Pixel Transforms in Computer Vision (Point Operators)

In computer vision, pixel transforms (also called point operations) refer to image
processing techniques that modify pixel values based solely on their original intensity,
independent of their spatial relationships with other pixels. These operations are applied
pointwise, meaning each pixel is transformed independently.

The given mathematical expression represents a general form of image processing operations,
particularly in point operations and neighborhood operations in computer vision.

Key Property: The transformation considers multiple pixels (context-aware processing).

Based on the image you provided, the context is image matting and compositing, not
specifically color transforms. However, color plays a crucial role in these processes. Let's
break down how color is relevant:

Image Matting and Compositing

  Image Matting: The process of accurately separating a foreground object from its
background in an image. This is crucial for tasks like creating special effects, editing
images, and object insertion.
 Compositing: The process of combining a foreground object with a new background.

How Color is Involved

1. Distinguishing Foreground from Background:

o Color differences are often the primary cue used to distinguish the foreground
object from the background. Algorithms analyze color variations to identify
edges and boundaries.
o In the example, the color of the bear differs significantly from the blue
checkerboard background in (a), making it possible to separate them.
2. Alpha Matte Generation (c):
o An alpha matte is a grayscale image that represents the opacity of each pixel in
the foreground object.
o Color information is used to create the alpha matte. Pixels with colors strongly
associated with the foreground are assigned high alpha values (close to white),
while pixels associated with the background are assigned low alpha values
(close to black).
o The grayscale representation in (c) is derived from the color information in
(a).
3. Color Consistency in Compositing (d):
o When compositing the foreground onto a new background, color consistency
is essential for a realistic result.
o Techniques like color correction and color transfer may be used to adjust the
colors of the foreground object to match the lighting and color palette of the
new background.
o The colors of the bear in (d) are meant to look natural within the new
background scene.

In Summary

While the image is about matting and compositing, color is the fundamental data that enables
these processes. Color differences are the key to separating foreground from background, and
color adjustments are often needed to create seamless composites.

How Color Transforms Might Be Used (Though Not Explicitly Shown)

 Color Space Conversions: Algorithms might convert the image from RGB to other
color spaces (like HSV or Lab) to make it easier to analyze color differences or create
the alpha matte.
 Color Correction: after the image is composited, color correction techniques may be
used to make the foreground image blend better into the background image.
Histogram equalization is a fundamental image processing technique used to enhance the
contrast of an image by redistributing pixel intensities. It's particularly useful for images with
poor contrast, where the intensity values are concentrated in a narrow range. Here's an
explanation of histogram equalization in computer vision:

Understanding Histograms

 A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of pixel intensities in an

image. It shows how frequently each intensity value occurs.
 The x-axis represents the intensity levels (usually 0 to 255 for grayscale images), and
the y-axis represents the number of pixels with that intensity.

The Problem with Low Contrast Images

 Images with low contrast often have histograms where the pixel intensities are
clustered together in a small portion of the intensity range.
 This results in a dull, washed-out appearance with details being difficult to discern.

How Histogram Equalization Works

1. Calculate the Image Histogram: Determine the frequency of each intensity level in
the image.
2. Calculate the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF): The CDF represents the
cumulative probability of a pixel having an intensity less than or equal to a given
value. It's obtained by summing up the histogram values from the lowest intensity to
the current intensity.
3. Normalize the CDF: Scale the CDF so that its values range from 0 to the maximum
intensity level (e.g., 0 to 255). This ensures that the output image covers the entire
intensity range.
4. Map the Intensities: Use the normalized CDF to map the original pixel intensities to
new intensity values. This mapping spreads out the intensity values, effectively
redistributing them to cover the full intensity range.

The Effect of Histogram Equalization

 The resulting image will have a more uniform distribution of intensities, leading to
increased contrast and improved visibility of details.
 The histogram of the equalized image will be more spread out compared to the
original histogram.

Applications in Computer Vision

 Improving Visual Quality: Making details more visible in low-contrast images.

 Preprocessing for Feature Extraction: Enhancing images before applying feature
extraction algorithms, as some algorithms are sensitive to contrast.
 Medical Image Analysis: Improving the contrast of X-ray images or other medical
scans to aid in diagnosis.
 Object Recognition: Increasing the contrast of images can sometimes improve the
performance of object recognition systems.
Limitations

 Histogram equalization is a global operation, meaning it applies the same

transformation to all pixels in the image. This can sometimes lead to unnatural-
looking results or loss of detail in certain areas.
 It may not be suitable for all types of images, especially those where preserving the
original contrast is important.

