.We f
ound t
he magni
tude and di
rect
ion oft
he r
esul
tantf
orce f
ort
he t
wo-
di
mensi
onalf
orcesy
stem byav
ect
orsummat
ionoff
orces,Eq.2/
9,andwel
ocat
edt
hel
ine
ofact
ionoft
her
esul
tantf
orcebyappl
yingt
hepr
inci
pleofmoment
s,Eq.2/
10.Thesesame
pr
inci
plescanbeext
endedt
othr
eedi
mensi
ons.I
nthepr
evi
ousar
ti
cleweshowedt
hata
f
orcecoul
dbemov
edt
oapar
all
elposi
ti
onbyaddi
ngacor
respondi
ngcoupl
e.Thus,f
ort
he
sy
stem off
orcesF1,
F2,
F3.
..act
ingonar
igi
dbodyi
nFi 28a,
g.2/ wemaymov
eeachoft
hem i
n
t
urnt
othear
bit
rar ntO,pr
ypoi ovi
dedweal
soi
ntr
oduceacoupl
eforeachf
orcet
ransf
err
ed.
Thus,f
orexampl
e,wemaymov
efor oO,pr
ceF1 t ovi
dedwei
ntr
oducet
hecoupl
eM1=r
1 xF1,

wher
er1i
sav
ect
orf
rom Ot
oanypoi
ntont
hel
ineofact
ionofF1.
Whenal
lfor
cesar
eshi
ft oOi
edt nthi
smanner
,wehav
easy
stem ofconcur
rentf
orcesatO
andasy
stem ofcoupl
evect
ors,asr
epr
esent
edi tboft
npar hef
igur
e.Theconcur
rentf
orces
mayt
henbeaddedv
ect
ori
all
ytopr
oducear
esul
tantf
orceR,andt
hecoupl
esmayal
sobe
addedt
opr
oducear
esul
tantcoupl
eM,
Fi 28c.Thegener
g.2/ alf
orcesy
stem,
then,
isr
educed
t
o

Thecoupl
evect
orsar
eshownt
hr ntO,
oughpoi butbecauset
heyar
efr
eev
ect
ors,
theymaybe
r
epr
esent
edi
nanypar
all
elposi
ti
ons.Themagni
tudesoft
her
esul
tant
sandt
hei
rcomponent
s
ar
e
 ntOsel
Thepoi ect
edast
hepoi
ntofconcur
rencyf
ort
hef
orcesi
sar
bit
rar
y,andt
hemagni
tude
anddi
rect
ionofM dependont
hepar
ti
cul ntOsel
arpoi ect
ed.Themagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionof
R,
howev
er,
aret
hesamenomat
terwhi
chpoi
nti
ssel
ect
ed.
I
ngener
al,anysy
stem off
orcesmayber
epl
acedbyi
tsr
esul
tantf
orceRandt
her
esul
tant
coupl
eM.I
ndy
nami
csweusual
lysel
ectt
hemasscent
erast
her
efer
encepoi
nt.Thechange
i
nthel
inearmot
ionoft
hebodyi
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
her
esul
tantf
orce,andt
hechangei
nthe
angul
armot
ionoft
hebodyi
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
her
esul
tantcoupl
e.I
nst
ati
cs,t
hebodyi
sin
compl
eteequi
li
bri
um whent
her
esul
tantf
orceRi
szer
oandt
her
esul
tantcoupl
eM i
sal
so
zer
o.Thus,
thedet
ermi
nat
ionofr
esul
tant
sisessent
iali
nbot
hst
ati
csanddy
nami
cs.Wenow
exami
net
her
esul
tant
sforsev
eralspeci
alf
orcesy
stems.
Concur
rentFor
ces.Whenf
orcesar
econcur
rentatapoi
nt,
onl
ythef
ir
stofEqs.2/
20needst
o
beusedbecauset
her
ear
enomoment
saboutt
hepoi
ntofconcur
rency
.
Par
all
elFor
ces.Forasyst
em ofpar
all
elf
orcesnotal
lint
hesamepl
ane,
themagni
tudeoft
he
par
all
elr
esul
tantf
orceRi
ssi
mpl
ythemagni
tudeoft
heal
gebr
aicsum oft
hegi
venf
orces.
Theposi
ti
onofi
tsl
ineofact
ioni
sobt
ainedf
rom t
hepr
inci
pleofmoment
sbyr
equi
ri
ngt
hatr
xR=MO.Her
eri
saposi
ti
onv
ect
orext
endi
ngf
rom t
hef
orce–coupl
eref
er ntOt
encepoi othe
f
inall
ineofact
ionofR,andMO i
sthesum oft
hemoment
soft
hei
ndi
vidualf
orcesaboutO.
SeeSampl
ePr
obl
em 2/
17f
oranexampl
eofpar
all
el-f
orcesy
stems.
Copl
anarFor
ces.Ar
ti
cle2/
6wasdev
otedt
othi
sfor
cesy
stem.
Wr
enchResul
tant
.Whent
her
esul
tantcoupl
evect
orM i
spar
all
elt
other
esul
tantf
orceR,as
showni
nFi
g.2/
29,t
her
esul
tanti
scal
ledawr
ench.Bydef
ini
ti
onawr
enchi
sposi
ti
vei
fthe
coupl
eandf
orcev
ect
orspoi
nti
nthesamedi
rect
ionandnegat
ivei
ftheypoi
nti
nopposi
te
di
rect
ions.A commonexampl
eofaposi
ti
vewr
enchi
sfoundwi
tht
heappl
icat
ionofa
scr
ewdr
iver
,todr
ivear
ight
-handedscr
ew.Anygener
alf
orcesy
stem mayber
epr
esent
edby
awr
enchappl
iedal
ongauni
quel
ineofact
ion.Thi
sreduct
ioni
sil
lust
rat
edi
nFi
g.2/
30,
wher
e
taoft
par hef
igur
erepr
esent
s,f
ort
hegener
alf
orcesy
stem,t
her
esul
tantf
orceRact
ingat
ntO andt
somepoi hecor
respondi
ngr
esul
tantcoupl
eM.Al
thoughM i
saf
reev
ect
or,f
or
conv
eni
encewer
epr
esenti
tasact
ingt
hroughO.
I tboft
npar hef
igur
e,M i
sresol
vedi
ntocomponent
sM1 al
ongt
hedi
rect
ionofRandM2
nor
malt
oR.I tcoft
npar hef
igur
e,t
hecoupl
eM2i
srepl
acedbyi
tsequi
val
entoft
wof
orcesR
and_Rsepar
atedbyadi
stanced=M2/
Rwi
th-Rappl
iedatOt
ocancelt
heor
igi
nalR.

Thi
sst
epl
eav
est
her
esul
tantR,whi
chact
sal
onganew anduni
quel
ineofact
ion,andt
he
par
all
elcoupl
eM1,
whi
chi
saf
reev
ect
or,
asshowni tdoft
npar hef
igur
e.
Thus,
ther
esul
tant
soft
heor
igi
nalgener
alf
orcesy
stem hav
ebeent
ransf
ormedi
ntoawr
ench
(
posi
ti
vei
nthi
sil
lust
rat
ion)wi
thi
tsuni
queaxi
sdef
inedbyt
henewposi
ti
onofR.Weseef
rom
Fi
g.2/
30t
hatt
heaxi
soft
hewr
enchr
esul
tantl
iesi
napl
anet
hroughOnor
malt
othepl
ane
def
inedbyRandM.Thewr
enchi
sthesi
mpl
estf
ormi
nwhi
cht
her
esul
tantofagener
alf
orce
sy
stem maybeexpr
essed.Thi
sfor
m oft
her
esul
tant
,howev
er,hasl
imi
tedappl
icat
ion,
becausei
tisusual
lymor
econv
eni
entt
ouseast
her
efer
encepoi ntOsuchast
ntsomepoi he
masscent
eroft
hebodyoranot
herconv
eni
entor
igi
nofcoor
dinat
esnotont
hewr
enchaxi
s.
Chapt
erI
II
Equi
li
bri
um
3.Equi
li
bri
um
3.
1Int
roduct
ion
St
ati
csdeal
spr
imar
il
ywi
tht
hedescr
ipt
ionoft
hef
orcecondi
ti
onsnecessar
yandsuf
fi
cientt
o
mai
ntai
ntheequi
li
bri
um ofengi
neer
ingst
ruct
ures.Thi
schapt
eronequi
li
bri
um,t
her
efor
e,
const
it
utest
hemosti
mpor
tantpar
tofst
ati
cs,andt
hepr
ocedur
esdev
elopedher
efor
mthe
basi
sforsol
vingpr
obl
emsi
nbot
hst
ati
csanddy
nami
cs.Wewi
llmakecont
inualuseoft
he
concept
sdev
elopedi
nChapt
er2i
nvol
vingf
orces,moment
s,coupl
es,andr
esul
tant
saswe
appl
ythepr
inci
plesofequi
li
bri
um.
Whenabodyi
sinequi
li
bri
um,t
her
esul
tantofal
lfor
cesact
ingoni
tiszer
o.Thus,t
he
r
esul
tantf
orceRandt
her
esul
tantcoupl
eM ar
ebot
hzer
o,andwehav
etheequi
li
bri
um
equat
ions

Theser
equi
rement
sar
ebot
hnecessar
yandsuf
fi
cientcondi
ti
onsf
orequi
li
bri
um.
Al
lphy
sicalbodi
es ar
ethr
ee-di
mensi
onal
,butwe can t
reatmany oft
hem as t
wo-
di
mensi
onalwhent
hef
orcest
owhi
cht
heyar
esubj
ect
edacti
nasi
ngl
epl
aneorcanbe
pr
oject
edont
oasi
ngl
epl
ane.Whent
hissi
mpl
if
icat
ioni
snotpossi
ble,t
hepr
obl
em mustbe
t
reat
edast
hreedi
mensi
onal
.
Wewi
llf
oll
owt
hear
rangementusedi
nChapt
er2,
anddi
scussi
nSect
ionAt
heequi
li
bri
um of
bodi
essubj
ect
edt
otwo-di
mensi
onalf
orcesy
stemsandi
nSect
ionB t
heequi
li
bri
um of
bodi
essubj
ect
edt
othr
ee-di
mensi
onalf
orcesy
stems.
SECTI
ONAEQUI
LIBRI
UM I
NTWODI
MENSI
ONS
3.
2Syst
em I
sol
ati
onandt
heFr
ee-BodyDi
agr
am
Bef
oreweappl
yEqs.3/
1,wemustdef
ineunambi
guousl
ythepar
ti
cul
arbodyormechani
cal
sy
stem t
obeanal
yzedandr
epr
esentcl
ear
lyandcompl
et yal
el lfor
cesact
ingont
hebody
.
Omi
ssi
onofaf
orcewhi sont
chact hebodyi
nquest
ion,
ori
ncl
usi
onofaf
orcewhi
chdoesnot
actont
hebody
,wi
llgi
veer
roneousr
esul
ts.
A mechani
calsyst
em i
sdef
inedasabodyorgr
oupofbodi
eswhi
chcanbeconcept
ual
ly
i
sol
atedf
rom al
lot
herbodi
es.Asy
stem maybeasi
ngl
ebodyoracombi
nat
ionofconnect
ed
bodi
es.Thebodi
esmayber
igi
dornonr
igi
d.Thesy
stem mayal
sobeani
dent
if
iabl
efl
uid
mass,ei
therl
iqui
dorgas,oracombi
nat
ionoff
lui
dsandsol
ids.I
nst
ati
cswest
udypr
imar
il
y
f
orceswhi
chactonr
igi
dbodi
esatr
est
,al
thoughweal
sost
udyf
orcesact
ingonf
lui
dsi
n
equi
li
bri
um.
Oncewedeci
dewhi
chbodyorcombi
nat
ionofbodi
est
oanal
yze,wet
hent
reatt
hisbodyor
combi
nat
ion as a si e body i
ngl sol
ated f
rom al
lsur
roundi
ng bodi
es.Thi
sisol
ati
on i
s
accompl
ishedbymeansoft
he
Fr
ee-bodydi
agr
am,whi
chi
sadi
agr
ammat
icr
epr
esent
ati
onoft
hei
sol
atedsy
stem t
reat
edas
asi
ngl
ebody
.Thedi
agr
am showsal
lfor
cesappl
iedt
othesy
stem bymechani
calcont
act
wi
thot
herbodi
es,whi
char
eimagi
nedt
ober
emov
ed.I
fappr
eci
abl
ebodyf
orcesar
epr
esent
,
suchasgr
avi
tat
ionalormagnet
icat
tract
ion,t
hent
hesef
orcesmustal
sobeshownont
he
f
ree-bodydi
agr
am oft
hei
sol
atedsy
stem.Onl
yaf
tersuchadi
agr
am hasbeencar
eful
ly
dr
awnshoul
dtheequi
li
bri
um equat
ionsbewr
it
ten.Becauseofi
tscr
it
icali
mpor
tance,we
emphasi
zeher
ethat

Bef
oreat
tempt
ingt
odr
awaf
ree-bodydi
agr
am,wemustr
ecal
lthebasi
cchar
act
eri
sti
csof
f
orce.Thesechar
act
eri
sti
cswer
edescr
ibedi
nAr
t.2/
2,wi
thpr
imar
yat
tent
ionf
ocusedont
he
v
ect
orpr
oper
ti
esoff
orce.For
cescanbeappl
iedei
therbydi
rectphy
sicalcont
actorby
r
emot
eact
ion.For
cescanbeei
theri
nter
nalorext
ernalt
othesy
stem underconsi
der
ati
on.
Appl
icat
ionoff
orcei
saccompani
edbyr
eact
ivef
orce,andbot
happl
iedandr
eact
ivef
orces
maybe ei
therconcent
rat
ed ordi
str
ibut
ed.The pr
inci
ple oft
ransmi
ssi
bil
it
yper
mit
sthe
t
reat
mentoff
orceasasl
idi
ngv
ect
orasf
arasi
tsext
ernalef
fect
sonar
igi
dbodyar
e
concer
ned.
We wi
llnow use t
hese f
orce char
act
eri
sti
cst
o dev
elop concept
ualmodel
sofi
sol
ated
mechani
calsy
stems.These model
s enabl
e us t
o wr
it
ethe appr
opr
iat
e equat
ions of
equi
li
bri
um,
whi
chcant
henbeanal
yzed.
Model
ingt
heAct
ionofFor
ces
Fi
gur
e3/
1showst
hecommont
ypesoff
orceappl
icat
iononmechani
calsy
stemsf
oranal
ysi
s
i
ntwodi
mensi
ons.Eachexampl
eshowst
hef
orceexer
tedont obei
hebodyt sol
ated,byt
he
ober
bodyt emoved.Newt
on’
sthi
rdl
aw,whi
chnot
est
heexi
stenceofanequalandopposi
te
r
eact
iont
oev
eryact
ion,mustbecar
eful
lyobser
ved.Thef
orceexer
ted on t
hebodyi
n
quest
ion by acont
act
ing orsuppor
ti
ng memberi
sal
way
sint
hesenset
o opposet
he
mov
ementoft
hei
sol
atedbodywhi
chwoul
doccuri
fthecont
act
ingorsuppor
ti
ngbodywer
e
r
emov
ed.
I
nFi
g.3/
1,Exampl
e1depi
ctst
heact
ionofaf
lexi
blecabl
e,bel
t,r
ope,
orchai
nont
hebodyt
o
whi
chi
tisat
tached.Becauseofi
tsf
lexi
bil
it
y,ar
opeorcabl
eisunabl
etoof
feranyr
esi
stance
t
obendi
ng,shear
,orcompr
essi
onandt
her
efor
eexer
tsonl
yat
ensi
onf
orcei
nadi
rect
ion
t
angentt
othecabl
eati
tspoi
ntofat
tachment
.Thef
orceexer
tedbyt eont
hecabl hebodyt
o
whi
chi
tisat
tachedi
sal sawayf
way rom t
hebody
.Whent
het onTi
ensi slar
gecompar
edwi
th
t
hewei
ghtoft
hecabl
e,wemayassumet
hatt
hecabl
efor
msast
rai
ghtl
ine.Whent
hecabl
e
wei
ghti
snotnegl
igi
blecompar
edwi
thi
tst
ensi
on,t
hesagoft
hecabl
ebecomesi
mpor
tant
,
andt
het
ensi
oni
nthecabl
echangesdi
rect
ionandmagni
tudeal
ongi
tsl
engt
h.
Whent
hesmoot
hsur
facesoft
wobodi
esar
eincont
act
,asi
nExampl
e2,
thef
orceexer
tedby
oneont
heot snor
heri malt
othet
angentt
othesur
facesandi
scompr
essi
ve.Al
thoughno
act
ualsur
facesar
eper
fect
lysmoot
h,wecanassumet
hist
obesof
orpr
act
icalpur
posesi
n
manyi
nst
ances.
Whenmat
ingsur
facesofcont
act
ingbodi
esar
erough,
asi
nExampl
e3,
thef
orceofcont
acti
s
notnecessar
il
ynor
malt
othet
angentt
othesur
faces,
butmayber
esol
vedi
ntoat
angent
ialor
f
ri
cti
onalcomponentFandanor
malcomponentN.Exampl
e4i
ll
ust
rat
esanumberoff
orms
ofmechani
calsuppor
twhi
chef
fect
ivel
yel
imi
nat
etangent
ialf
ri
cti
onf
orces.I
nthesecases
t
henetr
eact
ioni
snor
malt
othesuppor
ti
ngsur
face.Exampl
e5showst
heact
ionofasmoot
h
gui
deont
hebodyi
tsuppor
ts.Ther
ecannotbeanyr
esi
stancepar
all
elt
othegui
de.
Exampl
e6i
ll
ust
rat
est
heact
ionofapi
nconnect
ion.Suchaconnect
ioncansuppor
tfor
cei
n
anydi
rect
ionnor
malt
otheaxi
soft
hepi
n.Weusual
lyr
epr
esentt
hisact
ioni
nter
msoft
wo
r
ect
angul
arcomponent
s.
Thecor
rectsenseoft
hesecomponent
sinaspeci
fi
cpr
obl
em dependsonhowt
hememberi
s
l
oaded.When notot
her
wise i
nit
ial
ly known,t
he sense i
s ar
bit
rar
il
y assi
gned and t
he
equi
li
bri
um equat
ionsar
ethenwr
it
ten.I
fthesol
uti
onoft
heseequat
ionsy
iel
dsaposi
ti
ve
al
gebr
aicsi
gnf
ort
hef
orcecomponent
,theassi
gnedsensei
scor
rect
.A negat
ivesi
gn
i
ndi
cat
est
hesensei
sopposi
tet
othati
nit
ial
lyassi
gned.
I
fthej
ointi
sfr
eet
otur
naboutt
hepi
n,t
heconnect
ioncansuppor
tonl
ythef
orceR.I
fthej
oint
i
snotf
reet
otur
n,t
heconnect
ioncanal
sosuppor
tar
esi
sti eM.ThesenseofM i
ngcoupl s
ar
bit
rar
il
yshownher
e,butt
het
ruesensedependsonhowt
hememberi
sloaded.Exampl
e7
showst
her
esul
tant
soft
her
athercompl
exdi
str
ibut
ionoff
orceov
ert
hecr
osssect
ionofa
sl
enderbarorbeam atabui
ld-i
norf
ixedsuppor
t.Thesenseoft
her
eact
ionsFandVandt
he
bendi eM i
ngcoupl nagi
venpr
obl
em depends,
ofcour
se,
onhowt
hememberi
sloaded.
Oneoft
hemostcommonf
orcesi
sthatduet
ogr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ion,Exampl
e8.Thi
sfor
ce
af
fect
sal
lel
ement
sofmassi
nabodyandi
s,t
her
efor
e,di
str
ibut
edt
hroughouti
t.The
r
esul
tantoft
hegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orcesonal
lel
ement
sist ghtW =mgoft
hewei hebody
,whi
ch
passest
hrought erofmassG andi
hecent sdi
rect
edt
owar
dthecent
eroft
heear
thf
or
ear
thboundst
ruct
ures.Thel
ocat
ionofGi
sfr
equent
lyobv
iousf
rom t
hegeomet
ryoft
hebody
,
par
ti
cul
arl
ywher
ether
eissy
mmet
ry.Whent
hel
ocat
ioni
snotr
eadi
lyappar
ent
,itmustbe
det
ermi
nedbyexper
imentorcal
cul
ati
ons.Si
mil
arr
emar
ksappl
ytot
her
emot
eact
ionof
magnet
icandel
ect
ri
cfor
ces.Thesef
orcesofr
emot
eact
ionhav
ethesameov
eral
lef
fectona
r
igi
dbodyasf
orcesofequalmagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionappl
iedbydi
rectext
ernalcont
act
.
Exampl
e9i
ll
ust
rat
est
heact
ionofal
inearel
ast
icspr
ingandofanonl
inearspr
ingwi
thei
ther
har
deni
ngorsof
teni
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs.Thef
orceexer
tedbyal
inearspr
ing,i
ntensi
onor
compr
essi
on,
isgi
venbyF=kx, eki
wher sthest
if
fnessoft
hespr
ingandxi
sit
sdef
ormat
ion
measur
edf
rom t
heneut
ralorundef
ormedposi
ti
on.
Ther
epr
esent
ati
onsi
nFi
g.3/ enotf
1ar ree-bodydi
agr
ams,butar
emer
elyel
ement
susedt
o
const
ructf
ree-bodydi
agr
ams.St
udyt
heseni
necondi
ti
onsandi
dent
if
ythem i
nthepr
obl
em
wor
ksot
haty
oucandr
awt
hecor
rectf
ree-bodydi
agr
ams.
Const
ruct
ionofFr
ee-BodyDi
agr
ams
Thef
ullpr
ocedur
efordr
awi
ngaf
ree-bodydi
agr
am whi
chi
sol
atesabodyorsy
stem consi
sts
oft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps.
St
ep1.Deci
dewhi
chsy
stem t
oisol
ate.Thesy
stem chosenshoul
dusual
lyi
nvol
veoneor
mor
eoft
hedesi
redunknownquant
it
ies.

