CHAPTER -5 2D TRANSFORMATION: A fundamental objective of 2D transformation is to simulate the movement and manipulation of objects in the plane. There are 2 points of view are used for describing the object movement. That is: i, The object itself is moved relative to a stationary co-ordinate system or background, The mathematical statement of this viewpoint is described by geometric transfer motions applied to each point of the object. The second view holds that the object is held stationary, while the co- ordinate system is moved relative to the object. This effect is attained through the application of co-ordinate transformations. The transformations are used directly by applis graphic sub-routines. ition programs and within many BASIC TRANSFORMATI 2D; In 2D Transformation, the basic transformation includes 3 parameters to reposition and resize the 2D objects. i.c.: Translation, Rotation and Scaling. i. TRANSLATION: A translation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a straight line path from one-coordinate location to another. We translate a 2D point by adding translation distance ‘t," and ‘t,’ to the original co-ordinate position (x, y) to move the point to a new position (x', y"). So, 76N=xtt,y=ytt—(I) ‘The translation distance pair (., t) is called a translation veetor or shift vector. The equation can be express as a single matrix equation by using the column veetor to represent co-ordinate positions and the translation vector pal) eel "|e “lx) PTT xy | 7 A 2D Rotation is applied to an object by repositioned it along a circular ti, ROTATION: path in xy-plane, To generate a rotation angle 6, and the position (x, y,) of the rotation or pivot point, about which the object is to be rotated. Positive values for the rotation angle define counter clockwise rotations about the pivot point and negative values rotate objects in clockwise direction. This transformation can also be described as a rotation about a rotation axis, which is perpendicular to xy-plane and passes through pivot point. The transformation equations for rotation of point position *P’, when the pivot point is at the co-ordinate origin, r= constant distance of the point from origin. 0 = rotation angle = original angular position of the point from horizontal. 77‘So, transformed co-ordinates in terms of angle 0 and ® are: x! = rcos(0 + ®) = reos@eos0 — rsin@sind —(1 y' = rsin(0 + ®) = rcos@sinO + rsin®cosd ‘The original co-ordinates of the point in polar co-ordinates are: x=reos® —(2) y=rin® o ‘Substitute equation — (2), in equation — (1), we get the transformation equation, for rotating a point of position (x, y) through an angle ‘0° about the Orn x’ = xcos@ — ysin0 —(3) y' = xsinO + yeos@ We can write the rotation equation in matrix from is: P’ = R.P — (4), where rotation matrix is: cos -sin® ® — (Clockwise direction) sind cos) cos? = sin® R (Anti-Clockwise -sin®d cos direction) When co-ordinate positions are represented as row vectors instead of column vectors, the matrix product in rotation equation — (4) is transposed, so that the transformed row co-ordinate veetor [x’, y'] is calculated as: 78P= (R.P)"=P'R' — (7) Where PT = [x y] R' = Transpose of *R’ obtain by interchanging the rows and columns, The transformation equation for rotation of a point about any specified rotation position (x,, y,) is: x' = x, + (x -x,)cos® - (y —y,)sinO — (8) Y= Yet (x —xe)sind + (y~yeeosd Example 1: Consider an object ‘ABC’ with co-ordinates A(1, 1), B(10, 1), (5, 5), Rotate the object by 90 degree in anticlockwise direction and give the co-ordinates of the transformed object. eh 2 la sino| | cos90 singo | fo 1 X=Blig 1) R=) sing cosa] ~|-sin90 caso |~|.1 0 Cis 5 roa yy faa sepsuini=|10 1]! } =|. 