This formula represents the cumulative distribution function (CDF) used in histogram
equalization in image processing. Let's break it down:

Understanding the Components

 h(i): This represents the histogram of the image. It gives the number of pixels with
intensity value i. Essentially, it counts how many times each intensity level appears in
the image.
 I: This is the intensity level (e.g., in an 8-bit grayscale image, I would range from 0
to 255).
 N: This is the total number of pixels in the image.
 c(I): This represents the cumulative distribution function (CDF) at intensity level I.
It gives the probability of a pixel having an intensity less than or equal to I.

Breaking Down the Formula

1. c(I) = (1/N) * Σ (from i=0 to I) h(i):

o This part calculates the CDF directly.
o It sums up the histogram values from intensity 0 up to intensity I. This gives
the total number of pixels with intensity less than or equal to I.
o It then divides this sum by the total number of pixels (N) to normalize it,
giving the probability or the cumulative distribution value.
2. c(I) = c(I-1) + (1/N) * h(I):
o This part provides an efficient recursive way to calculate the CDF.
o It says that the CDF at intensity I is equal to the CDF at the previous intensity
I-1 plus the normalized histogram value at intensity I.
o This is useful because it avoids recalculating the entire sum for each intensity
level. You can simply use the previously calculated CDF value and add the
contribution of the current intensity.

How This is Used in Histogram Equalization

1. Calculate the Histogram (h(i)): First, you need to calculate the histogram of the
input image.
2. Calculate the CDF (c(I)): Use the formula (either the summation or the recursive
form) to calculate the CDF for each intensity level.
3. Normalize the CDF: The CDF values are usually scaled to the range of the output
intensity levels (e.g., 0 to 255 for an 8-bit image). This is done by multiplying the
CDF by the maximum intensity value.
4. Map the Intensities: Finally, you use the normalized CDF as a lookup table. For each
pixel in the original image, you use its intensity value as an index into the normalized
 CDF. The value you find in the CDF becomes the new intensity value for that pixel in
the output image.

This formula represents bilinear interpolation, a technique used in image processing and
computer graphics to estimate the value of a function (often representing pixel values) at an
arbitrary point based on its values at four neighboring points. Let's break down the formula:

Understanding the Components

 f(I): This represents the function we want to interpolate. In image processing, I could
represent the coordinates of a pixel, and f(I) would be the pixel's intensity or color
value.
 s, t: These are fractional coordinates that represent the position of the point we want
to interpolate within a unit square defined by the four neighboring points. They
typically range from 0 to 1.
o s represents the position along the horizontal axis.
o t represents the position along the vertical axis.

 f₀₀(I), f₁₀(I), f₀₁(I), f₁₁(I):

These represent the values of the function at the four corners of the unit square. The
subscripts indicate the relative positions of these corners:
o f₀₀(I): The value at the bottom-left corner (s=0, t=0).
o f₁₀(I): The value at the bottom-right corner (s=1, t=0).
o f₀₁(I): The value at the top-left corner (s=0, t=1).
o f₁₁(I): The value at the top-right corner (s=1, t=1).
 f_s,t(I): This is the interpolated value of the function at the point (s, t)
within the unit square.

Explanation of the Formula

The formula calculates the interpolated value as a weighted average of the four corner values.
The weights are determined by the fractional coordinates s and t.

1. (1 - s)(1 - t)f₀₀(I): This term represents the contribution of the bottom-

left corner. The weight (1 - s)(1 - t) is highest when s and t are close to 0, and it
decreases as s and t increase.
2. s(1 - t)f₁₀(I): This term represents the contribution of the bottom-right
corner. The weight s(1 - t) is highest when s is close to 1 and t is close to 0.
3. (1 - s)tf₀₁(I): This term represents the contribution of the top-left
corner. The weight (1 - s)t is highest when s is close to 0 and t is close to 1.
4. stf₁₁(I): This term represents the contribution of the top-right corner.
The weight st is highest when s and t are close to 1.

How Bilinear Interpolation Works

 1. Locate the Neighbors: Find the four neighboring pixels that surround the point we
want to interpolate.
2. Determine Fractional Coordinates: Calculate the fractional coordinates (s, t) that
represent the position of the point within the unit square formed by the neighbors.
3. Apply the Formula: Use the formula to calculate the weighted average of the four
corner values, using the fractional coordinates as weights.

