MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SYSTEMS

Lesson 1 Number System

Lesson 2 Introduction to Logic

Gates

Lesson 3 Boolean Algebra

Theorems

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MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SYSTEMS

 INTRODUCTION

The commercial availability of devices using digital technology to

receive, manipulate, and transmit information seems to have exploded. Cell
phones and handheld devices of various kinds offer new, competing features
almost daily. Underneath the attractive graphical user interface of all of
these devices sits a digital system that processes data in a binary format.
The theoretical foundations of these systems have not changed much;
indeed, one could argue that the stability of the core theory, coupled with
modern design tools, has promoted the widespread response of
manufacturers to the opportunities of the marketplace.
This module provides a review of number system, coding and Boolean
Algebra.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Familiarize yourself to digital systems.

2. Recall the number system.
3. Define Logic Gates.
4. Demonstrate through examples the Boolean algebra theorems.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully
then answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have
benefited from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output
to your instructor or to the COE office.

In case you encounter difficulty, contact your instructor.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 Number System

Digital systems have such a prominent role in everyday life that we

refer to the present technological period as the digital age. Digital systems
are used in communication, business transactions, traffic control, spacecraft
guidance, medical treatment, weather monitoring, the Internet, and many
other commercial, industrial, and scientific enterprises. We have digital
telephones, digital televisions, digital versatile discs, digital cameras,
handheld devices, and, of course, digital computers. We enjoy music
downloaded to our portable media player (e.g., iPod Touch™) and other
handheld devices having high resolution displays. These devices have
graphical user interfaces (GUIs), which enable them to execute commands
that appear to the user to be simple, but which, in fact, involve precise
execution of a sequence of complex internal instructions. Most, if not all, of
these devices have a special‐purpose digital computer embedded within
them. The most striking property of the digital computer is its generality. It
can follow a sequence of instructions, called a program, that operates on
given data. The user can specify and change the program or the data
according to the specific need. Because of this flexibility, general‐purpose
digital computers can perform a variety of information‐processing tasks that
range over a wide spectrum of applications.
One characteristic of digital systems is their ability to represent and
manipulate discrete elements of information. Any set that is restricted to a
finite number of elements contains discrete information. Examples of
discrete sets are the 10 decimal digits, the 26 letters of the alphabet, the
52 playing cards, and the 64 squares of a chessboard. Early digital
computers were used for numeric computations. In this case, the discrete
elements were the digits. From this application, the term digital computer
emerged. Discrete elements of information are represented in a digital
system by physical quantities called signals. Electrical signals such as
voltages and currents are the most common. Electronic devices called
transistors predominate in the circuitry that implements these signals. The
signals in most present‐day electronic digital systems use just two discrete
values and are therefore said to be binary. A binary digit, called a bit, has
two values: 0 and 1. Discrete elements of information are represented with
groups of bits called binary codes. For example, the decimal digits 0 through
9 are represented in a digital system with a code of four bits (e.g., the
number 7 is represented by 0111). How a pattern of bits is interpreted as a
number depends on the code system in which it resides. To make this
distinction, we could write (0111)2 to indicate that the pattern 0111 is to be
interpreted in a binary system, and (0111)10 to indicate that the reference
system is decimal. Then 01112 = 710 , which is not the same as 011110 , or
one hundred eleven. The subscript indicating the base for interpreting a
pattern of bits will be used only when clarification is needed. Through

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various techniques, groups of bits can be made to represent discrete

symbols, not necessarily numbers, which are then used to develop the
system in a digital format. Thus, a digital system is a system that
manipulates discrete elements of information represented internally in
binary form. In today’s technology, binary systems are most practical
because, as we will see, they can be implemented with electronic
components. Discrete quantities of information either emerge from the
nature of the data being processed or may be quantized from a continuous
process. On the one hand, a payroll schedule is an inherently discrete
process that contains employee names, social security numbers, weekly
salaries, income taxes, and so on. An employee’s paycheck is processed by
means of discrete data values such as letters of the alphabet (names), digits
(salary), and special symbols (such as $). On the other hand, a research
scientist may observe a continuous process, but record only specific
quantities in tabular form. The scientist is thus quantizing continuous data,
making each number in his or her table a discrete quantity. In many cases,
the quantization of a process can be performed automatically by an
analog‐to‐digital converter, a device that forms a digital (discrete)
representation of an analog (continuous) quantity.

