7.

misssing the point

The Missing the Point Fallacy (also known as Ignoratio Elenchi, which means "ignorance of proof" in
Latin) occurs when an argument's conclusion does not logically follow from its premises. In this fallacy,
the speaker provides reasoning that may be valid or sound in itself, but the conclusion drawn is
irrelevant to the main issue or argument.

Irrelevant-the premise is not related to the conclusion.

occurs when the premises of an argument support one particular conclusion, but its a different
conclusion.

whenever one suspects that such a fallacy is being committed, he or she should be able to identify the
correct conclusion, the conclusion that the premises logically imply.

Example 3: Academic Performance

Argument: "Students are struggling to meet basic literacy standards."

Conclusion: "We need to extend school hours by two hours a day."

Analysis: This conclusion misses the point by focusing on quantity rather than the quality of teaching.

Bear in mind that the questions that will be in the exam will be far more than complicated than this so
add more examples in textbook…
 2: Fallacies of Weak Induction

In some arguments, premises provide strong reason for the conclusion to be acceptable.
Sometimes, however, premises may not successfully support the conclusion. If premises do not support
the conclusion.

Strongly then the resulting argument become argument of weak induction.

The Fallacy of Weak Induction occurs when the connection between the premises and conclusion is not
strong enough to be persuasive or logical. In these fallacies, the evidence provided is insufficient to
support the conclusion convincingly. Even if the premises are true, they do not adequately justify the
conclusion.

What Does "Premises Are Insufficient for the Conclusion" Mean?

When we say the premises are insufficient for the conclusion, it means that the evidence or reasons
provided do not adequately justify the conclusion drawn. The premises may be true but fail to provide
enough logical support for the conclusion, making it weak or unconvincing.

Examples of Sufficient Premises

1. Mathematical Reasoning:

Premise 1: All squares have four equal sides.

Premise 2: This shape is a square.

Conclusion: Therefore, this shape has four equal sides.

Analysis: The premises fully support the conclusion, making it logically sound.

The fallacy of weak induction violates the principles of sufficiency

The fallacies of weak induction occur not because the premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion,
as is the case with the eight fallacies of relevance, but because the connection between premises
and conclusion is not strong enough to support the conclusion.

1.Appeal to Unqualified Authority (Fallacy)

The Appeal to Unqualified Authority (also called Argumentum ad Verecundiam) occurs when someone
uses the opinion of an authority figure or expert to support a claim, but the authority lacks the necessary
expertise in the relevant subject. Simply put, just because someone is famous, respected, or
knowledgeable in one field doesn't mean their opinion is valid in another.

One may get information from another person who has the facts

,so you will have to rely on presumption or trust that your source is knowledgeable and honest and is
not misinforming you.
 Examples

1. Celebrity Endorsement:

"This famous actor says that this supplement cures cancer, so it must be true."

Analysis: An actor may know a lot about acting but lacks medical expertise to make such claims.

2. Irrelevant Expertise:

"A world-renowned physicist claims that the stock market will crash soon."

Analysis: Being an expert in physics doesn’t make the person an authority in finance.

2.Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam)

The Appeal to Ignorance fallacy occurs when a conclusion is drawn based solely on the absence of
evidence rather than the presence of valid reasoning. This fallacy assumes that a claim is true because it
has not been proven false or that it is false because it has not been proven true.

Examples

1. Existence of Extraterrestrial Life:

"No one has proven that aliens don't exist, so they must be real."

Analysis: The lack of evidence against aliens does not prove they exist

Example 2:

People have been trying for centuries to provide conclusive evidence for the claims that
Haileselassie I of Ethiopia is the descendant of King David of Israel and no one has ever
succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude that Haileselassie I of Ethiopia is not the descendant of King
David of Israel.

11)Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)

Hasty generalization is a defective form of argument from inductive generalization. A

Characteristics of Hasty Generalization

1. Small Sample Size: The conclusion is drawn from a sample too small to be representative.

2. Unrepresentative Sample: The sample does not accurately reflect the larger group.

3. Quick Judgments: A desire for quick conclusions without considering all the evidence.
 . For example, if we wanted to know the opinion of the student body at a certain university about
whether to adopt a law prohibiting the use of face book in campuses, we could take a poll of 10
per cent of the students. If the results of the poll showed that 80 percent of those sampled favored
the law, we might draw the conclusion that 80 percent of the entire student body favored it. These
illustrate the use of statistics in inductive argumentation.

The problem that arises with the use of samples has to do with whether the sample is
representative of the population. Samples that are not representative are said to be biased.

In determining whether a sample is biased. These considerations include

(1) whether the sample is randomly selected,

(2) the size of the sample, and

(3) psychological factor

A biased sample is when the data collected does not accurately represent the entire population because
it focuses on only a particular subgroup. for example, taking samples only from Gambela (where most
people have darker skin) and concluding that all Ethiopians are black ignores the diversity present in
other regions of Ethiopia.

To avoid a biased sample:

1. size of the sample-as size increase the hasty generalization decreases.

2. Randomization: Ensure that sample selection does not favor any particular group.

Random selection-A sample is random if and only if every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected

3. Proportional Representation: Make sure the sample reflects the diversity of the population.

12.False cause fallacy