St
ep2.Nexti
sol
atet
hechosensy
stem bydr
awi
ngadi
agr
am whi
chr
epr
esent
siscompl
t ete
ext
ernalboundar
y.Thi
sboundar
ydef
inest
hei
sol
ati
onoft
hesy
stem f
rom al
lot
herat
tract
ing
orcont
act
ingbodi
es,
whi
char
econsi
der
edr
emov
ed.Thi
sst
epi
sof
tent
hemostcr
uci
alofal
l.
Makecer
tai
nthaty ecompl
ouhav etel
yisol
atedt
hesy
stem bef
orepr
oceedi
ngwi
tht
henext
st
ep.
St
ep3.I
dent
if
yal
lfor chacton t
ceswhi hei
sol
atedsy
stem asappl
ied byt
her
emov
ed
cont
act
ingandat
tract
ingbodi
es,
andr
epr
esentt
hem i
nthei
rpr
operposi
ti
onsont
hedi
agr
am
oft
hei
sol
atedsy
stem.Makeasy
stemat
ict
rav
erseoft
heent
ir
eboundar
ytoi
dent
if
yal
l
cont
actf
orces.I
ncl
udebodyf
orcessuchaswei
ght
s,wher
eappr
eci
abl
e.Repr
esental
lknown
f
orcesbyv
ect
orar
rows,eachwi
thi
tspr
opermagni
tude,di
rect
ion,andsensei
ndi
cat
ed.Each
unknownf
orceshoul
dber
epr
esent
edbyav
ect
orar
row wi
tht
heunknownmagni
tudeor
di
rect
ioni
ndi
cat
edbysy
mbol
.Ift
hesenseoft
hev
ect
ori
sal
sounknown,y
oumustar
bit
rar
il
y
assi
gnasense.Thesubsequentcal
cul
ati
onswi
tht
heequi
li
bri
um equat
ionswi
lly
iel
da
posi
ti
vequant
it
yift
hecor
rectsensewasassumedandanegat
ivequant
it
yift
hei
ncor
rect
sensewasassumed.I
tisnecessar
ytobeconsi
stentwi
tht
heassi
gnedchar
act
eri
sti
csof
unknownf
orcest
hroughoutal
loft
hecal
cul
ati
ons.I
fyouar
econsi
stent
,thesol
uti
onoft
he
equi
li
bri
um equat
ionswi
llr
evealt
hecor
rectsenses.
St
ep4.Show t
hechoi
ceofcoor
dinat
eaxesdi
rect
lyont
hedi
agr
am.Per
ti
nentdi
mensi
ons
mayal
sober
epr
esent
edf
orconv
eni
ence.Not
e,howev
er,t
hatt
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am ser
ves
t
hepur
poseoff
ocusi
ngat
tent
ionont
heact
ionoft
heext
ernalf
orces,andt
her
efor
ethe
di
agr
am shoul
dnotbecl
utt
eredwi
thexcessi
veext
raneousi
nfor
mat
ion.Cl
ear
lydi
sti
ngui
sh
f
orcear
rowsf
rom ar
rowsr
epr
esent
ing quant
it
iesot
hert
hanf
orces.Fort
hispur
posea
col
oredpenci
lmaybeused.Compl
eti
onoft
hef
oregoi
ngf
ourst
epswi
llpr
oduceacor
rect
f
reebodydi
agr
am t
ousei
nappl
yingt
hegov
erni
ngequat
ions,
bot
hinst
ati
csandi
ndy
nami
cs.
Becar
efulnott
oomi
tfr
om t
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am cer
tai
nfor
ceswhi
chmaynotappearat
f
ir
stgl
ancet
obeneededi
nthecal
cul
ati
ons.I
tisonl
yt oughcompl
hr etei
sol
ati
onanda
sy
stemat
icr
epr
esent
atonofal
i lext
ernalf
orcest
hatar
eli
abl
eaccount
ingoft
heef
fect
sofal
l
appl
iedandr
eact
ivef
orcescanbemade.Ver
yof
tenaf
orcewhi
chatf
ir
stgl
ancemaynot
appeart
oinf
luenceadesi
redr
esul
tdoesi
ndeedhav
eani
nfl
uence.Thus,t
heonl
ysaf
e
pr
ocedur
eist
oincl
udeont
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am al
lfor
ceswhosemagni
tudesar
enot
obv
iousl
ynegl
igi
ble.
Thef
ree-bodymet
hodi
sext
remel
yimpor
tanti
nmechani
csbecausei
tensur
esanaccur
ate
def
ini
ti
on ofa mechani
calsy
stem and f
ocuses at
tent
ion on t
he exactmeani
ng and
appl
icat
ionoft
hef
orcel
awsofst
ati
csanddy
nami
cs.Rev
iew t
hef
oregoi
ngf
ourst
epsf
or
const
ruct
ingaf
reebodydi
agr
am whi
lest
udy
ingt
hesampl
efr
ee-bodydi
agr
amsshowni
nFi
g.
3/
2andt
heSampl
ePr
obl
emswhi
chappearatt
heendoft
henextar
ti
cle.

Exampl
esofFr
ee-BodyDi
agr
ams
Fi
gur
e3/
2gi
vesf
ourexampl
esofmechani
smsandst
ruct
urest
oget
herwi
tht
hei
rcor
rectf
ree
-bodydi
agr
ams.Di
mensi
onsandmagni
tudesar
eomi
tt
edf
orcl
ari
ty.I
neachcasewet
reat
t
he ent
ir
e sy
stem as a si
ngl
e body
,so t
hatt
he i
nter
nalf
orces ar
e notshown.The
char
act
eri
sti
csoft
hev
ari
oust
ypesofcont
actf
orcesi
ll
ust
rat
edi
nFi
g.3/
1ar
eusedi
nthe
f
ourexampl
esast
heyappl
y.

I
n Exampl
e1t
he t
russ i
s composed ofst
ruct
uralel
ement
s whi
ch,t
aken al
ltoget
her
,
const
it
utear
igi
dfr
amewor
k.Thus,wemayr
emov
etheent
ir
etr
ussf
rom i
tssuppor
ti
ng
f
oundat
ionandt
reati
tasasi
ngl
eri
gidbody
.Inaddi
ti
ont
otheappl
iedext
er oadP,t
nall he
f
ree-bodydi
agr
am musti
ncl
udet
her
eact
ionsont
het
russatAandB.Ther
ockeratBcan
suppor
tav
ert
icalf
orceonl
y,andt
hisf
orcei
str
ansmi
tt
edt
othest
ruct
ureatB(
Exampl
e4of
Fi
g.3/
1).Thepi
nconnect
ionatA (
Exampl
e6ofFi
g.3/
1)i
scapabl
eofsuppl
yingbot
ha
hor
izont
alandav
ert
icalf
orcecomponentt
othet
russ.I
fthet
otalwei
ghtoft
het
russ
member
sisappr
eci
abl
ecompar
edwi
thPandt
hef
orcesatAandB,t
hent
hewei
ght
soft
he
member
smustbei
ncl
udedont
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am asext
ernalf
orces.I
nthi
srel
ati
vel
y
si
mpl
eexampl
eiti
scl
eart
hatt
hev
ert
icalcomponentAymustbedi
rect
eddownt
opr
event
t
het
russf
rom r
otat
ingcl seaboutB.Al
ockwi so,t
hehor
i alcomponentAxwi
zont llbet
othe
l
eftt
o keep t
he t
russ f
rom mov
ing t
othe r
ightundert
he i
nfl
uence oft
he hor
izont
al
componentofP.Thus,i
nconst
ruct
ingt
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am f
ort
hissi
mpl
etr
uss,wecan
easi
lyper
cei
vet
hecor
rectsenseofeachoft
hecomponent
soff
orceexer
tedont
het
russby
t
hef
oundat
ionatAandcan,t
her
efor
e,r
epr
esenti
tscor
rectphy
sicalsenseont
hedi
agr
am.
Whent
hecor
rectphy
sicalsenseofaf
orceori
tscomponenti
snoteasi
lyr
ecogni
zedbydi
rect
obser
vat
ion,i
tmustbeassi
gnedar
bit
rar
il
y,andt
hecor
rect
nessoforer
rori
ntheassi
gnment
i
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
heal
gebr
aicsi
gnofi
tscal
cul
atedv
alue.
I
nExampl
e2t
hecant
il
everbeam i
ssecur
edt
othewal
landsubj
ect
edt
othr
eeappl
iedl
oads.
Whenwei
sol
atet
hatpar
toft
hebeam t
other
ightoft
hesect
ionatA,wemusti
ncl
udet
he
r
eact
ivef
orcesappl
iedt
othebeam byt
hewal
l.Ther
esul
tant
soft
heser
eact
ivef
orcesar
e
shownact
ingont
hesect
ionoft
hebeam (
Exampl
e7ofFi
g.3/
1).A v
ert
icalf
orceV t
o
count
eractt
heexcessofdownwar
dappl
iedf
orcei
sshown,andat onFt
ensi obal
ancet
he
excessofappl
iedf
orcet
other
ightmustal
sobei
ncl
uded.Then,t
opr
eventt
hebeam f
rom
r
otat
ingaboutA,acount
ercl
ockwi eM i
secoupl sal
sor
equi
r ghtmgoft
ed.Thewei hebeam
mustber
epr
esent
edt
hrought
hemasscent
er(
Exampl
e8ofFi
g.3/
1).I
nthef
ree-body
di
agr
am ofExampl
e2,wehav
erepr
esent
edt
hesomewhatcompl
exsy
stem off
orceswhi
ch
act
ual
lyactont
hecutsect
ionoft
hebeam byt
heequi
val
entf
orce–coupl
esy
stem i
nwhi
ch
t
hef
orcei
sbr
okendowni
ntoi
tsv
ert
icalcomponentV (
shearf
orce)andi
tshor
izont
al
componentF(
tensi
lef
orce) eM i
.Thecoupl sthebendi
ngmomenti
nthebeam.Thef
ree-
bodydi
agr
am i
snow compl
eteandshowst
hebeam i
nequi
li
bri
um undert
heact
ionofsi
x
f
orcesandonecoupl
e.
I
nExampl
e3t ghtW =mgi
hewei sshownact
ingt
hrought
hecent
erofmassoft
hebeam,
whosel
ocat
ioni
sassumedknown(
Exampl
e8ofFi
g.3/
1).Thef
orceexer
tedbyt nerA
hecor
ont
hebeam i
snor
malt
othesmoot
hsur
faceoft
hebeam (
Exampl
e2ofFi
g.3/
1).To
per
cei
vet
hisact
ionmor
ecl
ear
ly,v
isual
izeanenl
argementoft
hecont ntA,whi
actpoi ch
woul
dappearsomewhatr
ounded,andconsi
dert
hef
orceexer
tedbyt
hisr
oundedcor
neron
t
hest
rai
ghtsur
faceoft
hebeam,whi
chi
sassumedt
obesmoot
h.I
fthecont
act
ingsur
faces
att
hecor
nerwer
enotsmoot
h,at
angent
ialf
ri
cti
onalcomponentoff
orcecoul
dexi
st.I
n
addi
ti
ont
otheappl
iedf
orcePandcoupl
eM,t
her
eist
hepi
nconnect
ionatB,whi
chexer
ts
h an x- and a y
bot -componentoff
orce on t
he beam.The posi
ti
ve senses oft
hese
component
sar
eassi
gnedar
bit
rar
il
y.
I
n Exampl
e4t
he f
ree-bodydi
agr
am oft
he ent
ir
eisol
ated mechani
sm cont
ains t
hree
unknownf
orcesi
ft oadsmgandPar
hel eknown.Anyoneofmanyi
nter
nalconf
igur
ati
onsf
or
secur
ingt
hecabl
eleadi
ngf
r hemassm woul
om t dbepossi
blewi
thoutaf
fect
ingt
heext
ernal
r
esponseoft
hemechani
sm asawhol
e,andt
hisf
acti
sbr
oughtoutbyt
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am.
Thi
shy
pot
het
icalexampl
eisusedt
oshow t
hatt
hef
orcesi
nter
nalt
oar
igi
dassembl
yof
member
sdonoti
nfl
uencet
hev
aluesoft
heext
ernalr
eact
ions.Weuset
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am
i
nwr
it
ingt
heequi
li
bri
um equat
ions,whi
char
edi
scussedi
nthenextar
ti
cle.Whent
hese
equat
ionsar
esol
ved,someoft
hecal
cul
atedf
orcemagni
tudesmaybezer
o.Thi
swoul
d
i
ndi
cat
ethatt
heassumedf
orcedoesnotexi
st.I
nExampl
e1ofFi
g.3/
2,anyoft
her
eact
ions
Ax,Ay,orBy canbezer
oforspeci
fi
cval
uesoft
het
russgeomet
ryandoft
hemagni
tude,
di
rect
ion,
andsenseoft
heappl
i oadP.Azer
edl oreact
ionf
orcei
sof
tendi
ff
icul
ttoi
dent
if
yby
i
nspect
ion,butcanbedet
ermi
nedbysol
vingt
heequi
li
bri
um equat
ions.Si
mil
arcomment
s
appl
ytocal
cul
atedf
orcemagni
tudeswhi
char
enegat
ive.Suchar
esul
tindi
cat
est
hatt
he
act
ualsensei
stheopposi
teoft
heassumedsense.Theassumedposi
ti
vesensesofBxandBy
i e3andByi
nExampl nExampl
e4ar
eshownont
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
ams.Thecor
rect
nessof
t
heseassumpt
ionsi
spr
ovedordi
spr
ovedaccor
dingt
owhet
hert
heal
gebr
aicsi
gnsoft
he
comput
edf
orcesar
epl
usormi
nuswhent
hecal
cul
ati
onsar
ecar
ri
edouti
nanact
ualpr
obl
em.
The i
sol
ati
on oft
he mechani
calsy
stem underconsi
der
ati
on i
s a cr
uci
alst
ep i
nthe
f
ormul
ati
on of t
he mat
hemat
icalmodel
.The mosti
mpor
tantaspectt
othe cor
rect
const
ruct
ion oft
he al
l-i
mpor
tantf
ree-bodydi
agr
am i
sthe cl
ear
-cutand unambi
guous
deci
sionast
owhati
sincl
udedandwhati
sexcl
uded.Thi
sdeci
sionbecomesunambi
guous
onl
ywhent
heboundar
yoft
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am r
epr
esent
sacompl
etet
rav
erseoft
hebody
orsy
stem ofbodi
est
obei
sol
ated,st
art
ingatsomear
bit
rar
ypoi
ntont
heboundar
yand
r
etur
ningt
othatsamepoi
nt.Thesy
stem wi
thi
nthi
scl
osedboundar
yist
hei
sol
atedf
reebody
,
andal
lcont
actf
orcesandal
lbodyf
orcest
ransmi
tt
edt
othesy
stem acr
osst
heboundar
y
mustbeaccount
edf
or.
3.
3Equi
li
bri
um Condi
ti
ons
I
nAr
t.3/
1wedef
inedequi
li
bri
um ast
hecondi
ti
oni
nwhi
cht
her
esul
tantofal
lfor
cesand
moment
sact
ingonabodyi
szer
o.St
atedi
nanot
herway
,abodyi
sinequi
li
bri
um i
fal
lfor
ces
andmoment
sappl
iedt
oitar
einbal
ance.Theser
equi
rement
sar
econt
ainedi
nthev
ect
or
equat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um,
Eqs.3/
1,whi
chi
ntwodi
mensi
onsmaybewr
it
teni
nscal
arf
orm as

Thet
hir
dequat
ionr
epr
esent
sthezer
osum oft
hemoment
sofal
lfor ntOon
cesaboutanypoi
orof
fthebody
.Equat
ions3/
2ar
ethenecessar
yandsuf
fi
cientcondi
ti
onsf
orcompl
ete
equi
li
bri
um i
ntwo di
mensi
ons.Theyar
enecessar
ycondi
ti
onsbecause,i
ftheyar
enot
sat
isf
ied,t
her
ecanbenof
orceormomentbal
ance.Theyar
esuf
fi
cientbecauseoncet
hey
ar
esat
isf
ied,
ther
ecanbenoi
mbal
ance,
andequi
li
bri
um i
sassur
ed.
The equat
ions r
elat
ing f
orce and accel
erat
ion f
orr
igi
d-body mot
ion ar
e dev
eloped i
n
Dynami
csf
rom Newt
on’
ssecondl
awofmot
ion.Theseequat
ionsshowt
hatt
heaccel
erat
ion
oft
hemasscent
erofabodyi
spr
opor
ti
onalt
other
esul
tantf
orceΣFact
ingont
hebody
.
Consequent
ly,i
fabodymov
eswi
thconst
antv
eloci
ty(
zer
oaccel
erat
ion)
,ther
esul
tantf
orce
oni
tmustbezer
o,andt
hebodymaybet
reat
edasi
nast
ateoft
ransl
ati
onalequi
li
bri
um.
Forcompl
eteequi
li
bri
um i
ntwodi
mensi
ons,al
lthr
eeofEqs.3/
2musthol
d.Howev
er,t
hese
condi
ti
onsar
eindependentr
equi
rement
s,and onemayhol
d wi
thoutanot
her
.Take,f
or
exampl
e,abodywhi
chsl
idesal
ongahor
izont
alsur
facewi
thi
ncr
easi
ngv
eloci
tyundert
he
act
ionofappl
iedf
orces.Thef
orce–equi
li
bri
um equat
ionswi
llbesat
isf
iedi
nthev
ert
ical
di
rect
ionwher
etheaccel
erat
ioni
szer
o,butnoti
nthehor
izont
aldi
rect
ion.Al
so,
abody
,such
asaf
lywheel
,whi
chr
otat
esabouti
tsf
ixedmasscent
erwi
thi
ncr
easi
ngangul
arspeedi
snot
i
nrot
ati
onalequi
li
bri
um,
butt
het
wof
orce–equi
li
bri
um equat
ionswi
llbesat
isf
ied.
Cat
egor
iesofEqui
li
bri
um
Appl
icat
ionsofEqs.3/
2fal
lsnat
ural
lyi
ntoanumberofcat
egor
ieswhi
char
eeasi
lyi
dent
if
ied.
Thecat
egor
iesoff
orcesy
stemsact
ingonbodi
esi
ntwo-
di
mensi
onalequi
li
bri
um ar
esummar
izedi
nFi
g.3/
3andar
e
expl
ainedf
urt
herasf
oll
ows.
Cat
egor
y1,equi
li
bri
um ofcol
li
nearf
orces,cl
ear
lyr
equi
resonl
ytheonef
orceequat
ioni
nthe
di
rect
ionoft
hef
or x-di
ces( rect
ion)
,si
nceal
lot
herequat
ionsar
eaut
omat
ical
lysat
isf
ied.
Cat
egor
y2,equi
li
bri
um off
orceswhi
chl
iei
napl x-ypl
ane( ane)andar
econcur
rentatapoi
nt
O,r
equi
rest
het
wof
orceequat
ionsonl
y,si hemomentsum aboutO,t
ncet s,aboutaz-
hati
axi
st oughO,i
hr snecessar
il
yzer
o.I
ncl
udedi
nthi
scat
egor
yist
hecaseoft
heequi
li
bri
um of
apar
ti
cle.
Cat
egor
y3,equi
li
bri
um ofpar
all
elf
orcesi
napl
ane,r
equi
rest
heonef
orceequat
ioni
nthe
di
rect
ionoft
hef
or x-di
ces( rect
ion)andonemomentequat
ionaboutanaxi
s(z-axi
s)nor
mal
t
othepl
aneoft
hef
orces.
Cat
egor
y4,equi
li
bri
um ofagener
alsy
stem off
orcesi
napl x-y)
ane( ,requi
rest
het
wof
orce
equat
ionsi
nthepl
aneandonemomentequat
ionaboutanaxi
s(z-axi
s)nor
malt
othepl
ane.
Two-andThr
ee-For
ceMember
s
Youshoul
dbeal
ertt
otwof
requent
lyoccur
ri
ngequi
li
bri
um si
tuat
ions.Thef
ir
stsi
tuat
ioni
s
t
heequi
li
bri
um ofabodyundert
heact
ionoft
wof
orcesonl
y.Twoexampl
esar
eshowni
nFi
g.
3/
4,andweseet orsuchat
hatf wo-f
orcemembert
obei
nequi
li
bri
um,t
hef
orcesmustbe
equal
,opposi
te,and col
li
near
.The shape oft
he memberdoes notaf
fectt
his si
mpl
e
r
equi
rement
.Int
he i
ll
ust
rat
ionsci
ted,we consi
dert
he wei
ght
soft
he member
sto be
negl
igi
blecompar
edwi
tht
heappl
iedf
orces.
Thesecondsi
tuat
i sat
oni hree-f
orcemember
,whi
chi
sabodyundert
heact
ionoft
hree
f
orces,
Fi 5a.Weseet
g.3/ hatequi
li
bri
um r
equi
rest
hel
inesofact
ionoft
het
hreef
orcest
obe
concur
rent
.Ift
heywer
enotconcur
rent
,thenoneoft
hef
orceswoul
dexer
tar
esul
tant
momentaboutt
hepoi
ntofi
nter
sect
ionoft
heot
hert
wo,whi
chwoul
dvi
olat
ether
equi
rement
ofzer
omomentaboutev
erypoi
nt.Theonl
yexcept
ionoccur
swhent
het
hreef
orcesar
e
par
all
el.I
nthi
scasewemayconsi
dert
hepoi
ntofconcur
rencyt
obeati
nfi
nit
y.
Thepr
inci
pleoft
heconcur
rencyoft
hreef
orcesi
nequi
li
bri
um i
sofconsi
der
abl
eusei
n
car
ryi
ngoutagr
aphi
calsol
uti
onoft
hef
orceequat
ions.I
nthi
scaset
hepol
ygonoff
orcesi
s
dr
awnandmadet
ocl
ose,
asshowni
nFi 5b.
g.3/
Fr
equent
ly,abodyi
nequi
li
bri
um undert
heact
ionofmor
ethant
hreef
orcesmayber
educed
t
oat
hree-f
orcememberbyacombi
nat
ionoft
woormor
eoft
heknownf
orces.
Al
ter
nat
iveEqui
li
bri
um Equat
ions
I
naddi
ti
ont
oEqs.3/
2,t
her
ear
etwoot
herway
stoexpr
esst
hegener
alcondi
ti
onsf
ort
he
equi
li
bri
um off
orces i
ntwo di
mensi
ons.The f
ir
stway i
s
i
ll
ust
rat
edi
nFi
g.3/
6,par
t a)and(
s( b).Fort
hebodyshowni
n
Fi 6a,
g.3/ ifΣMA =0,
thent
her
esul
tant
,ifi
tst
il
lexi
sts,
cannotbe
acoupl
e,butmustbeaf
orceRpassi
ngt
hroughA.I
fnow t
he
equat
ion ΣFx = 0 hol
ds,wher
ethe x-di
rect
ion i
sar
bit
rar
y,i
t
f
oll
owsf
rom Fi 6bt
g.3/ hatt
her
esul
tantf
orceR,i
fitst
il
lexi
sts,
notonl
ymustpasst
hroughA,butal
somustbeper
pendi
cul
art
o
hex-di
t rect
ionasshown.
fΣMB =0,wher
Now,i eBi
sanypoi
ntsucht
hatt
hel
ineABi
snot
per
pendi
cul
art
othex-di
rect
ion,
weseet
hatRmustbezer
o,and
t
hust
hebodyi
sinequi
li
bri
um.Ther
efor
e,anal
ter
nat
ivesetof
equi
li
bri
um equat
ionsi
s