Binary Numbers
A decimal number such as 7,392 represents a quantity equal to 7
thousands, plus 3 hundreds, plus 9 tens, plus 2 units. The thousands,
hundreds, etc., are powers of 10 implied by the position of the coefficients
(symbols) in the number. To be more exact, 7,392 is a shorthand notation
for what should be written as

7 * 103 + 3 * 102 + 9 * 101 + 2 * 100

However, the convention is to write only the numeric coefficients

and, from their position, deduce the necessary powers of 10 with powers
increasing from right to left. In general, a number with a decimal point is
represented by a series of coefficients:

a5a4a3a2a1a0. a-1a-2a-3

The coefficients aj are any of the 10 digits (0, 1, 2, . . ., 9), and the
subscript value j gives the place value and, hence, the power of 10 by which
the coefficient must be multiplied. Thus, the preceding decimal number can
be expressed as

105a5 + 104a4 + 103a3 + 102a2 + 101a1 + 100a0 + 10-1a-1 + 10-2a-2 + 10-3a-3

with a3 = 7, a2 = 3, a1 = 9, and a0 = 2.

The decimal number system is said to be of base, or radix, 10

because it uses 10 digits and the coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10.
The binary system is a different number system. The coefficients of the
binary number system have only two possible values: 0 and 1. Each

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coefficient aj is multiplied by a power of the radix, e.g., 2j, and the results
are added to obtain the decimal equivalent of the number. The radix point
(e.g., the decimal point when 10 is the radix) distinguishes positive powers
of 10 from negative powers of 10. For example, the decimal equivalent of
the binary number 11010.11 is 26.75, as shown from the multiplication of
the coefficients by powers of 2:

1 * 24 + 1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20 + 1 * 2-1 + 1 * 2-2 = 26.75

There are many different number systems. In general, a number expressed

in a base‐r system has coefficients multiplied by powers of r:

an•rn + an-1•rn-1 + . . . + a2•r2 + a1•r + a0 + a-1r-1

+ a-2•r-2 + . . . + a-m•r-m

The coefficients aj range in value from 0 to r - 1. To distinguish between

numbers of different bases, we enclose the coefficients in parentheses and
write a subscript equal to the base used (except sometimes for decimal
numbers, where the content makes it obvious that the base is decimal). An
example of a base‐5 number is

(4021.2)5 = 4 * 53 + 0 * 52 + 2 * 51 + 1 * 50 + 2 * 5-1 = (511.4)10

The coefficient values for base 5 can be only 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. The octal
number system is a base‐8 system that has eight digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
An example of an octal number is 127.4. To determine its equivalent
decimal value, we expand the number in a power series with a base of 8:

(127.4)8 = 1 * 82 + 2 * 81 + 7 * 80 + 4 * 8-1 = (87.5)10

Note that the digits 8 and 9 cannot appear in an octal number. It is

customary to borrow the needed r digits for the coefficients from the
decimal system when the base of the number is less than 10. The letters of
the alphabet are used to supplement the 10 decimal digits when the base
of the number is greater than 10. For example, in the hexadecimal
(base‐16) number system, the first 10 digits are borrowed from the decimal
system. The letters A, B, C, D, E, and F are used for the digits 10, 11,12, 13,
14, and 15, respectively. An example of a hexadecimal number is