In essence, bilinear interpolation provides a smooth and continuous way to estimate

values between known data points, making it a valuable technique in various image
processing and computer graphics applications

Applications

 Local Histograms: This formula is used to build histograms for local regions of an
image, where (k, l) might represent the coordinates of a sub-region.
 Weighted Histograms: The weights can be used to give more importance to certain
pixels or features when building the histogram. For example, edge pixels might be
given higher weights.
  Feature Descriptors: In some feature descriptors, histograms are used to represent
the distribution of certain features (e.g., gradients, orientations) in a local region. The
weights can be used to emphasize certain feature values.
 Spatial Histograms: When the k and l refer to spatial locations, this formula is used
to generate histograms that capture information about the spatial distribution of pixel
values or features.

Linear filtering is a fundamental operation in computer vision and image processing. It

involves modifying the pixels of an image based on a weighted combination of neighboring
pixels. This is achieved using a filter kernel (also called a mask or convolution matrix),
which is a small matrix of values that define the weights.

How Linear Filtering Works

1. Kernel Placement: The kernel is placed over each pixel in the input image.
2. Weighted Sum: The values in the kernel are multiplied by the corresponding pixel
values under the kernel.
3. Summation: The results of these multiplications are summed up to produce a single
output value for the pixel under the center of the kernel.
4. Output Image: This process is repeated for every pixel in the input image, resulting
in a new, filtered output image.

Key Concepts

 Filter Kernel: The kernel defines the type of filtering operation. Different kernels
produce different effects.
 Neighborhood: The kernel defines the neighborhood of pixels that influence the
output value of a given pixel.
 Linearity: The operation is linear because it involves weighted sums of pixel values.

Types of Linear Filters

 Smoothing Filters:
o Average Filter: Replaces each pixel with the average of its neighbors,
blurring the image and reducing noise.
o Gaussian Filter: Similar to the average filter, but uses a Gaussian distribution
to weight the neighbors, resulting in a smoother blur.
 Sharpening Filters:
o Laplacian Filter: Enhances edges and details by highlighting differences in
intensity between pixels.
 Edge Detection Filters:
o Sobel Filter: Detects edges by calculating intensity gradients in horizontal and
vertical directions.
o Prewitt Filter: Similar to Sobel, but uses a slightly different kernel.
 Custom Filters: You can design custom kernels to achieve specific effects, such as
embossing or motion blur.

Applications in Computer Vision

 Noise Reduction: Smoothing filters are used to reduce noise in images.

  Edge Detection: Edge detection filters are used to identify object boundaries and
features.
 Feature Extraction: Linear filtering can be used to extract specific features from
images, such as textures or corners.
 Image Enhancement: Sharpening filters can enhance details and improve image
clarity.
 Image Restoration: Linear filters can be used to remove blur or other distortions
from images.

Advantages of Linear Filtering

 Simplicity: Relatively simple to implement and understand.

 Efficiency: Can be implemented efficiently using convolution operations.
 Versatility: A wide range of effects can be achieved by using different kernels.

Limitations

 Loss of Information: Some filters can result in loss of detail or fine textures.
 Sensitivity to Noise: Some filters can amplify noise in the image.
 Limited Scope: Linear filters are not suitable for all image processing tasks,
especially those that require non-linear operations.

This formula represents the core operation of linear filtering or convolution in image
processing. Let's break it down:

Understanding the Components

 f(i, j): This represents the input image. It's a function that gives the pixel intensity or
value at coordinates (i, j).
 g(i, j): This represents the output image after the filtering operation. It gives the pixel
intensity or value at coordinates (i, j) in the filtered image.
 h(k, l): This represents the filter kernel or convolution mask. It's a small matrix of
weights that define the filtering operation. (k, l) are indices that traverse the kernel.
 Σ (summation): This indicates that we're summing up the results of the multiplication
for all values of k and l within the kernel.