Wher
ethet
wopoi
ntsAandBmustnotl
ieonal
ineper
pendi
cul
art
othex-di
rect
ion.
At
hir
dfor
mul
ati
onoft
heequi
li
bri
um condi
ti
onsmaybemadef
oracopl
anarf
orcesy
stem.
Thi
sisi
ll
ust
rat
edi
nFi
g.3/
6,par
t c)and(
s( d).Agai fΣMA =0f
n,i orany
bodysuchast
hat
showni
nFi 6c,t
g.3/ her
esul
tant
,ifany
,mustbeaf
orceRt
hroughA.I
naddi
ti fΣMB =0,
on,i
t
her
esul
tant
,ifonest
il
lexi
sts,mustpasst
hroughB asshowni
nFi 6d.Suchaf
g.3/ orce
cannotexi
st,howev
er fΣMC =0,wher
,i eCi
snotcol
li
nearwi
thAandB.Thus,wemaywr
it
e
t
heequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um as

eA,
Wher B,andCar
eanyt
hreepoi
ntsnotont
hesamest
rai
ghtl
ine.
Whenequi
li
bri
um equat
ionsar
ewr
it
tenwhi
char
enoti
ndependent
,redundanti
nfor
mat
ioni
s
obt
ained,andacor
rectsol
uti
onoft
heequat
ionswi
lly
iel
d0=0.Forexampl
e,f
oragener
al
pr
obl
em i
ntwodi
mensi
onswi
tht
hreeunknowns,
thr
eemomentequat
ionswr
it
tenaboutt
hree
poi
ntswhi
chl
ieont
hesamest
rai
ghtl
inear
enoti
ndependent
.Suchequat
ionswi
llcont
ain
dupl
icat
ed i
nfor
mat
ion,and sol
uti
on oft
wo oft
hem can atbestdet
ermi
net
wo oft
he
unknowns,
wit
hthet
hir
dequat
ionmer
elyv
eri
fyi
ngt
hei
dent
it
y0=0.
Const
rai
ntsandSt
ati
calDet
ermi
nacy
The equi
li
bri
um equat
ions dev
eloped i
nthi
s ar
ti
cle ar
e bot
h necessar
y and suf
fi
cient
condi
ti
onst
oest
abl
isht
heequi
li
bri
um ofabody
.Howev
er,
theydonotnecessar
il
ypr
ovi
deal
l
t
hei
nfor
mat
ionr
equi
redt
ocal
cul
ateal
ltheunknownf
orceswhi
chmayactonabodyi
n
equi
li
bri
um.Whet
hert
heequat
ionsar
eadequat
etodet
ermi
neal
ltheunknownsdependson
t
hechar
act
eri
sti
csoft
heconst
rai
ntsagai
nstpossi
blemov
ementoft
hebodypr
ovi
dedbyi
ts
suppor
ts.Byconst
rai
ntwemeant
her
est
ri
cti
onofmov
ement
.
I
nExampl
e4ofFi
g.3/
1ther
oll
er,
bal
l,andr
ockerpr
ovi
deconst
rai
ntnor
malt
othesur
faceof
cont
act
,butnonet
angentt
othesur
face.Thus,at
angent
ialf
orcecannotbesuppor
ted.For
t
hecol
larandsl
iderofExampl
e5,
const
rai
ntexi
stsonl
ynor
malt
othegui
de.I
nExampl
e6t
he
f
ixed-pi
n connect
ion pr
ovi
desconst
rai
nti
n bot
h di
rect
ions,butof
fer
sno r
esi
stancet
o
r
otat
ionaboutt
hepi
nunl
esst
hepi
nisnotf
reet
otur
n.Thef
ixedsuppor
tofExampl
e7,
howev
er,
off
ersconst
rai
ntagai
nstr
otat
ionaswel
lasl
ater
almov
ement
.
I
fther
ockerwhi
chsuppor
tst
het
russofExampl
e1i
nFi
g.3/
2wer
erepl
acedbyapi
njoi
nt,
as
atA,t
her
e woul
d be one addi
ti
onalconst
rai
ntbey
ond t
hose r
equi
red t
o suppor
tan
equi
li
bri
um conf
igur
ati
onwi
thnof
reedom ofmov
ement
.Thet
hreescal
arcondi
ti
onsof
equi
li
bri
um,
Eqs.
3/2,
woul
dnotpr
ovi
desuf
fi
cienti
nfor
mat
iont
odet
ermi
neal
lfourunknowns,
nceAxandBxcoul
si dnotbesol
vedf
orsepar
atel
y;onl
ythei
rsum coul
dbedet
ermi
ned.These
t
wocomponent
soff
orcewoul
dbedependentont
hedef
ormat
ionoft
hemember
soft
he
t
russasi
nfl
uencedbyt
hei
rcor
respondi
ngst
if
fnesspr
oper
ti
es.Thehor
izont
alr
eact
ionsAx
andBxwoul
dal
sodependonanyi
nit
ialdef
ormat
ionr
equi
redt
ofi
tthedi
mensi
onsoft
he
st
ruct
uret
othoseoft
hef
oundat
i weenAandB.
onbet
Thus,
wecannotdet
er neAxandBxbyar
mi igi
d-bodyanal
ysi
s.Agai
nref
err
ingt
oFi
g.3/
2,we
seet
hati
ft nBi
hepi nExampl
e3wer
enotf
reet
otur
n,t
hesuppor
tcoul
dtr
ansmi
tacoupl
eto
t
hebeam t
hrought
hepi
n.Ther
efor
e,t
her
ewoul
dbef
ourunknownsuppor
ti
ngr
eact
ions
act
ingont
hebeam,namel
y,t
hef
orceatA,t
het
wocomponent
soff
orceatB,andt
hecoupl
e
atB.Consequent
lyt
het
hreei
ndependentscal
arequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um woul
dnotpr
ovi
de
enoughi
nfor
mat
iont
ocomput
eal
lfourunknowns.
Ar
igi
dbodyorr
igi
dcombi
nat
ionofel
ement
str
eat
edasasi
ngl
ebody
,whi
chpossessesmor
e
ext
ernalsuppor
tsorconst
rai
ntst
hanar
enecessar
ytomai
ntai
nanequi
li
bri
um posi
ti
oni
s
cal
ledst
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
e.
Suppor
tswhi
chcanber
emov
edwi
thoutdest
roy
ingt
heequi
li
bri
um condi
ti
onoft
hebodyar
e
sai
dtober
edundant
.Thenumberofr
edundantsuppor
ti
ngel
ement
spr
esentcor
respondst
o
hedegr
t eeofSt
ati
cali
ndet
ermi
nacyandequal
sthet
otalnumberofunknownext
ernalf
orces,
mi
nust
henumberofav
ail
abl
eindependentequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um.
Ont
heot
herhand,bodi
eswhi
char
esuppor
tedbyt
hemi
nimum numberofconst
rai
nts
necessar
ytoensur
eanequi
li
bri
um conf
igur
ati
onar
ecal
ledst
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
e,andf
or
suchbodi
est
heequi
li
bri
um equat
ionsar
esuf
fi
cientt
odet
ermi
net
heunknownext
ernal
f
orces.
Thepr
obl
emsonequi
li
bri
um i
nthi
smat
eri
alar
egener
all
yrest
ri
ctedt
ost
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
e
bodi
eswher
etheconst
rai
ntsar
ejustsuf
fi
cientt
oensur
east
abl
eequi
li
bri
um conf
igur
ati
on
andwher
etheunknownsuppor
ti
ngf
orcescanbecompl
etel
ydet
ermi
nedbyt
heav
ail
abl
e
i
ndependentequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um.
Wemustbeawar
eoft
henat
ureoft
heconst
rai
ntsbef
oreweat
temptt
osol
veanequi
li
bri
um
pr
obl
em.Abodycanber
ecogni
zedasst
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
ewhent
her
ear
emor
eunknown
ext
ernalr
eact
ionst
hant
her
ear
eav
ail
abl
eindependentequi
li
bri
um equat
ionsf
ort
hef
orce
sy
stem i
nvol
ved.I
tisal
way
swel
ltocountt
henumberofunknownv
ari
abl
esonagi
venbody
andt
obecer
tai
nthatanequalnumberofi
ndependentequat
ionscanbewr
it
ten;ot
her
wise,
ef
for
tmi
ghtbewast
edi
nat
tempt
ingani
mpossi
blesol
uti
onwi
tht
heai
doft
heequi
li
bri
um
equat
ionsonl
y.Theunknownv
ari
abl
esmaybef
orces,
coupl
es,
dist
ances,
orangl
es
AdequacyofConst
rai
nts
I
n di
scussi
ng t
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween const
rai
nts and equi
li
bri
um,we
shoul
dlookf
urt
heratt
hequest
ionoft
headequacyofconst
rai
nts.The
exi
stence oft
hree const
rai
ntsf
ora t
wo-di
mensi
onalpr
obl
em doesnot
al
way
sguar
ant
eeast
abl
eequi
li
bri
um conf
igur
ati
on.Fi
gur
e3/
7showsf
our
di
ff
erentt
ypesofconst
rai
nts.I taoft
npar hef
igur
e, ntAoft
poi her
igi
dbody
i
sfi
xedbyt
het
wol
inksandcannotmov
e,andt
het
hir
dli
nkpr
event
sany
r
otat
ionaboutA.Thus,t
hi scompl
sbodyi etel
yfi
xedwi
tht
hreeadequat
e
pr
( oper
)const
rai
nts.I tboft
npar hef
igur
e,t
het
hir
dli
nki
sposi
ti
onedsot
hat
t
hef
orcet
ransmi
tt
edbyi
tpassest
hr ntA wher
oughpoi etheot
hert
wo
const
rai
ntf
orcesact
.Thus,t
hisconf
igur
ati
onofconst
rai
ntscanof
ferno
i
nit
ialr
esi
stancet
orot
atonaboutA,whi
i chwoul
doccurwhenext
ernall
oads
wer
e appl
ied t
othe body
.We concl
ude,t
her
efor
e,t
hatt
his body i
s
i
ncompl
etel
yfi
xedunderpar
ti
alconst
rai
nts.
Theconf
igur
ati
oni tcoft
npar hef
igur
egi
vesusasi
mil
arcondi
ti
onof
i
ncompl
etef
ixi
ty because t
he t
hree par
all
ell
inks coul
d of
ferno i
nit
ial
r
esi
stancet
oasmal
lver
ti
calmov
ementoft
hebodyasar
esul
tofext
ernal
l
oadsappl
iedt
oiti
nthi
sdi
rect
ion.Theconst
rai
ntsi
ntheset
woexampl
es
ar
eof
tent
ermed i
mpr
oper
.I td ofFi
npar g.3/
7wehav
eacondi
ti
onof
compl
etef
ixi
ty,
wit
hli
nk4act
ingasaf
our
thconst
rai
ntwhi
chi
sunnecessar
y
t
omai
ntai
naf
ixedposi
ti
on.Li
nk4,t sar
hen,i edundantconst
rai
nt,andt
he
bodyi
sst
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
e.
Asi
nthef
ourexampl
esofFi
g.3/
7,i
tisgener
all
ypossi
blebydi
rectobser
vat
iont
oconcl
ude
whet
hert
heconst
rai
ntsonabodyi
ntwodi
mensi
onalequi
li
bri
um ar
eadequat
e(pr
oper
),
par
ti
al(
impr
oper
),orr
edundant
.
Appr
oacht
oSol
vingPr
obl
ems
The sampl
e pr
obl
ems att
he end oft
his ar
ti
clei
ll
ust
rat
ethe appl
icat
ion off
ree-body
di
agr
amsand t
heequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um t
oty
picalst
ati
cspr
obl
ems.Thesesol
uti
ons
shoul
dbest
udi
edt
hor
oughl
y.I
nthepr
obl
em wor
koft
hischapt
erandt
hroughoutmechani
cs,
i
tisi
mpor
tantt
odev
elopal
ogi
calandsy
stemat
icappr
oachwhi
chi
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ng
st
eps:
1.I
dent
if
ycl
ear
lyt
hequant
it
ieswhi
char
eknownandunknown.
2.Makeanunambi
guouschoi
ceoft
hebody(
orsy
stem ofconnect
edbodi
est
reat
edasa
si
ngl
ebody
)tobei
sol
atedanddr
aw i
tscompl
etef
ree-bodydi
agr
am,l
abel
ingal
l
ext
ernalknownandunknownbuti
dent
if
iabl
efor
cesandcoupl
eswhi
chactoni
t.
3.Chooseaconv
eni
entsetofr
efer
enceaxes,al
way
susi
ngr
ighthandedax
eswhen
v
ect
orcr
oss pr
oduct
s ar
e empl
oyed.Choose momentcent
ers wi
thav
iew t
o
si
mpl
if
yingt
hecal
cul
ati
ons.Gener
all
ythebestchoi
cei
sonet
hroughwhi
chasmany
unknownf
orcespassaspossi
ble.Si
mul
taneoussol
uti
onsofequi
li
bri
um equat
ionsar
e
f
requent
lynecessar
y,butcanbemi
nimi
zedorav
oidedbyacar
efulchoi
ceofr
efer
ence
axesandmomentcent
ers.
4.I
dent
if
yandst
atet
heappl
icabl
efor
ceandmomentpr
inci
plesorequat
ionswhi
ch
gov
ernt
heequi
li
bri
um condi
ti
onsoft
hepr
obl
em.I
nthef
oll
owi
ngsampl
epr
obl
ems
t
heser
elat
ionsar
eshowni
nbr
acket
sandpr
ecedeeachmaj
orcal
cul
ati
on.
5.Mat
cht
henumberofi
ndependentequat
ionswi
tht
henumberofunknownsi
neach
pr
obl
em.
6.Car
ryoutt
hesol
uti
onandcheckt
her
esul
ts.I
nmanypr
obl
emsengi
neer
ingj
udgment
canbedev
elopedbyf
ir
stmaki
ngar
easonabl
eguessorest
imat
eoft
her
esul
tpr
iort
o
t
hecal
cul
ati
onandt
hencompar
ingt
heest
imat
ewi
tht
hecal
cul
atedv
alue.
SECTI
ONB:EQUI
LIBRI
UM I
NTHREEDI
MENSI
ONS
3.
4Equi
li
bri
um Condi
ti
ons
Wenowext
endourpr
inci
plesandmet
hodsdev
elopedf
ort
wodi
mensi
onalequi
li
bri
um t
othe
caseoft
hreedi
mensi
onalequi
li
bri
um.I
nAr
t.
3/1t
hegener
alcondi
ti
onsf
ort
heequi
li
bri
um of
abodywer
est
atedi
nEqs.
3/1,
whi
chr
equi
ret
hatt
her
esul
tantf
orceandr
esul
tantcoupl
eona
bodyi
nequi
li
bri
um bezer
o.Theset
wov
ect
orequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um andt
hei
rscal
ar
component
smaybewr
it
tenas

Thef
ir
stt
hreescal
arequat
ionsst
atet
hatt
her
eisnor
esul
tantf
orceact
ingonabodyi
n
equi
li
bri
um i
nanyoft
het
hreecoor
dinat
edi
rect
ions.
Thesecondt
hreescal
arequat
ionsexpr
esst
hef
urt
herequi
li
bri
um r
equi
rementt
hatt
her
ebe
nor
esul
tantmomentact
ingont
hebodyaboutanyoft
hecoor
dinat
eaxesoraboutaxes
par
all
elt
othe coor
dinat
e axes.These si
xequat
ionsar
e bot
h necessar
yand suf
fi
cient
condi
ti
onsf
orcompl
eteequi
li
bri
um.Ther
efer
enceaxesmaybechosenar
bit
rar
il
yasamat
ter
ofconv
eni
ence,t
heonl
yrest
ri
cti
onbei
ngt
hatar
ight
-handedcoor
dinat
esy
stem shoul
dbe
chosenwhenv
ect
ornot
ati
oni
sused.Thesi
xscal
arr
elat
ionshi
psofEqs.3/
3ar
eindependent
condi
ti
onsbecauseanyoft
hem canbev
ali
dwi
thoutt
heot
her
s.Forexampl
e,f
oracarwhi
ch
accel
erat
esonast
rai
ghtandl
evelr
oadi
nthex
-di
rect
ion,Newt
on’
ssecondl
awt
ell
sust
hat
t
her
esul
tantf
orceont
hecarequal
sit
smasst
imesi
tsaccel
erat
ion.ThusΣFx =0,butt
he
r
emai
ning t
wo f
orce equi
li
bri
um equat
ions ar
e sat
isf
ied because al
lot
heraccel
erat
ion
component
sar
ezer
o.Si
mil
arl
y,i
fthef
lywheeloft
heengi
neoft
heaccel
erat
ingcari
srot
ati
ng
wi
thi
ncr
easi
ngangul hex-axi
arspeedaboutt s,i
tisnoti
nrot
ati
onalequi
li
bri
um aboutt
his
axi
s.Thus,f
ort
hef
ly one,ΣMx = 0al
wheelal ongwi
thΣFx = 0,butt
her
emai
ningf
our
equi
li
bri
um equat
ionsf
ort
hef
lywheelwoul
dbesat
isf
iedf
ori
tsmass-cent
eraxes.
I
nappl
yingt
hev
ect
orf
orm ofEqs.3/
3,wef
ir
stexpr
esseachoft
hef
orcesi
nter
msoft
he
coor
dinat
euni
tvect
orsi
,j,andk.Fort
hef
ir
stequat
ion,ΣF=0,t
hev
ect
orsum wi
llbezer
o
onl
yift
hecoef
fi
cient
sofi
,j,
andki
ntheexpr
essi
onar
e,r
espect
ivel
y,zer
o.Theset
hreesums,
wheneachi
ssetequalt
ozer
o,y
iel
dpr
eci
sel
ythet
hreescal
arequat
ionsofequi
li
bri ΣFx=
um,
 ΣFy=0,
0, andΣFz=0.
Fort
hesecondequat
ion,
ΣM =0,
wher
ethemomentsum maybet
akenaboutanyconv
eni
ent
ntO,weexpr
poi esst
hemomentofeachf
orceast
hecr
osspr
oductrxF,wher
eri
sthe
posi
ti
onv
ect
orf
rom Ot
oanypoi
ntont
hel
ineofact
ionoft
hef
orceF.ThusΣM =Σ(
rxF)=0.
Whent
hecoef
fi
cient
sofi
,j,andki
nther
esul
ti
ngmomentequat
ionar
esetequalt
ozer
o,
r
espect
ivel
y,weobt
aint
het
hreescal
armomentequat
ionsΣMx=0,
ΣMy=0,
andΣMz=0.
Fr
ee-BodyDi
agr
ams
Thesummat
ionsi
nEqs.3/
3incl
udet
heef
f sofal
ect lfor
cesont
hebodyunderconsi
der
ati
on.
Wel
ear
nedi
nthepr
evi
ousar
ti
clet
hatt
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am i
stheonl
yrel
iabl
emet
hodf
or
di
scl
osi
ngal
lfor
cesandmoment
swhi
chshoul
dbei
ncl
udedi
nourequi
li
bri
um equat
ions.I
n
t
hreedi
mensi
onst
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am ser
vest
hesameessent
ialpur
poseasi
tdoesi
ntwo
di
mensi dal
onsandshoul waysbedr
awn.Wehav
eourchoi
ceei
therofdr
awi
ngapi
ctor
ial
v
iew oft
hei
sol
atedbodywi
thal
lext
ernalf
orcesr
epr
esent
edorofdr
awi
ngt
heor
thogonal
pr
oject
ionsoft
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am.Bot
hrepr
esent
ati
onsar
eil
lust
rat
edi
nthesampl
e
pr
obl
emsatt
heendoft
hisar
ti
cle.
Thecor
rectr
epr
esent
ati
onoff
orcesont
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am r
equi
resaknowl
edgeoft
he
char
act
eri
sti
csofcont
act
ingsur
faces.Thesechar
act
eri
sti
cswer
edescr
ibedi
nFi
g.3/
1for
t
wo-di
mensi
onal pr
obl
ems, and t
hei
r ext
ensi
on t
o t
hree-di
mensi
onal pr
obl
ems i
s
r
epr
esent
ed i
n Fi
g.3/
8fort
he mostcommon si
tuat
ions off
orce t
ransmi
ssi
on.The
r
epr
esent
ati
onsi
nbot
hFi
gs.3/
1and3/
8wi
llbeusedi
nthr
ee-di
mensi
onalanal
ysi
s.
Theessent
ialpur
poseoft
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am i
stodev
elopar
eli
abl
epi
ctur
eoft
hephy
sical
act
ionofal
lfor
ces(
andcoupl
esi
fany
)act
ingonabody
.Soi
tishel
pfult
orepr
esentt
he
f
orcesi
nthei
rcor
rectphy
sicalsensewhenev
erpossi
ble.I
nthi
sway
,thef
ree-bodydi
agr
am
becomesacl
osermodelt
otheact
ualphy
sicalpr
obl
em t
hani
twoul
dbei
fthef
orceswer
e
ar
bit
rar
il
yassi
gnedoral
way
sassi
gnedi
nthesamemat
hemat
icalsenseast
hatoft
he
assi
gnedcoor
dinat
eaxi
s.
Forexampl
e,i
npar
t4ofFi
g.3/
8,t
hecor
r heunknownsRxandRymaybeknown
ectsenseoft
orper
cei
vedt
obei
nthesenseopposi
tet
othoseoft
heassi
gnedcoor
dinat
eaxes.Si
mil
ar
condi
ti
onsappl
ytot
hesenseofcoupl
evect
ors,par
ts5and6,wher
ethei
rsensebyt
her
ight
handr
ulemaybeassi
gnedopposi
tet
othatoft
her
espect
ivecoor
dinat
edi
rect
ion.Byt
his
t
ime,y
oushoul
drecogni
zet
hatanegat
iveanswerf
oranunknownf
orceorcoupl
evect
or
mer
elyi
ndi
cat
est
hati
tsphy
sicalact
ioni
sint
hesenseopposi
tet
othatassi
gnedont
hef
ree
bodydi
agr
am.Fr
equent
ly,ofcour
se,t
hecor
rectphy
sicalsensei
snotknowni
nit
ial
ly,sot
hat
anar
bit
rar
yassi
gnmentont
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am becomenecessar
y.
Cat
egor
iesofEqui
li
bri
um
Appl
icat
ionofEqs.3/
3fal
lsi
ntof
ourcat
egor
ieswhi
chwei
dent
if
ywi
tht
heai
dofFi
g.3/
9.
Thesecat
egor
iesdi
ff
eri
nthenumberandt
ype(
for
ceormoment
)ofi
ndependentequi
li
bri
um
equat
ionsr
equi
redt
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em.
Cat
egor
y1,equi
li
bri
um off
orcesal
lconcur
r ntO,r
entatpoi equi
resal
lthr
eef
orceequat
ions,
butnomomentequat
ionsbecauset
hemomentoft
hef
orcesaboutanyaxi
st oughOi
hr szer
o.
Cat
egor
y2,equi
li
bri
um off
orceswhi
char
econcur
rentwi
thal
ine,r
equi
resal
lequat
ions
exceptt
hemomentequat
ionaboutt
hatl
ine,
whi
chi
saut
omat
ical
lysat
isf
ied.
Cat
egor
y3,equi
li
bri
um ofpar
all
elf
orces,r
equi
resonl
yonef
orceequat
ion,t
heonei
nthe
di
rect
ionoft
hef
or x-di
ces( rect
ionasshown)
,andt
womomentequat
ionsaboutt y
heaxes(
andz)whi
char
enor
malt
othedi
rect
ionoft
hef
orces.
Cat
egor
y4,equi
li
bri
um ofagener
alsy
stem off
orces,r
equi
resal
lthr
eef
orceequat
ionsand
al
lthr
eemomentequat
ions.
Theobser
vat
ionscont
ainedi
nthesest
atement
sar
egener
all
yqui
teev
identwhenagi
ven
pr
obl
em i
sbei
ngsol
ved.