(B65F)16 = 11 * 163 + 6 * 162 + 5 * 161 + 15 * 160 = (46,687)10

The hexadecimal system is used commonly by designers to represent long

strings of bits in the addresses, instructions, and data in digital systems. For
example, B65F is used to represent 1011011001010000.
As noted before, the digits in a binary number are called bits. When a
bit is equal to 0, it does not contribute to the sum during the conversion.
Therefore, the conversion from binary to decimal can be obtained by adding
only the numbers with powers of two corresponding to the bits that are
equal to 1. For example,

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(110101)2 = 32 + 16 + 4 + 1 = (53)10

There are four 1’s in the binary number. The corresponding decimal number
is the sum of the four powers of two. Zero and the first 24 numbers obtained
from 2 to the power of n are listed in Table 1.1 . In computer work, 210 is
referred to as K (kilo), 220 as M (mega), 230 as G (giga), and 240 as T (tera).
Thus, 4K = 212 = 4,096 and 16M = 224 = 16,777,216. Computer capacity is
usually given in bytes. A byte is equal to eight bits and can accommodate
(i.e., represent the code of) one keyboard character. A computer hard disk
with four gigabytes of storage has a capacity of 4G = 232 bytes
(approximately 4 billion bytes). A terabyte is 1024 gigabytes, approximately
1 trillion bytes. Arithmetic operations with numbers in base r follow the
same rules as for decimal numbers. When a base other than the familiar
base 10 is used, one must be careful to use only the r‐allowable digits.
Examples of addition, subtraction, and multiplication of two binary numbers
are as follows:

The sum of two binary numbers is calculated by the same rules as in

decimal, except that the digits of the sum in any significant position can be
only 0 or 1. Any carry obtained in a given significant position is used by the
pair of digits one significant position higher. Subtraction is slightly more
complicated. The rules are still the same as in decimal, except that the
borrow in a given significant position adds 2 to a minuend digit. (A borrow in

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the decimal system adds 10 to a minuend digit.) Multiplication is simple:

The multiplier digits are always 1 or 0; therefore, the partial products are
equal either to a shifted (left) copy of the multiplicand or to 0.

Number Base Conversion

Representations of a number in a different radix are said to be
equivalent if they have the same decimal representation. For example,
(0011)8 and (1001)2 are equivalent—both have decimal value 9. The
conversion of a number in base r to decimal is done by expanding the
number in a power series and adding all the terms as shown previously. We
now present a general procedure for the reverse operation of converting a
decimal number to a number in base r. If the number includes a radix point,
it is necessary to separate the number into an integer part and a fraction
part, since each part must be converted differently. The conversion of a
decimal integer to a number in base r is done by dividing the number and all
successive quotients by r and accumulating the remainders. This procedure
is best illustrated by example.

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OCTAL AND HEXADECIMAL

The conversion from and to binary, octal, and hexadecimal plays an
important role in digital computers, because shorter patterns of hex
characters are easier to recognize than long patterns of 1’s and 0’s. Since 23
= 8 and 24 = 16, each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits and each
hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits. The first 16 numbers in
the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems are listed in
Table 1.2 . The conversion from binary to octal is easily accomplished by
partitioning the binary number into groups of three digits each, starting
from the binary point and proceeding to the left and to the right. The
corresponding octal digit is then assigned to each group. The following
example illustrates the procedure:

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Conversion from binary to hexadecimal is similar, except that the binary

number is divided into groups of four digits:

The corresponding hexadecimal (or octal) digit for each group of binary
digits is easily remembered from the values listed in Table 1.2. Conversion
from octal or hexadecimal to binary is done by reversing the preceding
procedure. Each octal digit is converted to its three‐digit binary equivalent.
Similarly, each hexadecimal digit is converted to its four‐digit binary
equivalent. The procedure is illustrated in the following examples:

Complements of Numbers
Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r - 1)’s complement
of N, i.e., its diminished radix complement, is defined as (rn - 1) - N. For
decimal numbers, r = 10 and r - 1 = 9, so the 9’s complement of N is (10n -
1) - N. In this case, 10n represents a number that consists of a single 1
followed by n 0’s. (10n – 1) is a number represented by n 9’s. For example, if
n = 4, we have 104 = 10,000 and 104 - 1 = 9999. It follows that the 9’s
complement of a decimal number is obtained by subtracting each digit from
9. Here are some numerical examples:

The 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999 - 546700 = 453299.