Explanation of the Formula

The formula calculates the value of a pixel in the output image (g(i, j)) by performing a
weighted sum of neighboring pixels in the input image (f(i, j)). Here's a step-by-step
breakdown:

1. Kernel Placement: Imagine placing the center of the kernel h(k, l) over the pixel
at coordinates (i, j) in the input image f(i, j).
2. Neighborhood Access: For each element h(k, l) in the kernel, we access the
corresponding pixel in the input image f(i + k, j + l). This effectively looks at a
neighborhood of pixels around (i, j).
 3. Weighted Multiplication: We multiply each kernel element h(k, l) by the
corresponding pixel value f(i + k, j + l). This assigns a weight to each
neighboring pixel based on the kernel's values.
4. Summation: We sum up all the products obtained in the previous step. This gives us
the weighted sum of the neighboring pixels.
5. Output Pixel: The result of the summation is assigned as the value of the pixel g(i,
j) in the output image.

In simpler terms:

Imagine you have a small window (the kernel) that you slide over the input image. For each
position of the window, you multiply the values in the window by the corresponding pixel
values in the image, sum up the results, and store the sum as the output pixel value.

Applications

This formula is fundamental to many image processing tasks, including:

 Blurring: By using a kernel with averaging weights, you can blur an image.
 Sharpening: By using a kernel that emphasizes differences in pixel values, you can
sharpen an image.
 Edge Detection: By using kernels that detect changes in intensity, you can find edges
in an image.
 Noise Reduction: By using kernels that smooth out variations in pixel values, you
can reduce noise.

Key Points

 The size and values of the kernel h(k, l) determine the type of filtering operation
performed.
 The formula represents a linear operation because it involves weighted sums of pixel
values.
 This operation is also known as convolution, which is a fundamental concept in
signal and image processing.
This formula seems to be presenting a notational equivalence or a transformation
relationship, but it's crucially incomplete and potentially misleading without more context.
Let's break down what we can infer and point out the issues:

Understanding the Components (Inferred from Previous Context)

 f(i, j): Input image (or a function representing it).

 g(i, j): Output image (or a function representing it).
 i, j: Coordinates of a pixel.
 k, l: Indices related to a kernel or offset.

∘: Represents function composition.

 h: Likely represents a filter kernel or some kind of transformation function.


Breaking Down the Formula (With Caveats)

The formula attempts to relate two expressions:

1. g(i, j) = f(i + k, j + l):

o This looks like a simple pixel translation or shifting operation. It says that
the value of the output pixel g(i, j) is equal to the value of the input pixel f
at coordinates shifted by k and l.
o This is not a general representation of linear filtering or convolution, as
we saw in the previous example. It's a very specific case of a shift.
 The context in which this equivalence is being used.
 If it's meant to represent convolution, the missing summation needs to be added.

This figure illustrates how one-dimensional signal convolution can be represented as a

sparse matrix-vector multiplication. Let's break down the components and the concept:

Components:

 Left Side:
o [72 88 62 52 37]: This represents the input signal (f). It's a one-dimensional
array of values.
o [1/4 1/2 1/4]: This represents the convolution kernel (h). It's also a one-
dimensional array of weights.
o *: This symbol denotes the convolution operation.
 Right Side:
o [2 1 . . .]... [1 2]: This is the sparse matrix (H). It's constructed based on the
convolution kernel.
o [72 88 62 52 37]: This is the same input signal (f) represented as a column
vector.
o 1/4: This is a scaling factor applied to the entire matrix multiplication.

Explanation:

1. Convolution as a Sliding Window:

 o Convolution involves sliding the kernel across the input signal. At each
position, you multiply the kernel values with the corresponding signal values
and sum the results. This sum becomes the output value at that position.
2. Matrix Representation:
o The sparse matrix (H) encodes the convolution operation. Each row of the
matrix corresponds to a position where the kernel is applied to the input signal.
o The non-zero elements in each row represent the weights of the kernel. Notice
that the kernel values (2, 1) are repeated along the diagonals of the matrix.
o The matrix is sparse because most of its elements are zero. This is because the
kernel has a limited size, so only a few signal values contribute to each output
value.
3. Matrix-Vector Multiplication:
o Multiplying the sparse matrix (H) with the input signal vector (f) performs the
convolution operation.
o Each element of the resulting vector (g) is the output of the convolution at the
corresponding position.
4. Scaling Factor:
o The 1/4 factor is applied to the matrix multiplication result to normalize the
output, as the kernel values in this case are 1/4, 1/2, 1/4.

Why Sparse Matrix?