Const
rai
ntsandSt
ati
calDet
ermi
nacy
Thesi
xscal
arr
elat
ionsofEqs.
3/3,al
thoughnecessar
yandsuf
fi
cientcondi
ti
onst
oest
abl
ish
equi
li
bri
um,do notnecessar
il
ypr
ovi
de al
loft
he i
nfor
mat
ion r
equi
red t
o cal
cul
atet
he
unknownf
orcesact
ingi
nat
hree-di
mensi
onalequi
li
bri
um si
tuat
ion.Agai
n,aswef
oundwi
th
t
wodi
mensi
ons,t
hequest
ionofadequacyofi
nfor
mat
ioni
sdeci
dedbyt
hechar
act
eri
sti
csof
t
heconst
rai
ntspr
ovi
dedbyt
hesuppor
ts.Ananal
yti
calcr
it
eri
on
f
ordet
ermi
ningt
headequacyofconst
rai
ntsi
sav
ail
abl
e,buti
t
i
sbey
ondt
hescopeoft
hist
reat
ment
.InFi
g.3/
10,
howev
er,
we
ci
tef
ourexampl
esofconst
rai
ntcondi
ti
onst
oal
ertt
her
eader
t
othepr
obl
em.
taofFi
Par g.3/
10showsar
igi
dbodywhosecor ntAi
nerpoi s
compl
etel
yfi
xedbyt
hel
inks1,2,and3.Li
nks4,5,and6
pr
event r
otat
ions about t
he axes of l
inks 1,2,and 3,
r
espect
ivel
y,so t
hatt s compl
he bodyi etel
yfi
xed and t
he
const
rai
ntsar
esai
dtobeadequat
e.Par
tboft
hef
igur
eshows
t
hesamenumberofconst
rai
nts,butweseet
hatt
heypr
ovi
de
nor
esi
stancet
oamomentwhi
chmi
ghtbeappl
iedaboutaxi
s
AE.Her
et si
he bodyi ncompl
etel
yfi
xed and onl
y par
ti
all
y
const
rai
ned.
Si
mil
arl
y,i
nFi 10ct
g.3/ heconst
rai
ntspr
ovi
denor
esi
stancet
o
anunbal
ancedf
orcei
nthey
-di
rect
ion,
soher
eal
soi
sacaseof
i
ncompl
etef
ixi
tywi
thpar
ti
alconst
rai
nts.I
nFi 10d,i
g.3/ fa
sev
ent
hconst
rai
ningl
inkwer
eimposedonasy
stem ofsi
x
const
rai
ntspl
acedpr
oper
lyf
orcompl
etef
ixi
ty,mor
esuppor
ts
woul
dbepr
ovi
dedt
hanwoul
dbenecessar
ytoest
abl
isht
he
equi
li
bri
um posi
ti
on,
andl
i dber
nk7woul edundant
.
Thebodywoul
dthenbest
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
ewi
thsucha
sev
ent
hli
nki
npl
ace.Wi
thonl
yaf
ewexcept
ions,t
hesuppor
ti
ngconst
rai
ntsf
orr
igi
dbodi
es
i
nequi
li
bri
um i
nthi
sbookar
eadequat
e,andt
hebodi
esar
est
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
e.
4/
1Int
roduct
ion

Chapt
erI
V
St
ruct
ure
4.STRUCTURES
4.
1Int
roduct
ion
I
nChapt
er3west
udi
edt
heequi
li
bri
um ofasi
ngl
eri
gidbodyorasy
stem ofconnect
ed
member
str
eat
edasasi
ngl
eri
gidbody
.Wef
ir
stdr
ew af
ree-bodydi
agr
am oft
hebody
showi
ngal
lfor
cesext
ernalt
othei
sol
atedbodyandt
henweappl
iedt
hef
orceandmoment
equat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um.I
nChapt
er4wef
ocusont
hedet
ermi
nat
ionoft
hef
orcesi
nter
nalt
o
ast
ruct
ure,t
hati
s,f
orcesofact
ionandr
eact
ionbet
weent
heconnect
edmember
s.An
engi
neer
ingst
ruct
urei
sanyconnect
edsy
stem ofmember
sbui
ltt
osuppor
tort
ransf
erf
orces
andt
o saf
elywi
thst
andt
hel
oadsappl
iedt
oit
.To det
ermi
net
hef
orcesi
nter
nalt
o an
engi
neer
ingst
ruct
ure,wemustdi
smembert
hest
ruct
ureandanal
yzesepar
atef
ree-body
di
agr
amsofi
ndi
vidualmember
sorcombi
nat
ionsofmember
s.Thi
sanal
ysi
srequi
rescar
eful
appl
icat
ionofNewt
on’
sthi
rdl
aw,whi
chst
atest
hateachact
ioni
saccompani
edbyanequal
andopposi
ter
eact
ion.
I
nChapt
er4weanal
yzet
hei
nter
nalf
orcesact
ingi
nsev
eralt
ypesofst
ruct
ures,namel
y,
t
russes,f
rames,andmachi
nes.I
nthi
str
eat
mentweconsi yst
deronl ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
e
st
ruct
ures,whi
chdonothav
emor
esuppor
ti
ngconst
rai
ntst
hanar
enecessar
ytomai
ntai
nan
equi
li
bri
um conf
igur
ati
on.Thus,aswehav
eal
readyseen,t
heequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um ar
e
adequat
etodet
ermi
neal
lunknownr
eact
ions.
The anal
ysi
s oft
russes,f
rames and machi
nes,and beams underconcent
rat
ed l
oads
const
it
utesast
rai
ght
for
war
d appl
icat
ion oft
hemat
eri
aldev
eloped i
nthepr
evi
oust
wo
chapt
ers.Thebasi
cpr
ocedur
edev
elopedi
nChapt
er3f
ori
sol
ati
ngabodybyconst
ruct
inga
cor
rectf
ree-bodydi
agr
am i
sessent
ialf
ort
heanal
ysi
sofst
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
est
ruct
ures.
 `
4.
2Pl
aneTr
usses
Af
ramewor
kcomposedofmember
sjoi
nedatt
hei
rendst
ofor
m ar
igi
dst
ruct
urei
scal
leda
t
russ.Br
idges,r
oofsuppor
ts,der
ri
cks,andot
hersuchst
ruct
uresar
ecommonexampl
esof
t
russes.St
ruct
uralmember
scommonl
yusedar
eI-beams,
channel
s,angl
es,
bar
s,andspeci
al
shapeswhi
char
efast
enedt
oget
heratt
hei
rendsbywel
ding,
r
ivet
edconnect
ions,orl
argebol
tsorpi
ns.Whent
hemember
sof
t
het
russl
ieessent
ial
lyi
nasi
ngl
epl
ane,t
het
russi
scal
leda
pl
anet
russ.
Forbr
idgesandsi
mil
arst
ruct
ures,pl
anet
russesar
ecommonl
y
ut
il
izedi
npai
rswi
thonet
russassembl
ypl
acedoneachsi
deof
t
hest
ruct
ure.Asect
ionofat
ypi
calbr
idgest
ruct
urei
sshowni
n
Fi
g.4/
1.Thecombi
nedwei
ghtoft
her
oadwayandv
ehi
clesi
s
t
ransf
err
edt
othel
ongi
tudi
nalst
ri
nger
s,t
hent
othecr
ossbeams,
andf
inal
ly,wi
tht
hewei
ght
soft
hest
ri
nger
sandcr
ossbeams
account
edf
or,t
otheupperj
oint
soft
het
wopl
anet
russeswhi
ch
f
ormt
hev
ert
icalsi
desoft
hest
ruct
ure.Asi
mpl
if
iedmodeloft
he
t
russst
ruct
urei
sindi
cat
edatt
hel
eftsi
deoft
hei
ll
ust
rat
ion;t
he
f
orcesLr
epr
esentt
hej
ointl
oadi
ngs.
Sev
eralexampl
es ofcommonl
y used t
russes whi
ch can be
anal
yzedaspl
anet
russesar
eshowni
nFi
g.4/
2.

Si
mpl
eTr
usses
Thebasi
cel
ementofapl
anet
russi
sthet
ri
angl
e.Thr
eebar
s
j
oinedbypi
nsatt
hei
rends,Fi 3a,const
g.4/ it
utear
igi
dfr
ame.
Thet
ermr
igi
disusedt
omeannoncol
lapsi
bleandal
sot
omeant
hatdef
ormat
ionoft
he
member
sduet
oinducedi
nter
nalst
rai
nsi
snegl
igi
ble.Ont
heot
herhand,f
ourormor
ebar
s
pi
n-j
oint
edt
ofor
m apol
ygonofasmanysi
desconst
it
uteanonr
igi
dfr
ame.Wecanmaket
he
nonr
igi
dfr
amei
nFi 3br
g.4/ igi
d,orst
abl
e,byaddi
ngadi
agonalbarj
oi ngAandDorBand
ni
Candt
her
ebyf
ormi
ngt
wot
ri
angl
es.Wecanex
tendt
hest
ruct
urebyaddi
ngaddi
ti
onaluni
ts
oft
woend-connect s,suchasDEandCEorAFandDF,Fi
edbar 3c,whi
g.4/ char
epi
nnedt
o
t
wof
ixedj
oint
s.I
nthi
swayt
heent
ir
est
ruct
urewi
llr
emai
nri
gid.St
ruct
uresbui
ltf
rom abasi
c
t
ri
angl
eint
hemannerdescr
i eknownassi
bedar mpl
etr
usses.Whenmor
emember
sar
e
pr
esentt
hanar
eneededt
opr
eventcol
lapse,t
het
russi
sst
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
e.Ast
ati
cal
ly
i
ndet
ermi
nat
etr
usscannotbeanal
yzedbyt
heequat
ionsofequi
li
bri
um al
one.Addi
ti
onal
 member
sorsuppor
tswhi
char
enotnecessar
yformai
ntai
ning
t
heequi
li
bri
um conf
igur
ati
onar
ecal
ledr
edundant
.
Todesi
gnat
russwemustf
ir
stdet
ermi
net
hef
orcesi
nthe
v
ari
ous member
s and t
hen sel
ectappr
opr
iat
e si
zes and
st
ruct
ural shapes t
o wi
thst
and t
he f
orces. Sev
eral
assumpt
ionsar
emadei
nthef
orceanal
ysi
sofsi
mpl
etr
usses.
Fi
rst
,weassumeal
lmember
stobet
wo-f
orcemember
s.
At
wo-f
orcememberi
sonei
nequi
li
bri
um undert
heact
ionof
t
wof
orcesonl
y,asdef
inedi
ngener
alt
ermswi
thFi
g.3/
4in
Ar
t.3/
3.Eachmemberofat
russi
snor
mal
lyast
rai
ghtl
ink
j
oini
ngt
het
wopoi
ntsofappl
icat
ionoff
orce.Thet
wof
orces
ar
eappl
iedatt
heendsoft
hememberandar
enecessar
il
y
equal
,opposi
te,and col
li
nearf
orequi
li
bri
um.Themember
maybei
ntensi
onorcompr
essi
on,asshowni
nFi
g.4/
4.When
we r
epr
esentt
he equi
li
bri
um ofa por
ti
on ofa t
wo-f
orce
member
,thet onTorcompr
ensi onCact
essi ingont
hecutsect
ioni
sthesamef
oral
lsect
ions.
Weassumeher
ethatt
hewei
ghtoft
hememberi
ssmal
lcompar
edwi
tht
hef
orcei
tsuppor
ts.
I
fiti
snot
,ori
fwemustaccountf
ort
hesmal
lef
fectoft
hewei
ght
,wecanr
epl
acet
hewei
ght
W oft
hememberbyt
wof
orces,eachW/
2ift
hememberi
suni
for
m,wi
thonef
orceact
ingat
eachendoft
hemember
.Thesef
orces,
inef
fect
,ar
etr
eat
edasl
oadsext
ernal
lyappl
iedt
othe
pi
nconnect
ions.Account
ingf
ort
hewei
ghtofamemberi
nthi
swaygi
vest
hecor
rectr
esul
t
f
ort
heav
eraget
ensi
onorcompr
essi
onal
ongt
hememberbutwi
llnotaccountf
ort
heef
fect
ofbendi
ngoft
hemember
.
Tr
ussConnect
ionsandSuppor
ts
Whenwel
dedorr
ivet
edconnect
ionsar
eusedt
ojoi
nst
ruct
ural
member
s,wemayusual
lyassumet
hatt
heconnect
ioni
sapi
n
j
ointi
fthecent
erl
inesoft
hemember
sar
econcur
rentatt
hej
oint
asi
nFi
g.4/
5.Weal
soassumei
ntheanal
ysi
sofsi
mpl
etr
usses
t
hatal
lext
ernalf
orcesar
eappl
iedatt
hepi
nconnect
ions.Thi
s
condi
ti
oni
ssat
isf
iedi
nmostt
russes.I
nbr
idget
russest
hedeck
i
susual
lyl
aidoncr
ossbeamswhi
char
esuppor
tedatt
hej
oint
s,
asshowni
nFi
g.4/
1.Forl
arget
russes,ar
oll
er,r
ocker
,orsome
ki
ndofsl
ipj
ointi
susedatoneoft
hesuppor
tst
opr
ovi
def
or
expansi
onandcont
ract
ionduet
otemper
atur
echangesandf
ordef
ormat
ionf
rom appl
ied
l
oads.Tr
ussesandf
ramesi
nwhi
chnosuchpr
ovi
sioni
smadear
est
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
e,as
expl
ainedi
nAr
t.3/
3.Fi
gur
e3/
1showsexampl
esofsuchj
oint
s.
Twomet
hodsf
ort
hef
orceanal
ysi
sofsi
mpl
etr
usseswi
llbegi
ven.Eachmet
hodwi
llbe
expl
ainedf
ort
hesi
mpl
etr
ussshowni
nFi 6a.Thef
g.4/ ree-bodydi
agr
am oft
het
russasa
whol
eisshowni
nFi 6b.
g.4/
Theext
ernalr
eact
ionsar
eusual
lydet
ermi
nedf
ir
st,byappl
yingt
heequi
li
bri
um equat
ionst
o
t
het
russasawhol
e.Thent
hef
orceanal
ysi
soft
her
emai
nderoft
het
russi
sper
for
med.
4.
3Met
hodofJoi
nts
Thi
smet
hodf
orf
indi
ngt
hef
orcesi
nthemember
sofat
russconsi
stsofsat
isf
yingt
he
condi
ti
onsofequi
li
bri
um f
ort
hef
orcesact
ingont
heconnect
ingpi
nofeachj
oint
.The
met
hodt
her
efor
edeal
swi
tht
heequi
li
bri
um ofconcur
rentf
orces,andonl
ytwoi
ndependent
equi
li
bri
um equat
ions ar
e i
nvol
ved. We begi
n t
he
anal
ysi
swi
thanyj
ointwher
eatl
eastoneknownl
oad
exi
stsandwher
enotmor
ethant
wounknownf
orcesar
e
pr
esent
.Thesol
uti
onmaybest
art
edwi
tht
hepi
natt
he
l
eftend.I
tsf
ree-bodydi
agr
am i
sshowni
nFi
g.4/
7.Wi
th
t
hej
oint
sindi
cat
edbyl
ett
ers,weusual
lydesi
gnat
ethe
f
orcei
neachmemberby
t
he t
wo l
ett
ers def
ini
ng
t
heendsoft
hemember
.
The pr
operdi
rect
ionsoft
he f
orcesshoul
d be ev
identby
i
nspect
ionf
ort
hissi
mpl
ecase.Thef
ree-bodydi
agr
amsof
por
ti sAFand AB ar
onsofmember eal
soshownt
ocl
ear
ly
i
ndi
cat
ethe mechani
sm oft
he act
ion and r
eact
ion.The
memberABact
ual
lymakescont
actont
hel
eftsi
deoft
hepi
n,
al
thought
hef
orceABi
sdr
awnf
rom t
her
ightsi
deandi
sshownact
ingawayf
rom t
hepi
n.
Thus,i
fweconsi
stent
lydr
awt
hef
orcear
r hesamesi
owsont deoft
hepi
nast
hemember
,
t
hent
ensi suchasAB)wi
on( llal
way
sbei
ndi
cat
edbyanar
row awayf
rom t
hepi
n,and
compr
essi suchasAF)wi
on( llal
way
sbei
ndi
cat
edbyanar
rowt
owar
dthepi
n.Themagni
tude
ofAFi
sobt
ainedf
rom t
heequat
ionΣFy=0andABi
sthenf
oundf
rom ΣFx=0.
ntF maybe anal
Joi yzed next
,si
nce i
tnow cont
ains onl
ytwo unknowns,EF and BF.
Pr
oceedi
ngt
othenextj
ointhav
ingnomor
ethant
wounknowns,wesubsequent
lyanal
yze
j
oi sB,C,E,andDi
nt nthator
der
.Fi
gur
e4/
8showst
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am ofeachj
ointand
i
tscor
respondi
ngf
orcepol
ygon,whi
chr
epr
esent
sgr
aphi
cal
lyt
het
woequi
li
bri
um condi
ti
ons
ΣFx=0andΣFy=0.Thenumber
sindi
cat
etheor
deri
nwhi
cht
hej
oint
sar
eanal
yzed.Wenot
e
t
hat
,whenj
ointDi
sfi
nal
lyr
eached,t
hecomput
edr
eact
ionR2mustbei
nequi
li
bri
um wi
tht
he
f
orcesi sCDandED,whi
nmember chwer
edet
ermi
nedpr
evi
ousl
yfr
om t
het
wonei
ghbor
ing
j
oint
s.Thi
srequi
rementpr
ovi
desacheckont
hecor
rect
nessofourwor
k.Not
ethati
sol
ati
on
ofj
ointCshowst
hatt
hef
or nCEi
cei szer
owhent
heequat
ionΣFy=0i
sappl
ied.Thef
orcei
n
t
hismemberwoul
dnotbezer
o,ofcour
se,i
fanext
ernalv
ert
icall
oadwer
eappl
iedatC.I
tis
of
tenconv
eni
entt
oindi
cat
ethet onTandcompr
ensi onCoft
essi hev
ari
ousmember
sdi
rect
ly
ont
heor
igi
nalt
russdi
agr
am bydr
awi
ngar
rowsawayf
rom t
hepi
nsf
ort
ensi
onandt
owar
d
t
hepi
nsf
orcompr
essi
on.
Thi
sdesi
gnat
ioni
sil
lust
rat
edatt
hebot
tom ofFi
g.4/
8.Somet
imeswecannoti
nit
ial
lyassi
gn
t
hecor
rectdi
rect
ionofoneorbot
hoft
heunknownf
orcesact
ingonagi
venpi
n.I
fso,
wemay
makeanar
bit
rar
yassi
gnment
.Anegat
ivecomput
edf
orcev
aluei
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hei
nit
ial
ly
assumeddi
rect
ioni
sincor
rect
.
I
nter
nalandExt
ernalRedundancy
I
fapl
anet
russhasmor
eext
ernalsuppor
tst
hanar
enecessar
ytoensur
east
abl
eequi
li
bri
um
conf
igur
ati
on,t
he t
russ as a whol
eis st
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
e,and t
he ext
ra suppor
ts
const
it
uteex
ter
nalr
edundancy
.Ifat
russhasmor
eint
ernalmember
sthanar
enecessar
yto
pr
eventcol
lapsewhent
het
russi
sremov
edf
rom i
tssuppor
ts,t
hent
heext
ramember
s
const
it
utei
nter
nalr
edundancyandt
het
russi
sagai
nst
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
e.
Forat
russwhi
chi
sst
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
eext
ernal
ly,t
her
eisadef
ini
ter
elat
ionbet
weent
he
numberofi
tsmember
sandt
henumberofi
tsj
oint
snecessar
yfori
nter
nalst
abi
li
tywi
thout
r
edundancy
.Becausewecan speci
fyt
heequi
li
bri
um ofeach j
ointbyt
wo scal
arf
orce
equat
ions,t
her
ear
ei l2jsuchequat
nal ionsf
orat
russwi
thjj
oint
s.Fort
heent
ir
etr
uss
composedofm t
wo-f
orcemember
sandhav
ingt
hemaxi
mum oft
hreeunknownsuppor
t
r
eact
ions,t
her
ear
ei lm = 3unknowns(
nal mtensi
onorcompr
essi
onf
orcesandt
hree
r
eact
ions)
.Thus,f
oranypl
anet
russ,t
heequat
ionm +3=2jwi
llbesat
isf
iedi
fthet
russi
s
st
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
eint
ernal
ly.
A si
mpl
epl
anet
russ,f
ormedbyst
art
ingwi
that
ri
angl
eandaddi
ngt
wonew member
sto
l
ocat
e each new j
ointwi
thr
espectt
othe exi
sti
ng st
ruct
ure,sat
isf
ies t
he r
elat
ion
aut
omat
ical
ly.Thecondi
ti
onhol
dsf
ort
hei
nit
ialt
ri
angl
e, em =j+3,
wher andm i
ncr
easesby
2f
oreachaddedj
ointwhi
leji
ncr
easesby1.Someot
her(
nonsi
mpl
e)st
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
e
t
russes,suchast
heK-t
russi
nFi
g.4/
2,ar
ear
rangeddi
ff
erent
ly,butcanbeseent
osat
isf
y
t
hesamer
elat
ion.
Thi
sequat
ioni
sanecessar
ycondi
ti
onf
orst
abi
li
tybuti
tisnotasuf
fi
cientcondi
ti
on,si
nce
oneormor hem member
eoft scanbear
rangedi
nsuchawayasnott
ocont
ri
but
etoast
abl
e
conf
igur
ati
onoft
heent
ir
etr fm =3+2j
uss.I ,ther
ear
emor
emember
sthani
ndependent
equat
ions,and t
he t
russ i
s st
ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
eint
ernal
lywi
thr
edundantmember
s
pr
esent
.Ifm =3+2j
,ther
eisadef
ici
encyofi
nter
nalmember
s,andt
het
russi
sunst
abl
eand
wi
llcol
lapseunderl
oad.
Speci
alCondi
ti
ons
Weof
tenencount
ersev
eralspeci
alcondi
ti
onsi
ntheanal
ysi
soft
russes.Whent
wocol
li
near
member
sar
eundercompr
essi
on,asi
ndi
cat
edi
nFi 9a,i
g.4/ tisnecessar
ytoaddat
hir
d
membert
omai
ntai
nal
ignmentoft
het
womember
sandpr
eventbuckl
ing.