The 9’s complement of 012398 is 999999 - 012398 = 987601.

For binary numbers, r = 2 and r - 1 = 1, so the 1’s complement of N is (2n -

1) - N. Again, 2n is represented by a binary number that consists of a 1
followed by n 0’s. 2n – 1 is a binary number represented by n 1’s. For
example, if n = 4, we have 24 = (10000)2 and 24 - 1 = (1111)2. Thus, the 1’s
complement of a binary number is obtained by subtracting each digit from
1. However, when subtracting binary digits from 1, we can have either 1 - 0
= 1 or 1 - 1 = 0, which causes the bit to change from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0,
respectively. Therefore, the 1’s complement of a binary number is formed
by changing 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s. The following are some numerical
examples:

The 1’s complement of 1011000 is 0100111.

The 1’s complement of 0101101 is 1010010.

The (r - 1)’s complement of octal or hexadecimal numbers is obtained by

subtracting each digit from 7 or F (decimal 15), respectively.

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Radix Complement
The r’s complement of an n‐digit number N in base r is defined as rn - N for
N≠0 and as 0 for N = 0. Comparing with the (r - 1)’s complement, we note
that the r’s complement is obtained by adding 1 to the (r - 1)’s
complement, since rn - N = [(rn - 1) - N] + 1. Thus, the 10’s complement of
decimal 2389 is 7610 + 1 = 7611 and is obtained by adding 1 to the 9’s
complement value. The 2’s complement of binary 101100 is 010011 + 1 =
010100 and is obtained by adding 1 to the 1’s‐complement value. Since 10 is
a number represented by a 1 followed by n 0’s, 10n - N, which is the 10’s
complement of N, can be formed also by leaving all least significant 0’s
unchanged, subtracting the first nonzero least significant digit from 10, and
subtracting all higher significant digits from 9. Thus,

the 10’s complement of 012398 is 987602

and
the 10’s complement of 246700 is 753300

The 10’s complement of the first number is obtained by subtracting 8 from

10 in the least significant position and subtracting all other digits from 9.
The 10’s complement of the second number is obtained by leaving the two
least significant 0’s unchanged, subtracting 7 from 10, and subtracting the
other three digits from 9. Similarly, the 2’s complement can be formed by
leaving all least significant 0’s and the first 1 unchanged and replacing 1’s
with 0’s and 0’s with 1’s in all other higher significant digits. For example,

the 2’s complement of 1101100 is 0010100

and
the 2’s complement of 0110111 is 1001001

The 2’s complement of the first number is obtained by leaving the two least
significant 0’s and the first 1 unchanged and then replacing 1’s with 0’s and
0’s with 1’s in the other four most significant digits. The 2’s complement of
the second number is obtained by leaving the least significant 1 unchanged
and complementing all other digits.
In the previous definitions, it was assumed that the numbers did not
have a radix point. If the original number N contains a radix point, the point
should be removed temporarily in order to form the r’s or (r - 1)’s
complement. The radix point is then restored to the complemented number
in the same relative position. It is also worth mentioning that the
complement of the complement restores the number to its original
value. To see this relationship, note that the r’s complement of N is rn - N,
so that the complement of the complement is rn - (rn - N) = N and is equal to
the original number.