10/8 55 5 sic Example 2: Perform a 45 degree rotation of the object A(2, 1), B(5, 1) and (5, 6) in clockwise direction and give the co-ordinates of the transformed objects, 79Alea cos ~sind| feosds -sinds | [i/v2 -1/N2 X= B/5 1] R= = = sind cosO| |sindS — cosd5 WN2 V2 cl|5 6 : / Wa -1N2 32 -1N2) A M=IXHRI=) 5 1 =| 62-42 W212 ‘ WN2 W2)C iii, SCALING: A scaling transformation alters the size of the object. This operation can be carried out for polygons by multiplying the co-ordinate values (x, y) of each vertex by scaling factors *S, and ‘S,” to produce the transformed co- ordinates (x', y') as: x'=x,S,and y'=y.S,—(1) Sealing factors *S," seales objects in the x-direction, while *S,* scales in the y-direction, The transformation equation in matrix form is: Le sE}- Or, P'=S. P — (3) The scaling factors *S," and ‘S,” is less than |, reduce the size of objects, values greater than | produce an enlargement. Specifying a value of | for both *S.’ and “Sy* leaves the size of objects unchanged. When *S,” and *S,” 80are assigned the same value, a uniform scaling is produced that maintains relative object proportions. We can control the location of a scaled object by choosing a position, called the fixed point that is to remain unchanged after the scaling transformation. Co-ordinates for the fixed point (x,y) can be chosen as one of the vertices, the object centroid or any other position. For a vertex, with co-ordinates (x, y), the scaled co-ordinates (x', y') are calculated as: x’ =x, + (x—x)S, and y' = yy + (y—yoS,— (4) The scaling transformations to separate the multiplicative and additive items: x'=x.S, + x1 -S,)and y'=y.5, +ydl -S,) — (5) Where, the additive terms x41 — $,) and yl —S,) are constant for all points in the object. Example 1: Scale the object with co-ordinates A(2, 1), B(2, 3), C(4, 2) and D(4, 4) with a scale factor S, = S, = 2. s, 0 20 = X= 0 S,) Jo 2 8s evn ew = 81X'= [XLS] = [th Example 2: What will be the effect of scaling factor Sx = 1/2 and Sy = on a given triangle ABC whose co-ordinates are: A[4, 1), BUS, 2], C[4, 3]? enw an we oom ek an 41 Ss 0] [12 0 X=|§ 2) S= = os} |o ww 43 44 2018 2 X'=[X].[S}=| 5 2 j= | 5/2 2/3 4 SLE 88] |i OTHER TI iSFORMATIO! i. REFLECTION: A reflection is a transformation that produces a mirror image of an object, The mirror image for a 2D reflection is generated relative to an axis of reflection by the object 180 degree about the reflection axis, Reflection about x-axis, the line y = 0, the x-axis is accomplished with the transforming matrix is given below. This transformation keeps *x” values the same, but flips the y-value of co-ordinate positions.The reflection about y-axis flips *x’ co-ordinates while keeps "y" co- ordinates the same. The matrix for this transformation is: We flip both ‘x” and “y’ co-ordinates of a point by reflecting relative to an axis that is perpendicular to xy-plane and that passes through the co- ordinate origin. The transformation referred to as a reflection relative to the co-ordinate origin has the matrix representation is: -1 0 00 1 60 or} go -1 0 -l oot 83IF we choose the reflection axis as the diagonal line y = x, the reflection matrix is: oon or 1 0 To obtain a transformation matrix for reflection about the diagonal y = -x, we could concatenate matrices for transformation sequence. i. Clockwise rotation by 45 degree ii, Reflection about y-axis, iii, Counter clockwise rotation by 45 degree, The resulting transformation matrix is:Example: Consider a triangle ABC whose co-ordinate are; = [41], B=[5, 2], and C = [4, 3], a) Reflect the given triangle about x-axis; b) reflect the given triangle about y-axis, c) reflect the given triangle about y = x and d) reflect the given triangle about y =-x. a) The transformation matrix for reflection about x-axis is: 10 4 1 ITl= 0 4 X= 5 2) =X =IXITI= 4 3 b) The transformation matrix for reflection about y-axis: 410 4 1 m=], ,] %=|s 2| =x-0m- 4 c) The transformation matrix for reflection about y = x is: 0 41 (Tl= 1:0 X=]5 00g] = X= (XIITI= 4.3 d) The transformation matrix for reflection about y = -x is: 0-1 44 (l= 41 X=|5 3) = X=IXIITI= ii, SHEARING: 4 el 5 2 4°43 -4 061 -5 2 -4 43 1 4 2 5 34 -1 -4 2 5 4a 4 A transformation that