Weseef
rom af
orcesummat
ioni
nthey
-di
rect
iont
hatt
hef
orceF3 i
nthet
hir
dmembermust
bezer
oandf
r hex-di
om t rect
i hatF1=F2.Thi
ont sconcl
usi
onhol
dsr
egar
dlessoft eθ
heangl
andhol
dsal
soi
fthecol
li
nearmember
sar
eint
ensi
on.I
fanext
ernalf
orcewi
thacomponent
i
nthey
-di
rect
ionwer
eappl
iedt
othej
oint
,thenF3woul
dnol
ongerbezer
o.
Whent
wononcol
li
nearmember
sar
ejoi
nedasshowni
nFi 9b,t
g.4/ heni
ntheabsenceofan
ext
ernal
lyappl
iedl
oadatt
hisj
oint
,thef
orcesi
nbot
hmember
smustbezer
o,aswecansee
f
rom t
het
wof
orcesummat
ions.
Whent
wopai
rsofcol
li
nearmember
sar
ejoi
nedasshowni
nFi 9c,
g.4/ thef
orcesi
neachpai
r
mustbeequalandopposi
te.Thi
sconcl
usi
onf
oll
owsf
rom t
hef
orcesummat
ionsi
ndi
cat
edi
n
t
hef
igur
e.
Tr
usspanel
sar
efr
equent
lycr
oss-br
acedasshowni
nFi 10a.Suchapaneli
g.4/ sst
ati
cal
ly
i
ndet
ermi
nat
eifeachbr
acecansuppor
tei
thert
ensi
onorcompr
essi
on.Howev
er,whent
he
br
acesar
efl
exi
blemember
sincapabl
eofsuppor
ti
ngcompr
essi
on,asar
ecabl
es,t
henonl
y
t
het
ensi
onmemberact
sandwecandi
sregar
dtheot
hermember
.Iti
susual
lyev
identf
rom
t
heasy
mmet
ryoft
hel
oadi
nghowt
hepanelwi
lldef
lect
.Ift
hedef
lect
ioni
sasi
ndi
cat
edi
nFi
g.
10b,t
4/ hen memberAB shoul
d be r
et ned and CD
ai
di
sregar
ded.When t
his choi
ce cannotbe made by
i
nspect
ion,wemayar
bit
rar
il
ysel
ectt
hemembert
obe
r
etai
ned.I
ftheassumedt
ensi
ont
urnsoutt
obeposi
ti
ve
uponcal
cul
ati
on,t
hent
hechoi
cewascor
rect
.Ift
he
assumedt
ensi
onf
orcet
urnsoutt
obenegat
ive,
thent
he
opposi
temembermustber
etai
nedandt
hecal
cul
ati
on
r
edone.
Wecanav
oidsi
mul
taneoussol
uti
onoft
heequi
li
bri
um
equat
ionsf
ort
wounknownf
orcesataj
ointbyacar
eful
choi
ceofr
efer
enceaxes.Thus,f
ort
hej
ointi
ndi
cat
ed
schemat
ical
lyi
nFi
g.4/ eLi
11wher sknownandF1 and
F2 ar
eunknown,af
orcesummat
ioni
nthex-di
rect
ion
el
imi
nat
esr
efer oF1 andaf
encet orcesummat
ioni
nthe
x-di
rect
ionel
imi
nat
esr
efer oF2.Whent
encet heangl
es
i
nvol
ved ar
e noteasi
lyf
ound,t
hen a si
mul
taneous
sol
uti
onoft
heequat
ionsusi
ngonesetofr
efer
encedi
rect
ionsf
orbot
hunknownsmaybe
pr
efer
abl
e.
4.4Met
hodofSect
ions
When anal
yzi
ng pl
anet
russesbyt
hemet
hod ofj
oint
s,weneed onl
ytwo oft
het
hree
equi
li
bri
um equat
ionsbecauset
hepr
ocedur
esi
nvol
veconcur
rentf
orcesateachj
oint
.Wecan
t
akeadv
ant
ageoft
het
hir
dormomentequat
ionofequi
li
bri
um bysel
ect
inganent
ir
esect
ion
oft
het
russf
ort
hef
reebodyi
nequi
li
bri
um undert
heact
ionofanonconcur
rentsy
stem of
f
or smet
ces.Thi hodofsect
ionshast
hebasi
cadv
ant
aget
hatt
hef
orcei
nal
mostanydesi
red
membermaybef
ounddi
rect
lyf
rom ananal
ysi
sofasect
ionwhi
chhascutt
hatmember
.
Thus,
iti
snotnecessar
ytopr
oceedwi
tht
hecal
cul
ati
onf
rom j
ointt
ojoi
ntunt
ilt
hememberi
n
quest
ionhasbeenr
eached.I
nchoosi
ngasect
ionoft
het
russ,wenot
ethat
,ingener
al,not
mor
ethant
hreemember
swhosef
orcesar
eunknownshoul
dbecut
,si
ncet
her
ear
eonl
y
t
hreeav
ail
abl
eindependentequi
li
bri
um r
elat
ions.
I
ll
ust
rat
ionoft
heMet
hod
Themet
hodofsect
ionswi
llnow bei
ll
ust
rat
edf
ort
he
t
russi
nFi
g.4/
6,whi
chwasusedi
ntheexpl
anat
ionoft
he
met
hodofj
oint
s.Thet
russi
sshownagai
ninFi 12a
g.4/
f
orr
eady r
efer
ence.The ext
ernalr
eact
ions ar
efi
rst
comput
edaswi
tht
hemet
hodofj
oint
s,byconsi
der
ing
t
het
russasawhol
e.
Letus det
ermi
ne t
he f
orce i
nthe member BE,f
or
exampl
e.Ani
magi
nar
ysect
ion,i
ndi
cat
edbyt
hedashed
l
ine,i
spassedt
hrought
het
russ,cut
ti
ngi
tint
otwopar
ts,
Fi 12b.Thi
g.4/ ssect
ionhascutt
hreemember
swhose
f
orcesar
eini
ti
all
yunknown.I
nor
derf
ort
hepor
ti
onof
t
he t
russ on each si
de oft
he sect
ion t
oremai
nin
equi
li
bri
um,i
tisnecessar
ytoappl
ytoeachcutmember
t
hef
orcewhi
chwasexer
tedoni
tbyt
hemembercut
away
.Forsi
mpl
etr
ussescomposed ofst
rai
ghtt
wo-
f
orcemember
s,t
hesef
orces,
eit
hert
ensi
leorcompr
essi
ve,
wil
lal
way
sbei
nthedi
rect
ionsof
t
her
espect
ivemember
s.Thel
eft
-handsect
ioni
sinequi
li
bri
um undert
heact
ionoft
he
appl
i oadL,t
edl heendr
eact
ionR1,andt
het
hreef
orcesexer
tedont
hecutmember
sbyt
he
r
ight
-handsect
ionwhi
chhasbeenr
emov
ed.
Wecanusual
lydr
aw t
hef
orceswi
tht
hei
rpr
opersensesbyav
isualappr
oxi
mat
ionoft
he
equi
li
bri
um r
equi
rement
s.Thus,i
nbal
anci
ngt
hemoment ntB f
saboutpoi ort
hel
eft
-hand
sect
ion,
thef
orceEFi
scl
ear
lyt
othel
eft
,whi
chmakesi
tcompr
essi
ve,
becausei
tact
stowar
d
t
hecutsect
ionofmemberEF.Thel
oadLi
sgr
eat
ert
hant
her
eact
ionR1,sot
hatt
hef
orceBE
mustbeupandt
other
ightt
osuppl
ytheneededupwar
dcomponentf
orv
ert
icalequi
li
bri
um.
ceBEi
For sther
efor
etensi
le,si
ncei
tact
sawayf
rom t
hecutsect
ion.Wi
tht
heappr
oxi
mat
e
magni
tudesofR1 andLi
nmi
ndweseet
hatt
hebal
anceofmoment ntEr
saboutpoi equi
res
hatBCbet
t other
ight
.Acasualgl
anceatt
het
russshoul
dleadt
othesameconcl
usi
onwhen
i
tisr
eal
izedt
hatt
hel
owerhor
izont
almemberwi
llst
ret
chundert
het
ensi
oncausedby
bendi
ng.Theequat
ionofmoment
saboutj
ointBel
imi
nat
est
hreef
orcesf
rom t
her
elat
ion,
andEFcanbedet
ermi
neddi
rect
ly.Thef
orceBEi
scal
cul
atedf
rom t
heequi
li
bri
um equat
ion
f hey
ort -di
rect
ion.
Fi
nal
ly,wedet
er neBCbybal
mi anci
ngmoment ntE.I
saboutpoi nthi
swayeachoft
het
hree
unknownshasbeendet
ermi
nedi
ndependent
lyoft
heot
hert
wo.Ther
ight
-handsect
ionoft
he
t
russ,Fi 12b,i
g.4/ sinequi
li
bri
um undert
heact
ionofR2 andt
hesamet
hreef
orcesi
nthecut
member
sappl
iedi
nthedi
rect
ionsopposi
tet
othosef
ort
hel
eftsect
ion.Thepr
opersensef
or
t
hehor
izont
alf
orcescaneasi
lybeseenf
rom t
hebal
anceofmoment
saboutpoi
ntsBandE.
Addi
ti
onalConsi
der
ati
ons
I
tisessent
ialt
ounder
standt
hati
nthemet
hodofsect
ionsanent
ir
epor
ti
onoft
het
russi
s
consi
der
edasi
ngl
ebodyi
nequi
li
bri
um.Thus,t
hef
orcesi
nmember
sint
ernalt
othesect
ion
ar
enoti
nvol
vedi
ntheanal
ysi
soft
hesect
ionasawhol
e.Tocl
ari
fyt
hef
reebodyandt
he
f
orcesact
ingext
ernal
lyoni
t,t
hecut
ti
ngsect
ioni
spr
efer
abl
ypassedt
hrought
hemember
s
andnott
hej
oint
s.Wemayuseei
therpor
ti
onofat
russf
ort
hecal
cul
ati
ons,butt
heone
i
nvol
vingt
hesmal
lernumberoff
orceswi
llusual
lyy
iel
dthesi
mpl
ersol
uti
on.I
nsomecases
t
hemet
hodsofsect
ionsandj
oint
scanbecombi
nedf
oranef
fi
cientsol
uti
on.Forexampl
e,
supposewewi
sht
ofi
ndt
hef
orcei
nacent
ralmemberofal
arget
russ.Fur
ther
mor
e,suppose
t
hati
tisnotpossi
blet
opassasect
iont
hrought
hismemberwi
thoutpassi
ngt
hroughatl
east
f
ourunknownmember
s.I
tmaybepossi
blet
odet
ermi
net
hef
orcesi
nnear
bymember
sbyt
he
met
hodofsect
ionsandt
henpr
ogr
esst
otheunknownmemberbyt
hemet
hodofj
oint
s.Such
acombi
nat
ionoft
het
womet
hodsmaybemor
eexpedi
entt
hanexcl
usi
veuseofei
ther
met
hod.
Themomentequat
ionsar
eusedt
ogr
eatadv
ant
agei
nthemet
hodofsect
ions.Oneshoul
d
chooseamomentcent
er,
eit
heronorof
fthesect
ion,
thr
oughwhi
chasmanyunknownf
orces
aspossi
blepass.
I
tisnotal
way
spossi
blet
oassi
gnt
hepr
opersenseofanunknownf
orcewhent
hef
ree-body
di
agr
am ofasect
ioni
sini
ti
all
ydr
awn.Onceanar
bit
rar
yassi
gnmenti
smade,aposi
ti
ve
answerwi
llv
eri
fyt
heassumedsenseandanegat
iver
esul
twi
lli
ndi
cat
ethatt
hef
orcei
sint
he
senseopposi
tet
othatassumed.Anal
ter
nat
ivenot
ati
onpr
efer
redbysomei
stoassi
gnal
l
unknownf
orcesar
bit
rar
il
yasposi
ti
vei
nthet
ensi
ondi
rect
ion(
awayf
rom t
hesect
ion)andl
et
t
heal
gebr
aicsi
gnoft
heanswerdi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
ensi
onandcompr
essi
on.Thus,apl
us
si
gnwoul
dsi
gni
fyt
ensi
onandami
nussi
gncompr
essi
on.Ont
heot
herhand,t
headv
ant
age
ofassi
gni
ngf
orcesi
nthei
rcor
rectsenseont
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am ofasect
ionwher
ever
possi
blei
sthatdoi
ngsoemphasi
zest
hephy
sicalact
ionoft
hef
orcesmor
edi
rect
ly,andt
his
pr
act
icei
stheonewhi
chi
spr
efer
redher
e.
4.
6Fr
amesandMachi
nes
Ast
ruct
urei
scal
ledaf
rameormachi
nei
fatl
eastoneofi
tsi
ndi
vidualmember
sisamul
ti
f
orcemember
.Amul
tif
orcememberi
sdef
inedasonewi
tht
hreeormor
efor
cesact
ingoni
t,
oronewi
tht
woormor
efor
cesandoneormor
ecoupl
esact
ingoni
t.Fr
amesar
est
ruct
ures
whi
char
edesi
gnedt
osuppor
tappl
iedl
oadsandar
eusual
lyf
ixedi
nposi
ti
on.
Machi
nesar
est
ruct
ureswhi
chcont
ainmov
ingpar
tsandar
edesi
gnedt
otr
ansmi
tinput
f
orcesorcoupl
est
oout
putf
orcesorcoupl
es.Becausef
ramesandmachi
nescont
ainmul
ti
f
orcemember
s,t
hef
orcesi
nthesemember
singener
alwi
llnotbei
nthedi
rect
ionsoft
he
member
s.Ther
efor
e,wecannotanal
yzet
hesest
ruct
uresbyt
hemet
hodsdev
elopedi
nAr
ts.
4/
3,4/
4,and4/
5becauset
hesemet
hodsappl
ytosi
mpl
etr
ussescomposedoft
wo-f
orce
member
swher
ethef
orcesar
eint
hedi
rect
ionsoft
hemember
s.
I
nter
connect
edRi
gidBodi
eswi
thMul
tif
orceMember
s
I
nChapt
er3wedi
scussedt
heequi
li
bri
um ofmul
tif
orcebodi
es,butweconcent
rat
edont
he
equi
li
brum ofasi
i ngl
eri
gidbody
.Int
hispr
esentar
ti
clewef
ocusont
heequi
li
bri
um of
i
nter
connect
edr
igi
dbodi
eswhi
chi
ncl
udemul
tif
orcemember
s.Al
thoughmostsuchbodi
es
maybeanal
yzedast
wo-di
mensi
onalsy
stems,t
her
ear
enumer
ousexampl
esoff
ramesand
machi
neswhi
char
ethr
ee-di
mensi
onal
.
Thef
orcesact
ingoneachmemberofaconnect
edsy
stem ar
efoundbyi
sol
ati
ngt
hemember
wi
thaf
ree-bodydi
agr
am andappl
yingt
heequat
ionsofequi
li
brum.Thepr
i inci
pleofact
ion
andr
eact
ionmustbecar
eful
lyobser
vedwhenwer
epr
esentt
hef
orcesofi
nter
act
ionont
he
separ
atef
ree-bodydi
agr
ams.I
fthest
ruct
urecont
ainsmor
emember
sorsuppor
tst
hanar
e
necessar
ytopr
eventcol
lapse,
then,
asi
nthecaseoft
russes,
thepr
obl
em i
sst
ati
cal
ly
i
ndet
ermi
nat
e,andt
hepr
inci
plesofequi
li
bri
um,
alt
houghnecessar
y,