 Efficiency: Storing and computing with sparse matrices is more efficient than with
dense matrices, especially when dealing with large signals and small kernels.
 Memory Savings: Sparse matrices only store the non-zero elements, saving memory.

In essence, this figure demonstrates that the convolution operation, which is typically
understood as a sliding window operation, can be equivalently represented as a matrix-vector
multiplication using a sparse matrix. This representation is useful for understanding the
underlying mathematical structure of convolution and for efficient implementation.

Padding, also known as border effects, is a technique used in image processing and computer
vision, especially when performing operations like convolution or filtering. It involves adding
extra layers of pixels around the border of an image. This addresses the issue of how to
handle pixels near the edges of an image when a filter kernel extends beyond the original
image boundaries.

Here's a breakdown of padding:

Why Padding is Needed:

 Kernel Extends Beyond Borders: When applying a filter kernel to an image,

especially larger kernels, the kernel will inevitably extend beyond the original image
boundaries at the edges.
 Missing Pixel Values: Without padding, you'd be attempting to access pixel values
that don't exist, leading to errors or undefined behavior.
 Edge Effects: Without padding, edge pixels might be processed differently, leading
to unwanted artifacts in the output image.

Common Padding Methods:

  Zero Padding:
o The simplest method.
o Adds a border of pixels with a value of zero.
o Can introduce dark borders or artifacts if the image has bright edges.
 Constant Padding:
o Adds a border of pixels with a constant value (not necessarily zero).
o Useful when you want to use a specific background color.
 Replication Padding (or Border Replication):
o Extends the border by replicating the values of the nearest border pixels.
o Helps to minimize edge artifacts.
 Reflection Padding (or Mirror Padding):
o Extends the border by reflecting the pixel values across the image edges.
o Often produces better results than replication padding, especially for smooth
transitions.
 Circular Padding (or Wrap Padding):
o Treats the image as if it were wrapped around, so the right edge is adjacent to
the left edge, and the bottom edge is adjacent to the top edge.
o Useful for certain types of image processing, such as frequency domain
filtering.

How Padding Works:

1. Determine Padding Size: The padding size is typically determined by the size of the
filter kernel. For example, if you have a 3x3 kernel, you might add a padding of 1
pixel around the image.
2. Add Border Pixels: The appropriate padding method is used to add the extra border
pixels to the image.
3. Apply Filter: The filter kernel is then applied to the padded image.
4. Remove Padding: The padding is removed from the filtered image, leaving the
output image with the same dimensions as the original input image.

Impact of Padding:

 Output Size: Padding can affect the size of the output image. Some padding methods
keep the output the same size as the input, while others might produce a larger output.
 Edge Artifacts: Different padding methods can introduce different types of edge
artifacts. Choosing the right padding method is important for minimizing these
artifacts.
 Computational Cost: Padding adds extra pixels to the image, which can increase the
computational cost of filtering.

In summary, padding is an essential technique in image processing that helps to handle edge
effects and ensure that filters can be applied correctly to all pixels in an image. The choice of
padding method depends on the specific application and the desired results.

Separable filtering is a powerful optimization technique used in computer vision and image
processing to significantly reduce the computational cost of 2D filtering operations. Here's a
breakdown:

The Core Idea:

  A 2D filter kernel is considered "separable" if it can be decomposed into the product
of two 1D kernels: one horizontal and one vertical.
 Instead of performing a single 2D convolution, you can achieve the same result by
performing two consecutive 1D convolutions.

Why This Matters:

 Computational Efficiency:
o 2D convolution requires a number of operations proportional to the kernel's
area (e.g., N x N).
o Separable filtering reduces this to a number of operations proportional to the
kernel's width plus its height (e.g., N + N).
o This difference becomes substantial for larger kernels, leading to significant
speedups.

How It Works:

1. Kernel Decomposition:
o The first step is to determine if a 2D kernel is separable.
o If it is, you decompose it into two 1D kernels.
2. 1D Horizontal Convolution:
o Apply the horizontal 1D kernel to each row of the image.
3. 1D Vertical Convolution:
o Apply the vertical 1D kernel to each column of the intermediate result from
the horizontal convolution.

Examples of Separable Filters:

 Gaussian Blur:
o A very common smoothing filter.
o Its kernel is inherently separable, making it highly efficient.
 Sobel Operator:
o Used for edge detection.
o Also separable, allowing for optimized edge detection.

Benefits:

 Faster Processing: Reduced computational load, especially for large kernels.