distorts the shape of an object such that transformed shape appears as if the object were composed of internal layers that had been called to slide over each other is called a ‘Shear’, Two 85common shearing transformations are those shift co-ordinate x-values and those that shift y-values, An x-direction shear relative 0 x-axis is produced with transformation matrix is: This transforms co-ordinate position as: x'=x+sh,.y and y'=y —(2) A y-direction shear relative to y-axis is produced with transformation matrix is; This transforms co-ordinate position as: x'=xand y'=sh,.x+y—(4) Any real number can be assigned to the shear parameter ‘Shx’. A co- ordinate position (x, y) is then shifted horizontally by an amount Proportional to its distance (y-value) from x-axis (y = 0). We can generate x- direction shears relative to other reference lines with: 86With co-ordinate positions transformed as: x’ =x+sh,(y—yq) and y' = y — (6) A y-direction shear relative to the line x = x,y is generated with transformation matrix is; 1 0 0 hy 1 thy tea) 0 0 1 This generates transformed co-ordinate position: x? =x and y' = shy(x— Xp) + ¥ — (8) Example: Consider a unit square, find the co-ordinate of transformed object when the transformed matrix of shearing for x-axis, sh, = 2, =-wne 87ce 1 i ker Be a AM @o . (0,0) 1 2003 MATRIX REPRESENTATION AND HOMOGENEOUS CO-ORDINATES: The basic transformations can be expressed in the general matrix form: P'=M,.P +M,— (1) With co-ordinate positions *P" and ‘P” represented as column vectors, Matrix a 2 by 2 array containing translational terms. For translation, M, = identity matrix. For rotation or scaling, My contains the ‘translational terms associated with the pivot point or sealing fixed point. To express any 2D transformation as a matrix multiplication, we represent each Cartesian co-ordinate position (x, y) with the homogeneous co-ordinate triple (xp, Yn h) where: X= xy, y= yy — (2) A general homogeneous co-ordinate representation can also be written as (hx, h.y, h). For 2D geometric transformations, the homogencous parameter ‘h” must be any non-zero value. Thus there are an infinite number of equivalent homogeneous representations for each co-ordinate point (x, y). 88A convenient choice is simply to set h = 1. Each 2D position is then represented with homogeneous co-ordinates (x, y, |). Other values for parameter ‘h’ are needed, The homogeneous co-ordinates are used in mathematics to refer to the effect of this representation on Cartesian equations, When a Cartesian point (x, y) is converted to a homogeneous representation (x), y,, h) equations containing *x” and *y" such as f(x, y) = 0, become homogeneous equations in the three parameters x), yy and h. If each of the three parameters replaced by any value ‘v" times that parameter, the value *v' can be factored out of the equations, Expressing positions in homogeneous co-ordinates allows us to represent all geometric transformation equation as matrix multiplications. Co-ordinates. are represented with three clement column vectors and transformation operations are written as 3 by 3 matrices. For translation, we have: x 1 0 &I]x =jo 1 %!/¥| —@) 1 oo ait This can be written in abbreviated form: P'=T(t,, 4) Here T(t,, t,) as the 3 by 3 translation matrix. The inverse of the translation matrix is obtained by replacing the translation parameter ‘t,' and ‘t," with their negatives ‘- t," and *- t,", Rotation transformation equations about the co-ordinate origin are now written as: 89x cosd -sind =O] x y'|=| sina cose ol] y|—@) 1 o o af1 Or as, P' = R(@).P — (6) The rotation transformation operation R() is the 3 by 3 matrix with rotation parameter ‘0’, We get the inverse rotation matrix when ‘0’, We get the inverse rotation matrix when ‘6 is replaced with *- 0". Finally a sealing transformation relative to the co-ordinate origin is now expressed as the matrix multiplication. x S 0 0} x y[=]o0 S aly) —M 1 o o Ifa Or as, P' = S(S,, S,).P — (8) Here S(S,, S,) is the 3 by 3 matrix with parameter “S,’ and *S,", Replacing these parameters 1/S, and 1/S,, with their multiplicative inverse yields inverse scaling matrix. NSFORMATION BETWEEN CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS: Here, the two Cartesian system with the co-ordinate origins at (0, 0) and (xo, Yo) and with an orientation angle ‘O° between ‘x’ and x'-axis. To transform object description from ‘xy’ co-ordinate to ‘x'y" co-ordinates, we need to set up a transformation that super imposes the x'y'-axes into xy-axes. This is done in two steps:i, Translate so that the origin (xo. yo) of x'y’ system is moved to the origin of the xy xaxis Wis Leeann aifese = system. ii, Rotate the x’-axis onto the x-axis. RT Translation of the co-ordinate origin is expressed with the matrix operation, 1 0 “Xe TeX,-YO= | 0 1 -ye | — CD oo. The orientation of the two systems after the translation operation would appear. To get the axes of the two systems into coincidence, we then perform the clockwise rotation. cosd sind og) R(-0) = |-sin@ = cos® | —(2) 0 0 1 Concatenating these 2 transformations matrices gives us the complete composite matrix for transforming object descriptions from the xy-system to the x'y-system: 91An altemative method for giving the orientation of the second co-ordinate system is to specify a vector ‘V" that indicates the direction for the position of y'- axes. Yaris) y-axis x'-axis Vector *V* is specified as a point in the xy-reference frame relative to the origin of the xy-system. A unit vector in the y-direction can then obtained as: V=ViVi=(V,, ¥)— (4) The unit veetor ‘u* along x'-axis by rotating “V" as -90 degree clockwise as: w= (Vyy V4) = (thy ty) = (5) The elements of any rotation matrix could be expressed as elements of a set of orthogonal unit vectors. So the matrix to rotate x'y'-system into coincidence with the xy-system can be written as: uu @ R=|" vy 0} —(6) oot Suppose we choose the orientation for the y-axis as v = (-1, 0), then the x'-axis is in the positive y-direction and the rotation transformed matrix is: o10 a0 0] -™ oo1 92Equivalently, we can obtain this rotation matrix by setting the orientation angle as 0 = 90", In an interactive application, it may be more convenient to choose the direction for 'V" relative to position *P,’ than it is to specify it relative to the xy-co- ordinate origin, Unit vectors ‘u’ and "v’ would then be oriented. yroxis Jette ee x-axis The components of ‘v’ are now calculated =P\- as: V = Py — Py/|P) — Pol — (8), and *u’ is obtained as the perpendicular ‘v" that forms a right-handed Cartesian system. X-axis COMPOSITE TRANSFORMATION: i, TRANSLATION: If 2 successive translation vectors (t,;, ty:) and (1.2. t2) are applied to a co-ordinate position *P*, the final transformed location *P” is calculated as: Y= Tay ade FT (lane Cy)-P} = FT ars tea) Ty G1). PY = (1) Where, ‘P’ and *P” are represented as homogencous co-ordinate column vectors. The composite transformation matrix for this sequence of translation is: 10 ta|j/t @ ty 10) tutte O 1 t:}/o 2 ti)=]O 1 tithe |) oo 1 oo. oo. Orr, Ti thay ty2)eT(taay tya) = Tt # tay ty F ty) — GB) 93This demonstrates that 2 successive translations are additive, ii. ROTATION: Two successive rotations applied to point ‘P* produce the transformed position: P' = R(82).{R(0))-P} = {R(02)-R(0,)}-P — (1) By multiplying the 2 rotation matrices, we can verify that 2 successive rotations are-additive. That is: R(O:).R(8,) = RE, + 0) — (2) So, that the final rotated co-ordinates can be calculated with the composite rotation matrix as: P= R(@, + 6).P -- (3) iii, ING: ‘Coneatenating transformation matrix for 2 successive scaling operations produces the following composite sealing matrix: S. 9 O|/S, 0 0 SuSa 0 0 0 S: O}}0 Si O]=| 9 SS. 0 | —() o o Io ot 0 0 1 Or, SS.2y 8,2)-S(Su1, 8y1) = SB + Sure Sy + Sy2) — (2) iv, GENERAL PIVOT POINT ROTATION: We can generate rotations about any selected pivot point (x,, y,) by performing the following sequence, translate-rotate-translate operations.i. Translate the object, so that the pivot point position is moved to the co-ordinate origin. Rotate the object about the co-ordinate origin. Translate the object, so that the pivot-point is reformed to its original position. That is: T = [Ty] [Rol [Te = Tex, y)-R(O). TEx, -¥,) 1 0 x, || ¢cos® -sind = 0 0 -% = lo 1 ye || sin® cosd oO 1 vy oo iio o «8 0 8 1 cosd -sind =O}/1 0 0 =/o 1 off sind cod O}/0 1 0 Xe Ye 1 || O 0 L|J-xe Ye 1 Example: Consider a triangle ABC having co-ordinate a = (4, |], B = [5, 2] and C = [4, 3}. Rotate it by an angle 90 degree about point 'A’ in anticlockwise direction. Give the co-ordinates of rotated triangle. 1 o of /1 0 0 10° T1=}o 1 0/=|0 1 0] MM=15 4 g mn i] |4 1 19 441 cos90)—sin90 0 o 1 0 [Rol = |-sin90cos90 0) = |-1 0 o 1 oo # X!= [XLT] (T= (Te) [Rol (11 95° e e o s e ° 2 =>(T}= [9 1 Of} -1 o t O}=)-1 0 0 1 1{Loe ij|4 - 1 53 1 411 0 0 4a ax= [5 2 Illa 0 0] =|3 2 15 4°31 5§ 3 1 z21 «21 vy. GENERAL FIXED POINT SCALING: A transformation sequence to produce scaling with respect to a selected fixed point position (x; y;) using a scaling function that can only scale relative to the co-ordinate origin. i. Translate object, so that the fixed point coincides with the co-ordinate origin. ii, Seale the object with respect to the co-ordinate origin. iii, Use the inverse translation of step-1 to return the object to its original position. That is: T= [T,IS|[TT" 1 0 wl) Ss 0 Of]/1 0 =x s, 0 x15) yl|o s, of]/0 2 -yf =] 0 S ytt-Sy) —C) 9 T}}/0 Oo a}jo of 0 oO 1 => (xa ¥d-S(S,, S,)-T(-X6 -¥) = S(Kip Vin Sus Sy) — (2)Example: Consider an object ABCD with given co-ordinates A(10, 10), B(60, 10), C(60, 60) and D(10, 60), It is desired to double the size of the object, keeping in mind that point ‘A’ remains the same. T=(TASHT AY" and X’ = [X].{T] 1 0 o2 0 Ob O 2 0 0 tT=|/0 1 oo 2 0/9 F Ms) a 2 0 10 10 0 0 Fito -10 1 -10 -10 0 1 1 w a2 0 @ 10 10 1 x= [60 10 1 0 2 O}=|10 10 1 60 60 1-0 -10 4 10) 110 1 10 60 1 100 110 1 vie ‘ Ni NS: Parameters *S,° and *S,’ seale objects along the ‘x’ and *y’ directions. We can scale an object in other directions by rotating the object to align the desired scaling directions with the co-ordinate axes before applying the scaling transformations. ‘Suppose we want to apply scaling factors with values by parameters ‘S," and ‘S)" in the directions. To accomplish the scaling without changing the orientation of the object, we first perform a rotation, so that the directions for “S,' and ‘S," coincide with ‘x’ and ‘y’-axes respectively. Then, the scaling is applied, followed by an opposite rotation to return points to their original orientations, 97The composite matrix resulting from the product of these three transformations is: R'(0).S(S), $2).RO) S,cos*0 + S,sin?O = (S)—S,)cosOsind 0 = |(S:-SieosOsin®d —S,sin’9 + S,cos’8 0 0 o 1 vii, CONCATENATION PROPERTIES: Matrix multiplication is associative, For any 3 matrices A, B and C, the matrix product A.B.C can be performed by first multiplying “A* and ‘B' or by first multiplying ‘B’ and *C*: A.B.C = (A.B).C = A.(B.C). So, we can evaluate matrix products using either a left-to-right or right-to-left associative grouping, ‘On other hand, transformation products may not be cumulative. The matrix product A.B is not equal to B.A, in general. This means that if we want to translate and rotate an object. viii, GENERAL COMPOSITE TRANSFORMAITON AND COMPUTATIONAL EFFICIENCY: A general 2D transformation, representing a combination of translations, rotations and sealing can be expressed as: x rS,, Sy GS\]) x vel=| Sa Sy a8,|] y | am o Oo 1 98The 4 elements ‘rSy’ are the multiplicative rotation scaling terms containing in the transformation that involve only rotation angles and scaling factors. Elements t,$, and tS, are the translational terms containing combin: ions of translation distances pivot point and fixed point co- ordinates and rotation