ar
e notsuf
fi
cientf
or sol
uti
on.Al
though many f
rames and machi
nes ar
e st
ati
cal
ly
i
ndet
ermi
nat
e,wewi
llconsi
deri
nthi
sar
ti
cleonl
ythosewhi
char
est
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
e.I
f
t
hef
rameormachi
neconst
it
utesar
igi
duni
tbyi
tsel
fwhenr
emov
edf
rom i
tssuppor
ts,l
ike
t
heA-f
ramei
nFi 14a,
g.4/ theanal
ysi
sisbestbegunbyest
abl
ishi
ngal
lthef
orcesext
ernalt
o
t
hest
ruct
uret
reat
edasasi
ngl
eri
gidbody
.Wet
hendi
smembert
hest
ruct
ureandconsi
der
t
heequi
li
bri
um ofeachpar
tsepar
atel
y.Theequi
li
bri
um equat
ionsf
ort
hesev
eralpar
tswi
llbe
r
elat
edt
hrought
het
ermsi
nvol
vingt
hef
orcesofi
nter
act
ion.
I
fthest
ruct
urei
snotar
igi
duni
tbyi
tsel
fbutdependsoni
tsext
ernalsuppor
tsf
orr
igi
dit
y,as
i
ll
ust
rat
edi
nFi 14b,t
g.4/ hent
hecal
cul
ati
onoft
heext
ernalsuppor
treact
ionscannotbe
compl
etedunt
ilt
hest
ruct
urei
sdi
smember
edandt
hei
ndi
vidualpar
tsar
eanal
yzed.
For
ceRepr
esent
ati
onandFr
ee-BodyDi
agr
ams
I
nmostcasest
heanal
ysi
soff
ramesandmachi
nesi
s
f
aci
li
tat
edbyr
epr
esent
ingt
hef
orcesi
nter
msoft
hei
r
r
ect
angul
arcomponent
s.Thi
sispar
ti
cul
arl
ysowhent
he
di
mensi
ons of t
he par
ts ar
e gi
ven i
n mut
ual
ly
per
pendi
cul
ar di
rect
ions. The adv
ant
age of t
his
r
epr
esent
ati
oni
sthatt
hecal
cul
ati
onofmomentar
msi
s
si
mpl
if
ied. I
n some t
hree-di
mensi
onal pr
obl
ems,
par
ti
cul
arl
y when moment
s ar
e ev
aluat
ed aboutaxes
whi
ch ar
e notpar
all
elt
othe coor
dinat
e axes,use of
v
ect
ornot
ati
oni
sadv
ant
ageous.I
tisnotal
way
spossi
ble
t
o assi
gn t
he pr
oper sense t
o ev
eryf
orce or i
ts
component
swhendr
awi
ngt
hef
reebodydi
agr
amsandi
t
becomesnecessar
ytomakeanar
bit
rar
yassi
gnment
.In
anyev
ent
,i s absol
ti utel
ynecessar
ythata f
orce be
consi
stent
lyr
epr
esent
edont
hedi
agr
amsf
ori
nter
act
ing
bodi
eswhi
chi
nvol
vet
hef
orcei
nquest
ion.Thus,f
ort
wo
bodi
esconnect
ed byt n A,Fi
he pi 15a,t
g.4/ he f
orce
component
s must be consi
stent
lyr
epr
esent
ed i
n
opposi
tedi
rect
ionsont
hesepar
atef
ree-bodydi
agr
ams.
Forabal
l-and-socketconnect
ionbet
weenmember
sof
aspacef
rame,wemustappl
ytheact
ion-and-r
eact
ion
pr
inci
plet
o al
lthr
ee component
s as shown i
n Fi
g.
15b.Theassi
4/ gneddi
rect
ionsmaypr
ovet
obewr
ong
when t
he al
gebr
aic si
gns of t
he component
s ar
e
det
ermi
neduponcal
cul
ati fAx,f
on.I ori
nst
ance,shoul
d
t
urn outt
o benegat
ive,i
tisact
ual
lyact
ing i
nthedi
rect
ion opposi
tet
othator
igi
nal
ly
r
epr
esent
ed.Accor
dingl
y,wewoul
d need t
orev
erset
hedi
rect
ion oft
hef
orceon bot
h
member
sandt
orev
erset
hesi
gnofi
tsf
orcet
ermsi
ntheequat
ions.Orwemayl
eav
ethe
r
epr
esent
ati
onasor
igi
nal
lymade,andt
hepr
opersenseoft
hef
orcewi
llbeunder
stoodf
rom
t
henegat
ivesi
gn.I
fwechooset
ousev
ect
ornot
ati
oni
nlabel
ingt
hef
orces,t
henwemustbe
car
efult
ouseapl
ussi
gnf
oranact
ionandami
nussi
gnf
ort
hecor
respondi
ngr
eact
ion,as
showni
nFi
g.4/
16.
We mayoccasi
onal
lyneed t
o sol
vet
wo ormor
e equat
ionssi
mul
taneousl
yin or
dert
o
separ
atet
heunknowns.I
nmosti
nst
ances,howev
er,wecanav
oidsi
mul
taneoussol
uti
onsby
car
efulchoi
ceoft
hememberorgr
oupofmember
sfort
hef
ree-bodydi
agr
am andbya
car
efulchoi
ceofmomentaxeswhi
chwi
llel
imi
nat
eundesi
redt
ermsf
rom t
heequat
ions.
 Chapt
erV
Di
str
ibut
edFor
ces
5.Di
str
ibut
edFor
ces
5.
1Int
roduct
ion
I
nthepr
evi
ouschapt
erswet
reat
edal
lfor
cesasconcent
rat
edal
ongt
hei
rli
nesofact
ionand
att
hei
rpoi
nts ofappl
icat
ion.Thi
str
eat
mentpr
ovi
ded a
r
easonabl
emodelf
ort
hosef
orces.Act
ual
ly,“
concent
rat
ed”
f
orcesdonotexi
sti
ntheexactsense,si
nceev
eryext
ernal
f
orceappl
iedmechani
cal
lyt
oabodyi
sdi
str
ibut
edov
eraf
ini
te
cont
actar
ea,
howev
ersmal
l.
Thef
orceexer
tedbyt
hepav
ementonanaut
omobi
let
ir
e,f
or
i
nst
ance,i
sappl
iedt
othet
ir
eov
eri
tsent
ir
ear
eaofcont
act
,
Fi 1a,whi
g.5/ chmaybeappr
eci
abl
eift
het
ir
eissof
t.When
anal
yzi
ng t
he f
orcesact
ing on t
he carasa whol
e,i
fthe
di onboft
mensi hecont
actar
eai
snegl
igi
blecompar
edwi
th
t
heot
herper
ti
nentdi
mensi
ons,suchast
hedi
stancebet
ween
wheel
s,t
henwemayr
epl
acet
heact
ualdi
str
ibut
edcont
act
f
orcesbyt
hei
rresul
tantR t
reat
edasaconcent
rat
edf
orce.
Ev
ent
hef
orceofcont
actbet
weenahar
denedst
eelbal
landi
ts
r
acei
nal
oadedbal
lbear
ing,Fi 1b,i
g.5/ sappl
iedov
eraf
ini
te
t
houghext
remel
ysmal
lcont
actar
ea.Thef
orcesappl
iedt
oa
t
wo-f
orcememberofat
russ,Fi 1c,ar
g.5/ eappl
iedov
eran
act
ualar
eaofcont
actoft
hepi
nagai
nstt
hehol
eandi
nter
nal
ly
acr
osst
hecutsect
ionasshown.I
ntheseandot
hersi
mil
ar
exampl
es we may t
reatt
he f
orces as concent
rat
ed when
anal
yzi
ngt
hei
rext
ernalef
fect
sonbodi
esasawhol
e.I
f,ont
he
ot
herhand,
wewantt
ofi
ndt
hedi
str
ibut
ionofi
nter
nalf
orcesi
n
t
hemat
eri
aloft
hebodyneart
hecont
actl
ocat
ion,wher
ethe
i
nter
nalst
ressesand st
rai
nsmaybe appr
eci
abl
e,t
hen we
mustnott
reatt
hel
oadasconcent
rat
edbutmustconsi
dert
he
act
ualdi
str
ibut
ion.Thi
spr
obl
em wi
llnotbedi
scussedher
ebecausei
trequi
resknowl
edgeof
t
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
hemat
eri
alandbel
ongsi
nmor
eadv
ancedt
reat
ment
soft
hemechani
csof
mat
eri
alsandt
het
heor
iesofel
ast
ici
tyandpl
ast
ici
ty.
Whenf
orcesar
eappl
iedov
erar
egi
onwhosedi
mensi
onsar
enotnegl
igi
blecompar
edwi
th
ot
herper
ti
nentdi
mensi
ons,
thenwemustaccountf
ort
heact
ualmanneri
nwhi
cht
hef
orcei
s
di
str
ibut
ed.Wedot
hisbysummi
ngt
heef
fect
soft
hedi
str
ibut
edf
orceov
ert
heent
ir
eregi
on
usi
ngmat
hemat
icali
ntegr
ati
on.Thi
srequi
rest
hatweknowt
hei
ntensi
tyoft
hef
orceatany
l
ocat
ion.Ther
ear
ethr
eecat
egor
iesofsuchpr
obl
ems.
1)Li
neDi
str
ibut
ion.Whenaf
orcei
sdi
str
ibut
edal
ongal
ine,asi
nthecont
inuousv
ert
ical
l
oadsuppor
tedbyasuspendedcabl
e,Fi 2a,
g.5/ thei
ntensi
tywoft
hel
oadi
ngi
sexpr
essed
asf
orceperuni
tlengt
hofl
ine,
newt
onspermet
er(
N/m)orpoundsperf
oot(
lb/
ft)
.
2)Ar
eaDi
str
ibut
ion.Whenaf
orcei
sdi
str
ibut
edov
eranar
ea,aswi
tht
hehy
draul
icpr
essur
e
ofwat
eragai
nstt
hei
nnerf
aceofasect
ionofdam,
Fi 2b,
g.5/ thei
ntensi
tyi
sexpr
essedas
f
orceperuni
tar
ea.Thi
sint
ensi
tyi
scal
ledpr
essur
efort
heact
ionoff
lui
dfor
cesand
st
ressf
ort
hei
nter
naldi
str
ibut
ionoff
orcesi
nsol
ids.Thebasi
cuni
tforpr
essur
eorst
ress
i
nSIi
sthenewt
onpersquar
emet
er(
N/m2)
,whi
chi
sal
socal
l hepascal(
edt Pa)
.Thi
suni
t,
howev
er,i
stoosmal
lformostappl
icat
ions(
6895Pa=1l
b/i
n.2)
.Theki
lopascal(
kPa)
,
whi
chequal
s103Pa,i
smor
ecommonl
yusedf
orf
lui
dpr
essur
e,andt
hemegapascal
,
whi
chequal
s106Pa,i
susedf
orst
ress.I
ntheU.
S.cust
omar
ysy
stem ofuni
ts,bot
hfl
uid
pr
essur
eandmechani
calst
ressar
ecommonl
yexpr
essedi
npoundspersquar
einch
2
(
lb/
in.).
3) Vol
umeDi
str
ibut
ion.Af
orcewhi
chi
sdi
str
ibut
edov
ert
hev
olumeofabodyi
scal
leda
bodyf
orce.Themostcommonbodyf
orcei
sthef
orceofgr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ion,whi
ch
act
sonal
lel
ement
sofmassi
nabody
.Thedet
ermi
nat
ionoft
hef
orcesont
hesuppor
tsof
t
heheav
ycant
il
ever
edst
ruct
urei
nFi 2c,
g.5/ forexampl
e,woul
drequi
reaccount
ingf
ort
he
di
str
ibut
ionofgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orcet
hroughoutt
hest
ruct
ure.Thei
ntensi
tyofgr
avi
tat
ional
f
orcei
sthespeci
fi
cwei
ght=ρg,wher
eρi
sthedensi
ty(
massperuni
tv ume)andgi
ol sthe
m3) s2)=N/
m3i 3
accel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty.Theuni
t orρgar
sf e(kg/ (m/ nSIuni
tsandl
b/f
t
3
orl
b/i
n. int
heU.
S.cust
omar
ysy
stem.
Thebodyf
orceduet
othegr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ionoft
heear
th(
wei
ght
)isbyf
art
hemost
commonl
yencount
ereddi
str
ibut
edf
orce.
Sect
ionAoft
hischapt
ert
reat
sthedet
ermi
nat
ionoft
hepoi
nti
nabodyt
hroughwhi
cht
he
r
esul
tantgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceact
s,anddi
scussest
heassoci
atedgeomet
ri
cpr
oper
ti
esofl
ines,
ar
eas,
andv
olumes.Sect
ionBt
reat
sdi
str
ibut
edf
orceswhi
chactonbeams.

SECTI
ONACENTERSOFMASSANDCENTROI
DS
5.
2Cent
erofMass
Consi
derat
hree-di
mensi
onalbodyofanysi
ze
andshape,hav
ingamassm.I
fwesuspendt
he
body
,asshowni
nFi
g.5/
3,f
rom anypoi
ntsuchas
A,t
hebodywi
llbei
nequi
li
bri
um undert
heact
ion
oft
het
ensi
oni
nthecor
dandt
her
esul
tantW of
t
hegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orcesact
ingonal
lpar
ti
clesof
t
hebody
.Thi
sresul
tanti
scl
ear
lycol
li
nearwi
th
t
hecor
d.Assumet
hatwemar
kit
sposi
ti
onby
dr
il
li
ngahy
pot
het
icalhol
eofnegl
igi
blesi
zeal
ong
i
tsl
ineofact
ion.Wer
epeatt
heexper
imentbysuspendi
ngt
hebodyf
rom ot
herpoi
ntssuchas
B and C,andi
neachi
nst
ancewemar
kthel
ineofact
ionoft
her
esul
tantf
orce.Foral
l
pr
act
icalpur
posest
hesel
inesofact
ion
wi
llbe concur
rentata si
ngl ntG,
e poi
whi
chi
scal
l hecent
edt erofgr
avi
tyoft
he
body
.
An exact anal
ysi
s, howev
er, woul
d
account f
or t
he sl
ight
ly di
ff
eri
ng
di
rect
ionsoft
he gr
avi
tyf
orcesf
ort
he
v
ari
ous par
ti
cles oft
he body
,because
t
hosef
orcesconv
erget
owar
dthecent
er
ofat
tract
ionoft
heear
th.Al
so,because
t
he par
ti
cles ar
e atdi
ff
erentdi
stances
f
rom t
heear
th,t
hei
ntensi
tyoft
hef
orcef
iel
doft
heear
thi
snotexact
lyconst
antov
ert
he
body
.Asar
esul
t,t
hel
inesofact
ionoft
hegr
avi
ty-f
orcer
esul
tant
sint
heexper
iment
sjust
descr
ibedwi
llnotbequi
teconcur
rent
,andt
her
efor
enouni
quecent
erofgr
avi
tyexi
stsi
nthe
exactsense.Thi
sisofnopr
act
icali
mpor
tanceasl
ongaswedealwi
thbodi
eswhose
di
mensi
onsar
esmal
lcompar
edwi
tht
hoseoft
heear
th.Wet
her
efor
eassumeauni
for
m and
par
all
elf
orcef
iel
dduet
othegr
avi
tat
ionalat
tract
ionoft
heear
th,
andt
hisassumpt
ionr
esul
ts
i
ntheconceptofauni
quecent
erofgr
avi
ty.
Det
ermi
ningt
heCent
erofGr
avi
ty
Todet
ermi
nemat
hemat
ical
lyt
hel
ocat
ionoft
hecent
erofgr
avi
tyofanybody
,Fi 4a,we
g.5/
appl
ythepr
inci
pleofmoment
s(seeAr
t.2/
6)t
othepar
all
elsy
stem ofgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orces.
Themomentoft
her
esul
tantgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceW aboutanyaxi
sequal
sthesum oft
he
moment
saboutt
hesameaxi
soft
hegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orcesdW act
ingonal
lpar
ti
clest
reat
edas
i
nfi
nit
esi
malel
ement
soft
hebody
.Ther
esul
tantoft
hegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orcesact
ingonal
l
el
ement
sist
hewei
ghtoft
hebodyandi
sgi
v hesum W =∫
enbyt dW.I
fweappl
ythemoment
pr
inci
pl hey
eaboutt -axi
s,f
orexampl
e,t
hemomentaboutt
hisaxi
soft
heel
ement
alwei
ghti
s
xdW,andt
hesum oft
hesemoment
sforal
lel
ement
soft
hebodyi
s∫xdW.Thi
ssum of
smustequalWX,
moment themomentoft XW =∫
hesum.Thus, xdW.
Wi
thsi
mil
arexpr
essi
onsf
ort
heot
hert
wocomponent
s,wemayexpr
esst
hecoor
dinat
esof
t
hecent
erofgr
avi
tyGas

Tov
isual
izet
hephy
sicalmoment
soft
hegr
avi
tyf
orcesappear
ingi
nthet
hir
dequat
ion,we
mayr
eor
ientt
hebodyandat
tachedaxessot hez-axi
hatt sishor
izont
al.I
tisessent
ialt
o
r
ecogni
zet
hatt
henumer
atorofeach oft
heseexpr
essi
onsr
epr
esent
sthe sum oft
he
moment
s,wher
east oductofW andt
hepr hecor
respondi
ngcoor
di eofG r
nat epr
esent
sthe
momentoft
hesum.Thi
smomentpr
inci
plef
indsr
epeat
eduset
hroughoutmechani
cs.
Wi
tht
hesubst
it
utonofW =mganddW =gdm,t
i heexpr
essi
onsf
ort
hecoor
dinat
esoft
he
cent
erofgr
avi
tybecome

Equat
i 1bmaybeexpr
ons5/ essedi
nvect
orf
orm wi
tht
heai
dofFi 4b,i
g.5/ nwhi
cht
he
el
ement
almassandt erGar
hemasscent elocat
edbyt
hei
rrespect
iveposi
ti
onv
ect
orsr=xi
+y
j+zkandXi+Yj+Zk.
Thus, 1bar
Eqs.5/ ethecomponent
soft
hesi
ngl
evect
orequat
ion
Thedensi
tyρofabodyi
sit
smassperuni
tvol
ume.Thus,t
hemassofadi
ff
erent
ialel
ement
ofv
olumedV becomesdm = ρdV.I
fρ i
snotconst
antt
hroughoutt
hebodybutcanbe
expr
essedasaf
unct
ionoft
hecoor
dinat
esoft
hebody
,wemustaccountf
ort
hisv
ari
ati
on
whencal
cul
ati
ngt
henumer
ator
sanddenomi
nat
or 1b.Wemayt
sofEqs.5/ henwr
it
ethese
expr
essi
onsas

Cent
erofMassver
susCent
erofGr
avi
ty
Equat
i 1b,5/
ons5/ 2,and5/
3ar
eindependentofgr
avi
tat
ionalef
fect nce g nol
ssi onger
appear
s.Theyt
her
efor
edef
ineauni
quepoi
nti
nthebodywhi
chi
saf
unct
ionsol
elyoft
he
di
str
ibut
ionofmass.Thi
spoi
nti
scal
l hecent
edt erofmass,andcl
ear
lyi
tcoi
nci
deswi
tht
he
cent
erofgr
avi
tyasl
ongast
hegr
avi
tyf
iel
dist
reat
edasuni
for
m andpar
all
el.
I
tismeani
ngl
esst
ospeakoft
hecent
erofgr
avi
tyofabodywhi
chi
sremov
edf
rom t
he
gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
doft
heear
th,si
ncenogr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceswoul
dactoni
t.Thebodywoul
d,
howev
er,st
il
lhav
eit
suni
que cent
erofmass.We wi
ll
usual
lyr
eferhencef
ort
htot
hecent
erofmassr
athert
han
t
othecent
erofgr
avi
ty.Al
so,t
hecent
erofmasshasa
speci
alsi
gni
fi
cancei
ncal
cul
ati
ngt
hedy
nami
cresponseof
abodyt
ounbal
ancedf
orces.
I
nmostpr
obl
emst
hecal
cul
ati
onoft
heposi
ti
onoft
he
cent
erofmassmaybesi
mpl
if
iedbyani
ntel
li
gentchoi
ce
ofr
efer
enceaxes.I
ngener
alt
heaxesshoul
dbepl
acedso
ast
osi
mpl
if
ytheequat
ionsoft
heboundar
iesasmuchas
possi
ble.Thus,pol
arcoor
dinat
eswi
llbeusef
ulf
orbodi
es
wi
thci
rcul
arboundar
ies.
Anot
heri
mpor
tantcl
uemaybet
akenf
rom consi
der
ati
ons
ofsy
mmet
ry.Whenev
ert
her
eexi
stsal
ineorpl
aneof
sy
mmet
ryi
nahomogeneousbody
,acoor
dinat
eaxi
sorpl
aneshoul
dbechosent
ocoi
nci
de
wi
tht
hisl
ineorpl
ane.Thecent
erofmasswi
llal
way
sli
eonsuchal
ineorpl
ane,si
ncet
he
moment
sduet
osy
mmet
ri
cal
lyl
ocat
edel
ement
swi
llal
way
scancel
,andt
hebodymaybe
consi
der
ed composed ofpai
rs oft
hese el
ement
s.Thus,t erofmass G oft
he cent he
homogeneousr
ight
-ci
rcul
arconeofFi 5awi
g.5/ lll
iesomewher
eoni
tscent
ralaxi
s,whi
chi
s
al
ineofsy
mmet
ry.Thecent
erofmassoft
hehal
fri
ght
-ci
rcul
arconel
iesoni
tspl
aneof
sy
mmet
ry,Fi 5b.Thecent
g.5/ erofmassoft
hehal
fri
ngi
nFi 5cl
g.5/ iesi
nbot
hofi
tspl
anes
ofsy
mmet
ryandt
her
efor
eissi
tuat
edonl
ineAB.I
tiseasi
estt
ofi
ndt
hel
ocat
ionofG by
usi
ngsy
mmet
rywheni
texi
sts.
5.3Cent
roi
dsofLi
nes,
Areas,
andVol
umes
Whent
hedensi
tyρofabodyi
suni
for
mthr
oughout
,itwi
llbeaconst
antf
act
ori
nbot
hthe
numer
ator
s and denomi
nat
ors ofEqs.5/
3 and wi
llt
her
efor
e cancel
.The r
emai
ning
expr
essi
onsdef
ineapur
elygeomet
ri
calpr
oper
tyoft
hebody
,
si
nceanyr
efer
encet
oit
smasspr
oper
ti
eshasdi
sappear
ed.
Thet
erm cent
roi
disusedwhent
hecal
cul
ati
onconcer
nsa
geomet
ri
calshapeonl
y.Whenspeaki
ngofanact
ualphy
sical
body
,weuset
het
erm cent
erofmass.I
fthedensi
tyi
s
uni
for
mthr
oughoutt
hebody
,theposi
ti
onsoft
hecent
roi
d
and cent
erofmassar
eident
ical
,wher
easi
fthe densi
ty
v
ari
es,t
heset
wopoi
ntswi
ll
,ingener
al,notcoi
nci
de.The
cal
cul
ati
onofcent
roi
dsf
all
swi
thi
nthr
eedi
sti
nctcat
egor
ies,
dependi
ngonwhet
herwecanmodelt
heshapeoft
hebodyi
nvol
vedasal
ine,anar
ea,ora
v
olume.
1)Li
nes.Forasl
enderr
odorwi
reofl hL,cr
engt oss-sect
i eaA,anddensi
onalar tyρ,Fi
g.
5/
6,t
hebodyappr
oxi
mat
esal
i ,anddm =ρAdL.I
nesegment fρandA ar
econst
ant
ov
ert
hel
engt
hoft
her
od,t
hecoor
dinat
esoft
hecent
erofmassal
sobecomet
he
coor
dinat
esoft
hecent
r dsC oft
oi hel
inesegment
,whi
ch,f
r 1b,maybe
om Eqs.5/
wr
it
ten