 Resource Savings: Less memory and processing power required.

Key Considerations:

 Not All Filters Are Separable: Only certain types of filters can be decomposed.
 Implementation Overhead: There might be some overhead associated with
performing two separate 1D convolutions, but this is usually outweighed by the
performance gains.

In essence:
Separable filtering is a valuable optimization that leverages the properties of certain filter
kernels to drastically improve the speed of 2D image filtering.

This technique is widely used in real-time image processing applications where efficiency is
crucial.
Sources and related content
Certainly, let's explore some common examples of linear filtering in computer vision, along
with their applications:

1. Smoothing Filters

 Average Filter (Box Filter):

o Replaces each pixel with the average of its neighbors.
o Reduces noise but can blur edges.
o Example kernel (3x3):

Gaussian Filter:

 A weighted average filter that gives more weight to central pixels.

 Produces a smoother blur than the average filter.

Applications: Noise reduction, image smoothing, pre-processing for feature extraction.

2. Sharpening Filters

 Laplacian Filter:
o Enhances edges and details by highlighting differences in intensity.
Certainly, let's explore some common examples of linear filtering in computer vision, along
with their applications:

1. Smoothing Filters

 Average Filter (Box Filter):

o Replaces each pixel with the average of its neighbors.
o Reduces noise but can blur edges.
o Example kernel (3x3):
 1/9 1/9 1/9
 1/9 1/9 1/9
 1/9 1/9 1/9
 Gaussian Filter:
o A weighted average filter that gives more weight to central pixels.
o Produces a smoother blur than the average filter.
o Example kernel (3x3):
 1/16 2/16 1/16
 2/16 4/16 2/16
 1/16 2/16 1/16

Applications: Noise reduction, image smoothing, pre-processing for feature extraction.

2. Sharpening Filters

 Laplacian Filter:
o Enhances edges and details by highlighting differences in intensity.
o Example kernel (3x3):
 0 -1 0
 -1 4 -1
 0 -1 0

Applications: Edge enhancement, image deblurring.

3. Edge Detection Filters

 Sobel Filter:
o Detects edges by calculating intensity gradients in horizontal and vertical
directions.

Prewitt Filter:

 Similar to Sobel, but with slightly different weights.

 Example kernels (3x3):

Horizontal: Vertical:
-1 0 1 -1 -1 -1
-1 0 1 0 0 0
-1 0 1 1 1 1

Certainly, let's explore some common examples of linear filtering in computer vision, along
with their applications:
1. Smoothing Filters

 Average Filter (Box Filter):

o Replaces each pixel with the average of its neighbors.
o Reduces noise but can blur edges.
o Example kernel (3x3):
 1/9 1/9 1/9
 1/9 1/9 1/9
 1/9 1/9 1/9
 Gaussian Filter:
o A weighted average filter that gives more weight to central pixels.
o Produces a smoother blur than the average filter.
o Example kernel (3x3):
 1/16 2/16 1/16
 2/16 4/16 2/16
 1/16 2/16 1/16

Applications: Noise reduction, image smoothing, pre-processing for feature extraction.

2. Sharpening Filters

 Laplacian Filter:
o Enhances edges and details by highlighting differences in intensity.
o Example kernel (3x3):
 0 -1 0
 -1 4 -1
 0 -1 0

Applications: Edge enhancement, image deblurring.

3. Edge Detection Filters

 Sobel Filter:
o Detects edges by calculating intensity gradients in horizontal and vertical
directions.
o Example kernels (3x3):
 Horizontal: Vertical:
 -1 0 1 -1 -2 -1
 -2 0 2 0 0 0
 -1 0 1 1 2 1
 Prewitt Filter:
o Similar to Sobel, but with slightly different weights.
o Example kernels (3x3):
 Horizontal: Vertical:
 -1 0 1 -1 -1 -1
 -1 0 1 0 0 0
 -1 0 1 1 1 1

Applications: Object detection, image segmentation, feature extraction.

4. Custom Filters
  You can design custom kernels to achieve specific effects, such as embossing, motion
blur, or directional filtering.

Applications: Artistic effects, image manipulation, specialized image processing tasks.

Key Points:

 The choice of filter kernel determines the type of filtering operation and its effect on
the image.
 Linear filters are fundamental building blocks in computer vision, used for a wide
range of image processing and analysis tasks.