Subtraction with Complements

The direct method of subtraction taught in elementary schools uses
the borrow concept. In this method, we borrow a 1 from a higher significant
position when the minuend digit is smaller than the subtrahend digit. The

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method works well when people perform subtraction with paper and pencil.
However, when subtraction is implemented with digital hardware, the
method is less efficient than the method that uses complements. The
subtraction of two n‐digit unsigned numbers M - N in base r can be done as
follows:

1. Add the minuend M to the r’s complement of the subtrahend N.

Mathematically, M + (rn - N) = M - N + rn.
2. If M ≥ N, the sum will produce an end carry r n, which can be
discarded; what is left is the result M - N.
3. If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to rn -
(N - M), which is the r’s complement of (N - M). To obtain the answer
in a familiar form, take the r’s complement of the sum and place a
negative sign in front. The following examples illustrate the
procedure:

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Signed Binary Numbers

As an example, consider the number 9, represented in binary with
eight bits. +9 is represented with a sign bit of 0 in the leftmost position,
followed by the binary equivalent of 9, which gives 00001001. Note that all
eight bits must have a value; therefore, 0’s are inserted following the sign
bit up to the first 1. Although there is only one way to represent +9, there
are three different ways to represent -9 with eight bits:

signed‐magnitude representation: 10001001

signed‐1’s‐complement representation: 11110110
signed‐2’s‐complement representation: 11110111

In signed‐magnitude, -9 is obtained from +9 by changing only the sign

bit in the leftmost position from 0 to 1. In signed‐1’s-complement, -9 is
obtained by complementing all the bits of +9, including the sign bit. The
signed‐2’s‐complement representation of -9 is obtained by taking the 2’s
complement of the positive number, including the sign bit.
Table 1.3 lists all possible four‐bit signed binary numbers in the three
representations. The equivalent decimal number is also shown for
reference. Note that the positive numbers in all three representations are
identical and have 0 in the leftmost position. The signed‐2’s‐complement
system has only one representation for 0, which is always positive. The
other two systems have either a positive 0 or a negative 0, something not
encountered in ordinary arithmetic. Note that all negative numbers have a 1
in the leftmost bit position; that is the way we distinguish them from the
positive numbers. With four bits, we can represent 16 binary numbers. In
the signed‐magnitude and the 1’s‐complement representations, there are
eight positive numbers and eight negative numbers, including two zeros. In
the 2’s‐complement representation, there are eight positive numbers,
including one zero, and eight negative numbers.

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Lesson 2

 Introduction to Logic Gates

Boolean functions may be practically implemented by using electronic

gates. The following points are important to understand.

 Electronic gates require a power supply.

 Gate INPUTS are driven by voltages having two nominal values, e.g.
0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively.
 The OUTPUT of a gate provides two nominal values of voltage only,
e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively. In
general, there is only one output to a logic gate except in some
special cases.
 There is always a time delay between an input being applied and the
output responding.

Truth Tables

Truth tables are used to help show the function of a logic gate. If you are
unsure about truth tables and need guidence on how go about drawning
them for individual gates or logic circuits then use the truth table section
link.

Logic gates

Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates
are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic
operations are described below with the aid of truth tables.

AND gate

The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only
if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation
i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB

OR gate

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The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one
or more of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR
operation.

NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted

version of the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If
the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This
is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the
outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate
can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also be done using
NOR logic gates in the same way.

NAND gate

This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a

NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs
are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output.
The small circle represents inversion.

NOR gate

This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT

gate. The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are
high.

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The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small
circle represents inversion.

EXOR gate

The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output

if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus
sign ( ) is used to show the EOR operation.

EXNOR gate

The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will
give a low output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The
symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either
one the AND and OR functions and NOT can be generated.

Note:

A function in sum of products form can be implemented using NAND gates

by replacing all AND and OR gates by NAND gates.

A function in product of sums form can be implemented using NOR gates by

replacing all AND and OR gates by NOR gates.

Table 1: Logic gate symbols

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Table 2 is a summary truth table of the input/output combinations for the

NOT gate together with all possible input/output combinations for the other
gate functions. Also note that a truth table with 'n' inputs has 2n rows. You
can compare the outputs of different gates.