Not
ethat
,ingener
al,t
hecent
r dCwi
oi llnotl
ieont
hel
ine.I
fther
odl
iesonasi
ngl
epl
ane,
hex
suchast -ypl
ane,
onl
ytwocoor
dinat
esneedt
obecal
cul
ated.
 2)Ar
eas.Whenabodyofdensi
tyρhasasmal
lbutconst
antt
hicknesst
,wecanmodeli
t
asasur
f ea A,Fi
acear g.5/
7.Themassofan
ementbecomesdm =ρt
el dA.Agai fρandtar
n,i e
const
antov
ert
heent
ir
ear
ea,t
hecoor
dinat
esof
t
hecent
erofmassoft
hebodyal
sobecomet
he
coor
dinat
esoft
hecent
r dCoft
oi hesur
facear
ea,
andf
r 1bt
om Eqs.5/ hecoor
dinat
esmaybewr
it
ten

Thenumer
ator
sinEqs.5/
5ar
ecal
l hef
edt ir
stmoment
s
ofar
ea.I
fthesur
facei
scur
ved,asi
ll
ust
rat
edi
nFi
g.5/
7
wi
tht
he shel
lsegment
,al
lthr
ee coor
dinat
es wi
llbe
i
nvol
ved.Thecent
r dC f
oi ort
hecur
vedsur
facewi
lli
n
gener
alnotl
ieont
hesur
face.I
fthear
eai
saf
latsur
face
i
n,say
,thex
-ypl
ane,onl
ythecoor
di esofC i
nat nthat
pl
aneneedt
obecal
cul
ated.
3)Vol
umes.Foragener
albodyofv
olumeVanddensi
tyρ,t ementhasamassdm =
heel
ρdV.Thedensi
tyρcancel
sifi
tisconst
antov
ert
heent
ir
evol
ume,
andt
hecoor
dinat
es
oft
hecent
erofmassal
sobecomet
hecoor
dinat
esoft
hecent
r dCoft
oi hebody
.Fr
om
Eqs.5/ 1bt
3or5/ heybecome

Choi
ceofEl
ementf
orI
ntegr
ati
on
Thepr
inci
paldi
ff
icul
tywi
that
heor
yof
tenl
iesnoti
nit
s
concept
sbuti
nthepr
ocedur
esf
orappl
yingi
t.Wi
thmass
cent
ersandcent
roi
dst
heconceptoft
hemomentpr
inci
plei
s
si
mpl
e enough;t
he di
ff
icul
tst
epsar
ethe choi
ce oft
he
di
ff
erent
ialel
ement and set
ti
ng up t
he i
ntegr
als.The
f
oll
owi
ngf
ivegui
del
ineswi
llbeusef
ul.
1)Or
derofEl
ement
.Wheneverpossi
ble,af
ir
st-or
derdi
ff
erent
ialel
ementshoul
dbe
sel
ect
edi
npr
efer
encet
oahi
gher
-or
derel
ementsot
hatonl
yonei
ntegr
ati
onwi
llbe
r
equi
redt
ocov
ert
heent
ir
efi
gur
e.Thus,i
nFi 8aaf
g.5/ ir
st-or
derhor
izont
alst
ri
pof
eadA = l
ar dywi
llr
equi
reonl
yonei
ntegr
ati
onwi
thr oyt
espectt ocov
ert
heent
ir
e
f
igur
e.Thesecond-or ementdxdywi
derel llr
equi
ret
woi
ntegr
ati
ons,f
ir
stwi
thr
espect
oxandsecondwi
t thr oy
espectt ,t
ocov
ert
hef
igur
e.Asaf
urt
herexampl
e,f
ort
he
sol
idconei
nFi 8bwechooseaf
g.5/ ir
st-or
derel
ementi
nthef
orm ofaci
rcul
arsl
iceof
2
v
olumedV=Πr dy.Thi
schoi
cer
equi
resonl
yonei
ntegr
ati
on,
andt
husi
spr
efer
abl
eto
choosi
ngat
hir
d-or ementdV = dxdydz,whi
derel chwoul
drequi
ret
hreeawkwar
d
i
ntegr
ati
ons.
2)Cont
inui
ty.Wheneverpossi
ble,wechooseanel
ementwhi
chcanbei
ntegr
atedi
none
cont
inuousoper
ati
ont
ocov
ert
hef
igur
e.Thus,t
hehor
izont
alst
ri
pinFi 8awoul
g.5/ d
bepr
efer
abl
etot
hev
ert
icalst
ri
pinFi
g.5/
9,whi
ch,
ifused,
woul
drequi
ret
wosepar
ate
i
ntegr
alsbecauseoft
hedi
scont
inui
tyi
ntheexpr
essi
onf
ort
hehei
ghtoft
hest
rpatx=
i
x1.
3)Di
scar
dingHi
gher
-Or
derTer
ms.Hi
gher
-or
der
t
ermsmayal
way
sbedr
oppedcompar
edwi
th
l
ower
-or
dert
erms.Thus,t
hev
ert
icalst
ri
pof
ar
eaundert
hecur
vei
nFi
g.5/
10i
sgi
venby
t
hef
ir
st-or
dert
erm dA=y
dx,andt
hesecond-
or
dert
ri
angul
arar
eai
sdi
scar
ded.I
nthel
imi
t,
ofcour
se,
ther
eisnoer
ror
.
4)Choi
ceofCoor
dinat
es.Asagener
al
r
ule, we choose t
he coor
dinat
e
sy
stem whi
ch best mat
ches t
he
boundar
ies oft
he f
igur
e.Thus,t
he
boundar
iesoft
hear
eai
nFi 11a
g.5/
ar
e most easi
ly descr
ibed i
n
r
ect
angul
arcoor
dinat
es,wher
east
he
boundar
iesoft
heci
rcul
arsect
orof
Fi 11bar
g.5/ ebestsui
tedt
opol
arcoor
dinat
es.
5)Cent
roi
dalCoor
dinat
eofEl
ement
.Whenaf
ir
st-orsecondor
derdi
ff
erent
ialel
ementi
s
chosen,i
tisessent
ialt hecoor
ouset dinat
eoft
hecent
roi
doft
heel
ementf
ort
he
 momentar
minexpr
essi
ngt
hemomentoft
hedi
ff
erent
ialel
ement
.Thus,f
ort
he
hor
izont
alst
ri
pofar
eai
nFi 12a,
g.5/ themomentofdAaboutt
hey
-axi
sisxcdA,
wher
e
xci
sthex-coor
dinat
eoft
hecent
r dCoft
oi heel
ement
.Not
ethatxci
snott
hexwhi
ch
descr
ibesei
therboundar
yoft
hear
ea.I
nthey
-di
rect
ionf
ort
hisel
ementt
hemoment
my
ar coft
hecent
roi
doft
heel
ementi
sthesame,i
nthel
imi
t hey
,ast -coor
dinat
esof
t
het
woboundar
ies.
Asasecondexampl
e,consi
dert
hesol
idhal
f-coneofFi 12bwi
g.5/ tht
hesemi
cir
cul
ar
sl
iceofdi
ff
erent
ialt
hicknessast
heel
ementofv
olume.Themomentar
mfort
he
el
ementi
nthex-di
rect
ioni
sthedi
stancexct
othecent
roi
doft
hef
aceoft
heel
ement
hex-di
andnott stancet
otheboundar
yoft
heel
ement
.Ont
heot
herhand,i
nthez-
di
rect
iont m zc oft
hemomentar hecent
roi
doft
heel
ementi
st hez-
hesameast
coor
dinat
eoft
heel
ement
.

Wi
tht
heseexampl
esi
nmi
nd,
wer
ewr
it
eEqs.5/
5and5/
6int
hef
orm

And

I
tisessent
ialt
orecogni
zet
hatt
hesubscr
iptcser
vesasar
emi
ndert
hatt
hemomentar
ms
appear
ing i
nthe numer
ator
s oft
he i
ntegr
alexpr
essi
ons f
ormoment e al
s ar ways t
he
coor
dinat hecent
esoft roi
dsoft
hepar
ti
cul
arel
ement
schosen.
Att
hispoi
nty
oushoul
dbecer
tai
ntounder
standcl
ear
lyt
hepr
inci
pleofmoment
s,whi
chwas
i
ntr
oducedi
nAr
t.2/
4.Youshoul
drecogni
zet
hephy
sicalmeani
ngoft
hispr
inci
pleasi
tis
appl
iedt
othesy
stem ofpar
all
elwei
ghtf
orcesdepi
ctedi
nFi 4a.Keepi
g.5/ nmi
ndt
he
equi
val
encebet
weent
hemomentoft
her
esul
t ghtW andt
antwei hesum (
int
egr
al)oft
he
moment
soft
he el
ement
alwei s dW,t
ght o av
oid mi
stakesi
n set
ti
ng up t
he necessar
y
mat
hemat
ics.
5.
4Composi
teBodi
esandFi
gur
es;
Appr
oxi
mat
ions
Whenabodyorf
igur
ecanbeconv
eni
ent
lydi
videdi
ntosev
eralpar
tswhosemasscent
ersar
e
easi
lydet
ermi
ned,weuset
hepr
inci
pleofmoment
sandt
reateachpar
tasaf
ini
teel
ementof
t
hewhol
e.Suchabodyi
sil
lust
rat
edschemat
ical
lyi
n
Fi
g.5/
13.I
tspar
t emassesm1,m2,m3 wi
shav tht
he
r
espect
ivemass-cent
ercoor
dinat
esi
nthex-di
rect
ion.
Themomentpr
inci
plegi
ves

Wher
ei hex-coor
st dinat
eoft
hecent
erofmassoft
he
whol
e. Si
mil
ar r
elat
ions hol
d f
or t
he ot
her t
wo
coor
dinat
edi
rect
ions.Wegener
ali
ze,
then,
forabodyof
anynumberofpar
tsandexpr
esst
hesumsi
ncondensedf
ormt
oobt
aint
hemass-cent
er
coor
dinat
es

Anal
ogousr
elat
ionshol
dforcomposi
tel
ines,
areas,
andv
olumes,
wher
ethem’
sar
erepl
aced
byL’
s,A’
s,and V’
s,r
espect
ivel
y.Not
ethati
fahol
eorcav
ityi
sconsi
der
edoneoft
he
componentpar
tsofacomposi
tebodyorf
igur
e,t
hecor
respondi
ngmassr
epr
esent
edbyt
he
cav
ityi
str
eat
edasnegat
ive.
AnAppr
oxi
mat
ionMet
hod
I
npr
act
icet
heboundar
iesofanar
eaorv
olumemi
ghtnotbe
expr
essi
blei
nter
ms ofsi
mpl
e geomet
ri
calshapes oras
shapeswhi
chcanber
epr
esent
edmat
hemat
ical
ly.Forsuch
caseswemustr
esor
ttoamet
hodofappr
oxi
mat
ion.Asan
exampl
e,consi
dert
hepr
obl
em ofl
ocat
ingt
hecent
r dC of
oi
t
hei
rr
egul
arar
eashowni
nFi
g.5/
14.Thear
eai
sdi
videdi
nto
st
ri
psofwi
dth∆xandv
ari
abl ghth.Thear
ehei eaA ofeach
st
ri
p,suchast
heoneshowni
nred,
ish∆xandi
smul
ti
pli
edby
t
he coor
di es xc and y
nat c ofi
ts cent
roi
dto obt
aint
he
moment
soft
heel
ementofar
ea.Thesum oft
hemoment
sforal
lst
ri
psdi
videdbyt
het
otal
ar
eaoft
hest
ri
pswi
llgi
vet
hecor
respondi
ngcent
roi
dalcoor
dinat
e.Asy
stemat
ict
abul
ati
onof
t
her
esul
tswi
llper
mitanor
der
lyev
aluat
ionoft
het
ot eaΣA,t
alar hesumsΣAxcandΣAy
c,and
t
hecent
roi
dalcoor
dinat
es

Wecani
ncr
easet
heaccur
acyoft
heappr
oxi
mat
ionbydecr
easi
ngt
hewi
dthsoft
hest
ri
ps.I
n
al
lcasest
heav
eragehei
ghtoft
hest
ri
pshoul
dbeest
imat
ed
i
n appr
oxi
mat
ing t
he ar
eas. Al
though i
tis usual
ly
adv
ant
ageoust
ouseel
ement
sofconst
antwi
dth,i
tisnot
necessar
y.I
nfact
,wemayuseel
ement
sofanysi
zeand
shape whi
ch appr
oxi
mat
ethe gi
ven ar
ea t
o sat
isf
act
ory
accur
acy
.
I
rregul
arVol
umes
Tol
ocat
ethecent
roi
dofani
rr
egul
arv
olume,
wemayr
educe
t
hepr
obl
em t
o oneofl
ocat
ing t
hecent
roi
d ofan ar
ea.
Consi
der t
he v
olume shown i
n Fi
g.5/
15,wher
ethe
magni
tudesAoft
hecr
oss-sect
ionalar
easnor
malt
othex-di
rect
ionar
epl
ott nstxas
edagai
shown.A v
ert
icalst
ri
pofar
eaundert
hecur
v sA∆x,whi
ei chequal
sthecor
respondi
ng
el
ementofv
olume∆V.Thus,t
hear
eaundert
hepl
ott
edcur
ver
epr
esent
sthev
olumeoft
he
body
, hex-coor
andt dinat
eoft
hecent
roi
doft
hear
eaundert
hecur
vei
sgi
venby
5.
5Theor
emsofPappus
Av
erysi
mpl
emet
hodexi
stsf
orcal
cul
ati
ngt
hesur
facear
eagener
atedbyr
evol
vingapl
ane
cur
veaboutanoni
nter
sect
ingaxi
sint
hepl
aneoft
hecur
ve.I
nFi
g.5/
16t
hel
inesegmentof
l hLi
engt nthex-ypl
anegener
atesasur
facewhenr
evol
v hex-axi
edaboutt s.Anel
ementof
t
hissur
facei
sther
inggener
atedbydL.Thear
eaoft
hisr
ingi
sit
sci
rcumf
erencet
imesi
ts
sl ghtordA=2Πy
anthei dL.Thet
otalar
eai
sthen

Wher
ei hey
st -coor
dinat
eoft
hecent
r dCf
oi ort
hel
ineofl hL.
engt
Thus,
thegener
atedar
eai
sthesameast
hel
ater
alar
eaofar
ight
-ci
rcul
arcy
linderofl hL
engt
andr
adi
us.
I
nthecaseofav
olumegener
atedbyr
evol
vinganar
eaaboutanoni
nter
sect
ingl
inei
nit
s
pl
ane,anequal
lysi
mpl
erel
ati
onexi
stsf
orf
indi
ngt
hev
olume.Anel
ementoft
hev
olume
gener
atedbyr
evol
vingt eaAaboutt
hear hex-axi
s,Fi
g.5/
17,i
stheel
ement
alr
ingofcr
oss-
sect
iondAandr usy
adi .

Thev
olumeoft
heel
ementi
sit
sci
rcumf
erencet
imesdAordV=2Πy
dA,andt
het
otalv
olume
i
s

wher
ei hey
st -coor
dinat
eoft
hecent
r dCoft
oi her
evol
vedar
ea
A.
Thus,we obt
aint
he gener
ated v
olume by mul
ti
ply
ing t
he
gener
ati
ng ar
ea by t
he ci
rcumf
erence oft
he ci
rcul
arpat
h
descr
ibedbyi
tscent
roi
d.
Thet
wot
heor
emsofPappus,
expr
essedbyEqs.5/
8and5/
9,ar
e
usef
ulf
ordet
ermi
ningar
easandv
olumesofr
evol
uti
on.Theyar
e
al
sousedt
ofi
ndt
hecent
roi
dsofpl
anecur
vesandpl
anear
eas
whenweknowt
hecor
respondi
ngar
easandv
olumescr
eat
edby
r
evol
vingt
hesef
igur
esaboutanoni
nter
sect
ingaxi
s.Di
vidi
ngt
he
ar
eaorv
olumeby2Π t
imest
hecor
respondi
ngl
inesegmentl
engt
horpl
anear
eagi
vest
he
di
stancef
rom t
hecent
roi
dtot
heaxi
s.I
fal
ineoranar
eai
srev
olv
edt
hr eθl
oughanangl ess
han2Π,wecandet
t ermi
net
hegener
atedsur
faceorv
olumebyr
epl ng2Πbyθi
aci nEqs.5/
8
and5/
9.Thus,
themor
egener
alr
elat
ionsar
e

And
SECTI
ONBSPECI
ALTOPI
CS
5.
6Beams—Ext
ernalEf
fect
s
Beamsar
est
ruct
uralmember
swhi
chof
ferr
esi
stancet
obendi
ngduet
oappl
iedl
oads.Most
beamsar
elongpr
ismat
icbar
s,andt
hel
oadsar
eusual
lyappl
iednor
malt
otheaxesoft
he
bar
s.
Beamsar
eundoubt
edl
ythemosti
mpor
tantofal
lst
ruct
uralmember
s,soi
tisi
mpor
tantt
o
under
standt
hebasi
ctheor
yunder
lyi
ngt
hei
rdesi
gn.Toanal
yzet
hel
oad-car
ryi
ngcapaci
ti
es
ofabeam wemustf
ir
stest
abl
isht
heequi
li
bri
um r
equi
rement
soft
hebeam asawhol
eand
anypor
ti
onofi
tconsi
der
edsepar
atel
y.Second,wemustest
abl
isht
her
elat
ionsbet
weent
he
r
esul
ti
ngf
orcesandt
heaccompany
ingi
nter
nalr
esi
stanceoft
hebeam t
osuppor
tthese
f
orces.Thef
ir
stpar
toft
hisanal
ysi
srequi
rest
heappl
icat
ionoft
hepr
inci
plesofst
ati
cs.
Thesecondpar
tinv
olv
est
hest
rengt
hchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hemat
eri
alandi
susual
lyt
reat
edi
n
st
udi
esoft
hemechani
csofsol
idsort
hemechani
csofmat
eri
als.
Thi
smat
eri
ali
sconcer
nedwi
t heext
ht ernall
oadi
ngandr
eact
ionsact
ingonabeam.
TypesofBeams
Beamssuppor
tedsot
hatt
hei
rext
ernalsuppor
treact
ionscanbecal
cul
atedbyt
hemet
hods
ofst
ati
csal
onear
ecal
ledst
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
ebeams.Abeam whi
chhasmor
esuppor
ts
t
hanneededt
opr
ovi
deequi
li
brum s st
i ati
cal
lyi
ndet
ermi
nat
e.Todet
ermi
net
hesuppor
t
r
eact
ionsf
orsuchabeam wemustconsi
deri
tsl
oad-def
ormat
ionpr
oper
ti
esi
naddi
ti
ont
o
t
heequat
ionsofst
ati
cequi
li
bri
um.Fi
gur
e5/
18showsexampl
esbot
hty
pesofbeams.

I
nthi
sar
ti
clewewi
llanal
yzest
ati
cal
lydet
ermi
nat
ebeamsonl
y.Beamsmayal
sobei
dent
if
ied
byt
het
ypeofext
ernall
oadi
ngt
heysuppor
t.Thebeamsi
nFi
g.
5/
18ar
esuppor
ti
ngconcent
rat
edl
oads,wher
east
hebeam i
nFi
g.
5/
19 i
s suppor
ti
ng a di
str
ibut
ed l
oad.The i
ntensi
ty w ofa
di
str
ibut
edl
oadmaybeexpr
essedasf
orceperuni
tlengt
hofbeam.
The i
ntensi
ty may be const
ant or v
ari
abl
e, cont
inuous or
di
scont
inuous.
Thei
ntensi
tyoft
hel
oadi
ngi
nFi
g.5/
19i
sconst
antf
rom C t
oD
and v
ari
abl
efom A t
r o C and f
rom D t
o B.The i
ntensi
tyi
s
di
scont
inuousatD,
wher
eitchangesmagni
tudeabr
upt
ly.Al
though
t
hei
ntensi
tyi
tsel
fisnotdi
scont
inuousatC,t
her
ateofchangeof
i
ntensi
tydw/
dxi
sdi
scont
inuous.
Di
str
ibut
edLoads
Loadi
ngi
ntensi
ti
eswhi
char
econst
antorwhi
chv
aryl
inear
lyar
e
easi
lyhandl
ed.Fi
gur
e5/
20i
ll
ust
rat
est
het
hreemostcommon
casesandt
her
esul
tant
soft
hedi
str
ibut
edl
oadsi
neachcase.
ncasesaandbofFi
I g.5/
20,
weseet
hatt
her
esul
t oadRi
antl s
r
epr
esent
edbyt
hear
eaf
ormedbyt
hei
ntensi
tyw (
for
ceper
uni
tlengt
hofbeam)andt
hel hLov
engt erwhi
cht
hef
orcei
s
di
str
ibut
ed.Ther
esul
tantpassest
hrought
hecent
roi
doft
his
ar
ea.I tcofFi
npar g.5/
20,t
het
rapezoi
dalar
eai
sbr
okeni
ntoa
r
ect
angul
arand at
ri
angul
arar
ea,and t
hecor
respondi
ng r
esul
t s R1 and R2 oft
ant hese
subar
easar
edet
ermi
nedsepar
atel
y.Not
ethatasi
ngl
eresul
tantcoul
dbedet
ermi
nedby
usi
ngt
hecomposi
tet
echni
quef
orf
indi
ngcent
roi
ds,
whi
chwasdi
scussedi
nAr
t.5/
4.Usual
ly,
howev
er,
thedet
ermi
nat
ionofasi
ngl
eresul
tanti
sunnecessar
y.
Foramor
egener
all
oaddi
str
ibut
ion,Fi
g.5/
21,wemustst
artwi
thadi
ff
erent
iali
ncr
ementof
f
orcedR=wdx.Thet
ot oadRi
all sthent
hesum oft
hedi
ff
erent
ialf
orces,
or

Asbef
ore,t
her
esul
tantRi
slocat
edatt
hecent
roi
doft
hear
eaunderconsi
der
aton.Thex-
i
coor
dinat
eoft
hiscent
roi
disf
oundbyt
hepr
inci
pleofmoment
s

or

Fort
hedi
str
ibut
ionofFi
g.5/
21,t
hev
ert
icalcoor
dinat
eoft
hecent
roi
dsneednotbef
ound.
Oncet
hedi
str
ibut
edl
oadshav
ebeenr
educedt
othei
requi
val
entconcent
rat
edl
oads,t
he
ext
ernalr
eact
ionsact
ingont
hebeam maybef
oundbyast
rai
ght
for
war
dst
ati
canal
ysi
sas
dev
elopedi
nChapt
er3.
 Chapt
erVI
Ar
eaMomentofI
ner
ti
a
6.Ar
eaMomentofI
ner
ti
a
6.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
Whenev
eradi
str
ibut
edl
oadi
ngact
sper
pendi
cul
art
oanar
eaandi
tsi
ntensi
tyv
ari
esl
inear
ly,
t
hecomput
ati
onoft
hemomentoft
hel
oadi
ngdi
str
ibut
ionaboutanaxi
swi
lli
nvol
vea
quant
it
ycal
ledmomentofi
ner
ti
aoft
hear
ea.Forexampl
e,consi
dert
hepl
atei
nthef
igur
e,
whi
chi
ssubj
ect
edt
oaf
lui
dpr ep.t
essur hepr
essur
evar
iesl
inear
lywi
thdept hatp=
h,sucht
γy,wher
e γi
sthespeci
fi
cwei
ghtoft
hef
lui
d.