angle and scaling parameters. If an object is to be scaled and rotated about its centroid co-ordinates (x,, y,) and then translated, the values for the elements of the composite transformation matrix are: Tey t)-R(Xes Yer 8)-S(Key Yor Say Sy) S,cosd = — S,sinO—x,(1 - S,cos®) + y,S,sin@ +t, =| S,sind $,cos0 y<(1 —S,cos0)-x,S,sind +4, | — (2) 0 0 1 To explicit calculations for the transformed co-ordinates are: xearS,, +y.S,, +¢,S, and y' = vrS,, + y.rS,, + tS, — (3) A general rigid body transformation matrix, involving only translations and rotations can be expressed in the form: Where the four elements ‘ry’ are the multiplicative rotation terms and elements ‘f,," and ‘t,y" are the translational terms. A rigid body change in coordinate position is also sometimes referred to as a rigid-motion transformation, All angles and distances between co-ordinate positions are unchanged by the transformation. The matrix 3 has the property that its 99upper left 2 by 2 sub-matrix is an orthogonal matrix, This means that if we consider each row of the sub-matrix as a vector, then the 2 vectors (Fay Ty) and (ry,5 fy) from an orthogonal set of unit vectors, Each veetor has unit length: ry? + tyy? = ty? + ty) = 1 — (S) and the vectors are perpendicular i.e.: tyfay + Fytyy = 0 --- (6) (their dot product is 0). Therefore, if these unit vectors are transferred by the rotation sub-matrix (fas My) is converted to a unit vector along the x-axis and (Fj, Ty) is transformed into a unit vector along the y-axis of the co-ordinate system. hay 0 || ay th Tw Oll ny | =] 0 | —(7) o 0 1 1 1 To omy Ol ry 1 ™m™ hy Olfny |=] a | —@) 0 0 1 1 1 The rigid body transformation first rotates an object through an angle “0° about a pivot point (x,, yr). cos® =sin® x1 - cos0) + y,sinO +t, Try t)-ROy yn O)= | sind — cosd —ye(1 —cos8)—x,sind +t, | — (9) 0 0 1 The orthogonal unit vectors in the upper left 2 by 2 sub-matrix are (cosi, -sin0) and (sin®, cos) and unit vector (sin®, cos0) is converted by the transformation matrix into the unit vector (0, 1) in the y-direction. 100cosd -sind =O 1 cose 1 sind cas® 0 || sing} =| 0 | —(10) 0 0 1 1 1 When the rotation angle is small the trigonometric functions can be replaced with approximation values based on the first few terms of their power series expansions. For small enough angles, *cos0" is approximately | and ‘sin0" has value close to the value of *0° in radians. If we are rotating in small angular steps about the origin for instance, we can set cos0 to | and reduce transformation calculations at cach step to two. multiplications and two additions for each set of co-ordinates to be rotated. x'=x — ysin® and y' =xsin® — y — (11) Where ‘sin®” is evaluated once for all steps, assuming the rotation angle does not change. A TRANSFORMATIO! A co-ordinate transformation of the form: xs =ayxtayy +b, and y'=a,.x+a,y+b,— (I) This is called a 2-dimensional affine transformation. Each of the transformed co-ordinates *x"” and ‘ty is a linear function of the original co-ordinates ‘x’ and *y” and parameters ‘ay’ and ‘b," are constants determined by the transformation type. Affine transformations have the general properties that parallel lines are transformed into parallel lines and finites points map to finite points, 101Translation, Rotation, Scaling, Reflection and Shear are examples of two- dimensional affine transformation, Any general two-dimensional affine transformation can always be expressed as a composition of these 5 transformations. Another affine transformation is the conversion of co-ordinates descriptions from one reference system to another which can be described as a combination of translation and rotation. An affine transformation involving any rotation, translation and reflection preserves angles and lengths as well as parallel lines. For these 3 transformations the lengths and angle between two transformations, the lengths and angle between two lines remains the same afler the transformation. 102