Thust
hef
orceact
ingont
hedi
ff
rent
i eaofdA oft
alar hepl
at sdF=pdA=(
ei γy)
dA.The
momentoft
hisf
orceaboutt
hexaxi
sist
her
efor dF=γy2dA,andsoi
edM =y ntegr
atngdM
i
ov
ert
heent
ir
ear
eaoft
hepl
atey
iel γy2dA.Thei
dsM =∫ ntegr γy2dAi
al∫ scal
ledt
hemomentof
i
ner
taI
i xoft
hear
eaaboutt
hexaxi
s.I
ntegr
aloft
hisf
orm of
tenar
isei
nfor
mul
asusedi
nfl
uid
mechani
cs,
mechani
csofmat
eri
als,
str
uct
uralmechani
csandmechani
caldesi
gn.
I
nthesecondf
igur
eweshowt
hedi
str
ibut
ionoft
hest
ressact
ingonat
ransv
ersesect
ionofa
si
mpl
eel
ast
icbeam bentbyequalandopposi
tecoupl
esappl
iedt
oit
sends.
Atanysect
ionoft
hebeam al
ineardi
str
ibut
ionoff
orcei
ntensi
tyorst
ressσgi
venbyσ=ky
,is
pr
esent
.Thest
ressi
sposi
ti
ve(
tensi
le)bel
owt
heaxi
so-oandnegat
ive(
compr
essi
ve)abov
e
t
heaxi
s.Weseet
hatt
heel
ement
almomentabov
eaxi sdM =y
so-oi (σdA)=ky2dA.Thust
he
samei
ntegr
alappear
swhent
het
ot y2dAi
almomentM =k∫ sev
aluat
ed.
At
hir
dexampl
eisgi
veni
nthet
hir
dfi
gur
e,whi
chshowsaci
rcul
arshaf
tsubj
ect
edt
oat
wist
ort
orsi
onalmoment
.Wi
thi
ntheel
ast
icl
imi
toft
hemat
eri
al,t
hismomenti
sresi
stedateach
cr
osssect
ionoft
heshaf
tbyadi
str
ibut
ionoft
angent
ialorshearst
ress,
whi
chi
spr
opor
ti
onal
t
other
adi
aldi
stancerf
rom t
hecent
er.Thus,τ=krandt
het
otalmomentaboutt
hecent
ral
2
axi
sisM =∫
r(
τdA)=k∫
r dA.Her
ethei
ntegr
aldi
ff
ersf
rom t
hati
nthepr
ecedi
ngt
woexampl
es
i
nthatt
hear
eai
snor
mali
nst
eadofpar
all
elt
othemomentaxi
sandi
nthatri
sar
adi
al
coor
dinat
einst
eadofar
ect
angul
arone.

Al
thought
hei
ntegr
ali
ll
ust
rat
edi
nthepr
ecedi
ngexampl
esi
sgener
all
ycal
ledt
hemomentof
i
ner
ti
aoft
hear
eaaboutt
heaxi
sinquest
ion,
amor
efi
tt
ingt
ermi
sasecondmomentofar
ea,
si
ncet
hef
istmomentdAi
r smul
ti
pli
edbyt
hemomentar
m yt
oobt
aint
hesecondmomentf
or
t ementdA.
heel
Ther
eforsi
ncet
hei
ntegr
alappear
sfr
equent
ly,sot
heengi
neerneedt
obef
ami
li
arwi
tht
he
met
hodsusedf
ort
hei
rcomput
ati
on.
Def
ini
ti
on
Consi
deranar
eaofasur
faceconsi
stsofl
argenumberofsmal
lel
ement eadAeach.
sofar
Thear
eai
ntegr
alofal
lsuchel
ement
scanbewr
it
tenmat
hemat
ical
lyasunder
:

Ref
err
ingt
hef
igur
egi
venbel
ow,t
heAr
eaMomentofI
ner
ti
aofel
ement eadA aboutx
alar
 axi
s, i
nit
s

pl
anei
sdef
inedas

Pol
armomentofi
ner
ti
aofdAaboutzaxi
sper
pendi
cul
art
opl
aneofA,

Pr
oductofI
ner
ti
aofel
ementdAwi
thr oaxesxandy
espectt ,
Foranar
eawhoseboundar
iesar
emor
esi
mpl
ydescr
ibedi
nrect
angul
arcoor
dinat
est
hani
n
pol
arcoor
dinat
es,i
tspol
armomentofi
ner
ti
aiseasi
lycal
cul
atedwi
tht
heai
doft
heabov
e
equat
ion.
Themomentofi
ner
ti
aofanel
ementi
nvol
vest
hesquar
eoft
hedi
stancef
rom t
hei
ner
ti
aaxi
s
t
otheel
ement
.Thusanel
ementwhosecoor
dinat
eisnegat
ivecont
ri
but
esasmucht
othe
momentofi
ner
ti
a as does an equalel
ementwi
th a posi
ti
ve coor
dinat
e oft
he same
magni
tude.
Consequent
lyt
hear
eamomentofi
ner
ti
aaboutanyaxi
sisal
way
saposi
ti
vequant
it
y.I
n
cont
rast
,thef
ir
stmomentoft
hear
ea,whi
chwasi
nvol
vedi
nthecomput
ati
onsofcent
roi
ds,
coul
dbeei
therposi
ti
ve,
negat
ive,
orzer
o.
Thedi
mensi
onsofmoment
sofi
ner
ti
aofar
easar
ecl
ear
ly L4,wher
e L st
andsf
ort
he
di
mensi
onofl
engt
h.Thus,t
heSIuni
tsf
orar
eamoment
sofi
ner
ti
aar
eexpr
essedasquar
ti
c
met
er m4) or quar
s ( ti
c
mi
ll
imet
er mm4)
s( .TheU.
S.
cust
omar
y uni
ts f
or ar
ea
4 4
moment
s ofi
ner
ti
a ar
e quar
ti
cfeet(
ft )or quar
ti
cinches(
in.).
The choi
ce of t
he
coor
dinat
es t
o use f
ort
he
cal
cul
ati
on ofmoment
s of
i
ner
ti
aisi
mpor
tant
.Rect
angul
arcoor
dinat
es shoul
d be used f
or
shapeswhose boundar
iesar
e mosteasi
ly expr
essed i
n t
hese
coor
dinat
es.
Pol
arcoor
dinat
es wi
llusual
lysi
mpl
if
ypr
obl
ems i
nvol
ving boundar
ies whi
ch ar
e easi
ly
descr
i nrandθ.Thechoi
bedi ceofanel
ementofar
eawhi
chsi
mpl
if
iest
hei
ntegr
ati
onas
muchaspossi
blei
sal
soi
mpor
tant
.Theseconsi
der
ati
onsar
equi
teanal
ogoust
othosewe
di
scussedandi
ll
ust
rat
edi
nChapt
er5f
ort
hecal
cul
ati
onofcent
roi
ds.
Radi
usofGyr
ati
on
Consi eaA,
deranar asshowni
nthef
igur
ebel
ow,
whi
chhasr
ect
angul
armoment
sofi
ner
taI
i x

andI
yandapol
armomentofi
ner
taI
i zaboutO.Wenowv
isual
izet
hisar
eaasconcent
rat
ed
i
ntoal
ongnar
rowst
ri eaAadi
pofar stancekxf
r hex-axi
om t s.Bydef
ini
ti
ont
hemomentof
i
ner
ti
aoft
hest
ri hex-axi
paboutt swi
llbet
hesameast
hatoft
heor
igi
nalar fkx2A=I
eai x.

Thedi
stancekxi
scal
l her
edt adi
usofgyr
ati
onoft
hear hex-axi
eaaboutt s.Asi
mil
arr
elat
ion
f hey
ort -axi
siswr
it
tenbyconsi
der
ingt
hear
eaasconcent
rat
edi
ntoanar
rowst
ri
ppar
all
elt
o
hey
t -axi
sasshowni
nthet
hir
dfi
gur
e.Al
so,i
fwev
isual
izet
hear
eaasconcent
rat
edi
ntoa
nar
row r
ingofr uskz asshowni
adi nthe4th f
igur
e,wemayexpr
esst
hepol
armomentof
i
ner
taaskz2A=I
i z.

I
nsummar
ywewr
it
e

Ther
adi
usofgy
rat
ion,t
hen,i
sameasur
eoft
hedi
str
ibut
ionoft
hear
eaf
rom t
heaxi
sin
quest
ion.Ar
ect
angul
arorpol
armomentofi
ner
ti
amaybeexpr
essedbyspeci
fyi
ngt
her
adi
us
ofgy
rat
ionandt
hear
ea.
Whenwesubst
it
utet
heabov
eequat
ioni
ntot
heequat
ionI
z=I
x+I
y,wehav
e

Thus,
thesquar
eoft
her
adi
usofgy
rat
ionaboutapol
araxi
sequal
sthesum oft
hesquar
esof
t
her
adi
iofgy
rat
ionaboutt
het
wocor
respondi
ngr
ect
angul
araxes.
Tr
ansf
erofAxes
Themomentofi
ner
ti
aofanar
eaaboutanoncent
roi
dalaxi
smaybeeasi
lyexpr
essedi
n
t
ermsoft
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aaboutapar
all
elcent
roi
dalaxi
s.I
nthef
igur
ebel hex0-y
owt 0

axespasst
hrought
hecent
r dCoft
oi hear
ea.Letusnowdet
ermi
net
hemoment
sofi
ner
ti
aof
t
hear
eaaboutt
hepar
alelx-yaxes.Bydef
l ini
ti
on,t
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aoft ementdA
heel
hex-axi
aboutt sis

Expandi
ngandi
ntegr
ati
nggi
veus

̅
Weseet
hatt
hef
ir
sti
ntegr
ali
sbydef
ini
ti
ont
hemomentofi
ner
taI
i xaboutt
hecent
r dalx0-
oi
̅ ̅
axi
s.Thesecondi
ntegr
ali
szer
o,si y0dA =Ayo andyo i
nce∫ saut
omat
ical
lyzer
owi
tht
he
cent
roi hex0-axi
dont s.Thet
hir
dter
missi
mpl
yThus,t
heexpr
essi orI
onf xandt
hesi
mil
ar
expr
essi orI
onf ybecome

Thesum oft
heset
woequat
ionsgi
ves

Theabov
eequat
ionsar
etheso-cal
led par
all
el-axi
s
t
heor
ems.Twopoi
ntsi
npar
ti
cul
arshoul
dbenot
ed.
Fi
rst
,theax
esbet
weenwhi
cht
het
ransf
eri
smade
mustbepar
all
el heaxesmust
,andsecond,oneoft
passt
hrought
hecent
roi
doft
hear
ea.
I
fa t
ransf
eri
s desi
red bet
ween t
wo par
all
elaxes
nei
therofwhi
chpassest
hrought
hecent
roi
d,i
tisf
ir
stnecessar
ytot
ransf
erf
rom oneaxi
sto
t
hepar
all
elcent
roi
dalax
isandt
hent
otr
ansf
erf
rom t
hecent
roi
dalaxi
stot
hesecondaxi
s.
Thepar
all
el-axi
stheor
emsal
sohol
dforr
adi
iofgy
rat
ion.Wi
thsubst
it
uti
onoft
hedef
ini
ti
on
ofki
ntot
her
ecentequat
ion,
thet
ransf
err
elat
ionbecomes

̅
Wher
ek ther
adi
usofgy
rat
ionaboutacent
roi
dalaxi
spar
all
elt
otheaxi chk
saboutwhi
appl
iesanddi
sthedi
stancebet
weent
het
woax
es.
Theaxesmaybeei
theri
nthepl
aneornor
malt
othepl
aneoft
hear
ea.
Composi
teAr
eas
I
tisf
requent
lynecessar
ytocal
cul
atet
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aofanar
eacomposedofa
numberofdi
sti
nctpar
tsofsi
mpl
eandcal
cul
abl
egeomet
ri
cshape.Becauseamomentof
i
ner
ti
aist
hei
ntegr
alorsum oft
hepr
oduct
sofdi
stancesquar
edt
imesel
ementofar
ea,i
t
f
oll
owst
hatt
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aofaposi
ti
vear
eai
sal
way
saposi
ti
vequant
it
y.
Themomentofi
ner
ti
aofacomposi
tear
eaaboutapar
ti
cul
araxi
sist
her
efor
esi
mpl
ythesum
oft
hemoment
sofi
ner
ti
aofi
tscomponentpar
tsaboutt
hesameaxi
s.I
tisof
tenconv
eni
ent
t
oregar
dacomposi
tear
eaasbei
ngcomposedofposi
ti
veandnegat
ivepar
ts.Wemayt
hen
t
reatt
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aofanegat
ivear
eaasanegat
ivequant
it
y.
Whenacomposi
tear
eai
scomposedofal
argenumberofpar
ts,i
tisconv
eni
entt
otabul
ate
̅
t
her
esul
tsf
oreachoft
hepar
tsi
nter
msofi
t eaA,i
sar tscent
roi
dalmomentofi
ner
ta It
i he
di
stancedf
rom i
tscent
roi
dalaxi
stot
heaxi
saboutwhi
cht
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aoft
heent
ir
e
sect
ioni
sbei
ngcomput
ed,andt oductAd2.Foranyoneoft
hepr hepar
tst
hemomentof
̅
i
ner
ti
aaboutt
hedesi
redaxi
sbyt
het
ransf
er-of
-axi
stheor sI +Ad2.Thus,
em i fort
heent
ir
e
̅
sect
iont
hedesi
redmomentofi
ner
tabecomesI=ΣI +ΣAd2.
i
Forsuchanar
eai
nthex-ypl
ane,
forexampl
e,t
het
abul
ati
onwoul
dincl
ude

Fr
om t
hesumsoft
hef
ourcol
umns,t
hen,t
hemoment
sofi
ner
ti
afort
hecomposi
tear
ea
hex-andy
aboutt -axesbecome

Al
thoughwemayaddt
hemoment
sofi
ner
ti
aoft
hei
ndi
vidualpar
tsofacomposi
tear
ea
aboutagi
venaxi
s,wemaynotaddt
hei
rradi
iofgy
rat
ion.
Ther
adi
usofgy
rat
ionf
ort
hecomposi
tear
eaaboutt
heaxi
sinquest
ioni
sgi
venbyk= I
/A
eIi
wher sthet
otalmomentofi
ner
taandAi
i sthet
otalar
eaoft
hecomposi
tef
igur
e.Si
mil
arl
y,
t
her
adi
usofgy
rat
ionkaboutapol
araxi
sthr
oughsomepoi
ntequal
sI eI
A wher
z/ z=I
x+I
y

orx-yaxest
f hrought
hatpoi
nt.
Pr
oduct
sofI
ner
ti
aandRot
ati
onofAxes
I
nthi
sar
ti
cle,wedef
inet
hepr
oductofi
ner
ti
awi
thr
espectt
orect
angul
araxesanddev
elop
t
hepar
all
el-axi
stheor
em f
orcent
roi
dalandnoncent
roi
dalaxes.I
naddi
ti
on,wedi
scusst
he
ef
fect
sofr
otat
ionofaxesonmoment
sandpr
oduct
sofi
ner
ti
a.
Def
ini
ti
on
I
n cer
tai
n pr
obl
ems i
nvol
ving unsy
mmet
ri
calcr
oss sect
ions and i
nthe cal
cul
ati
on of
moment
sofi
ner
ti
aaboutr
otat
edaxes,anexpr ondI
essi xy = xydA occur
s,whi
chhast
he
i
ntegr
atedf
orm

exandyar
Wher ethecoor
dinat
esoft
heel eadA=dxdy
ementofar .
Thequant
iyI
t xy i
scal
l hepr
edt oductofi
ner
ti
aoft eaA wi
hear thr
espectt
othex-yaxes.
Unl
ikemoment
sofi
ner
ti
a,whi
char
eal
way
sposi
ti
vef
orposi
ti
vear
eas,t
hepr
oductofi
ner
ti
a
maybeposi
ti
ve,
negat
ive,
orzer
o.
Thepr
oductofi
ner
ti
aiszer
owhenev
erei
theroft
her
efer
enceaxesi
sanaxi
sofsy
mmet
ry,
hex-axi
suchast sfort
hear
eai
nthef
igur
e.Her
eweseet
hatt
hesum oft
het
ermsx(
-ydA
)
andx(
+ydAduet
) osy
mmet
ri
cal
lypl
acedel
ement
svani
shes.Becauset
heent
ir
ear
eamaybe
consi
der
edascomposedofpai
rsofsuchel
ement
s,i
tfol
lowst
hatt
hepr
oductofi
ner
taI
i xyf
or
t
heent
ir
ear
eai
szer
o.
Tr
ansf
erofAxes
Bydef
ini
ti
ont
hepr
oductofi
ner
ti
aoft eaAwi
hear thr
espectt
othex-andy
-axesi
nter
msof
t
hecoor
di esx0,
nat y0t
othecent
roi
dalaxesi
s

Thef
ir
sti
ntegr
ali
sbydef
ini
ti
ont
hepr
oductofi
ner
ti
aaboutt
hecent
roi
dalaxes,whi
chwe
wr
it
east
hemi
ddl
etwoi
ntegr
alsar
ebot
hzer
obecauset
hef
ir
stmomentoft
hear
eaabouti
ts
owncent
roi
disnecessar
il
yzer
o.Thef
our
tht
ermi
smer
elydxdy
A.Thus,t
het
ransf
er-ofaxi
s
t
heor
em f
orpr
oduct
sofi
ner
ti
abecomes
Rot
ati
onofAxes
Thepr
oductofi
ner
ti
aisusef
ulwhenweneedt
ocal
cul
atet
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aofanar
ea
abouti
ncl
ined axes.Thi
s consi
der
ati
on l
eads di
rect
lyt
othe i
mpor
tantpr
obl
em of
det
ermi
ningt
heaxesaboutwhi
cht
hemomentofi
ner
ti
aisamaxi
mum andami
nimum.
I
nthef
igur
ebel
owt
hemoment
sofi
ner
ti
aoft
hear hex’
eaaboutt -andy
’-axesar
e

e x;and y
Wher ’hav
e been r
epl
aced byt
hei
requi
val
entexpr
essi
onsasseen f
rom t
he
geomet
ryoft
hef
igur
e

I
nasi
mil
armannerwewr
it
ethepr
oductofi
ner
ti
aaboutt
hei
ncl
inedaxesas

Expandi
ngandsubst
it
uti
ngt
het
ri
gonomet
ri
cident
it
ies

andt
hedef
ini
ngr
elat
i orI
onsf x,I
y,I
xygi
veus
Theangl chmakesI
ewhi x’andI
y’ei
thermaxi
mum ormi
nimum maybedet
ermi
nedbyset
ti
ng
t
heder
ivat
iveofei
therorwi
thr o_equalt
espectt ozer
o.Thus

Denot
ingt
hiscr
it
i ebyαgi
calangl ves

Theabov
eequat
iongi
vest
wov
aluesf
or2αwhi
chdi
ferbyΠ,si
f an2α= t
ncet 2α+Π)
an( .
Consequent
lyt
het
wosol
uti orαwi
onsf lldi
ferbyΠ/
f 2.
Onev
aluedef
inest
heaxi
sofmaxi
mum momentofi
ner
ti
a,andt
heot
herv
aluedef
inest
he
axi
sofmi
nimum momentofi
ner
ti
a.Theset
wor
ect
angul
araxesar
ecal
l hepr
edt inci
palaxes
ofi
ner
ti
a.
Whenwesubst
it
utet
heabov
eequat
ionf
ort
hecr
it
icalv
alueof2θ i
ntheequat
i orI
onf x’,we
y’

seet
hatt
hepr
oductofi
ner
ti
aiszer
ofort
hepr
inci
palaxesofi
ner
ti
a.
Subst
it
uti
onofsi
n2αandcos2α,
obt
ainedf
rom t
het
an2αequat
ion,
f n2θandcos2θi
orsi nthe
equat
i orI
onf y’g
x’ i
vest
heexpr
essi
onsf
ort
hepr
inci
palmoment
sofi
ner
ti
aas