Table 2: Logic gates representation using the Truth table

Example

A NAND gate can be used as a NOT gate using either of the following wiring
configurations.

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Lesson 3

 Boolean Algebra Theorems

As well as the logic symbols “0” and “1” being used to represent a digital
input or output, we can also use them as constants for a permanently
“Open” or “Closed” circuit or contact respectively.
A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been invented to
help reduce the number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic
operation resulting in a list of functions or theorems known commonly as
the Laws of Boolean Algebra.
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates and
circuits. We can use these “Laws of Boolean” to both reduce and simplify a
complex Boolean expression in an attempt to reduce the number of logic
gates required. Boolean Algebra is therefore a system of mathematics based
on logic that has its own set of rules or laws which are used to define and
reduce Boolean expressions.
The variables used in Boolean Algebra only have one of two possible values,
a logic “0” and a logic “1” but an expression can have an infinite number of
variables all labelled individually to represent inputs to the expression, For
example, variables A, B, C etc, giving us a logical expression of A + B = C,
but each variable can ONLY be a 0 or a 1.
Examples of these individual laws of Boolean, rules and theorems for
Boolean Algebra are given in the following table.

Truth Tables for the Laws of Boolean

Boolean Equivalent Boolean Algebra

Description
Expression Switching Circuit Law or Rule

A in parallel with
A+1=1 Annulment
closed = “CLOSED”

A in parallel with
A+0=A Identity
open = “A”

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A in series with
A.1=A Identity
closed = “A”

A in series with
A.0=0 Annulment
open = “OPEN”

A in parallel with
A+A=A Idempotent
A = “A”

A in series with
A.A=A Idempotent
A = “A”

NOT NOT A
NOT A = A Double Negation
(double negative) = “A”

A in parallel with
A+A=1 Complement
NOT A = “CLOSED”

A in series with
A.A=0 Complement
NOT A = “OPEN”

A in parallel with B =
A+B = B+A Commutative
B in parallel with A

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A in series with B=
A.B = B.A Commutative
B in series with A

invert and replace OR de Morgan’s

A+B = A.B
with AND Theorem

invert and replace AND de Morgan’s

A.B = A+B
with OR Theorem

The basic Laws of Boolean Algebra that relate to the Commutative

Law allowing a change in position for addition and multiplication,
the Associative Law allowing the removal of brackets for addition and
multiplication, as well as the Distributive Law allowing the factoring of an
expression, are the same as in ordinary algebra.
Each of the Boolean Laws above are given with just a single or two
variables, but the number of variables defined by a single law is not limited
to this as there can be an infinite number of variables as inputs too the
expression. These Boolean laws detailed above can be used to prove any
given Boolean expression as well as for simplifying complicated digital
circuits.
A brief description of the various Laws of Boolean are given below
with A representing a variable input.

Description of the Laws of Boolean Algebra

 Annulment Law – A term AND´ed with a “0” equals 0 or OR´ed with a “1”
will equal 1

A.0=0 A variable AND’ed with 0 is always equal to 0

A+1=1 A variable OR’ed with 1 is always equal to 1

 Identity
Law – A term OR´ed with a “0” or AND´ed with a “1” will always
equal that term

o A + 0 = A A variable OR’ed with 0 is always equal to the

variable

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o A . 1 = A A variable AND’ed with 1 is always equal to the

variable

 Idempotent Law – An input that is AND´ed or OR´ed with itself is equal to

that input

A + A = A A variable OR’ed with itself is always equal to the

variable
A . A = A A variable AND’ed with itself is always equal to the
variable

 Complement Law – A term AND´ed with its complement equals “0” and a
term OR´ed with its complement equals “1”

A.A=0 A variable AND’ed with its complement is always equal

to 0
A+A=1 A variable OR’ed with its complement is always equal
to 1

 Commutative Law – The order of application of two separate terms is not

important

A . B = B . A The order in which two variables are AND’ed

makes no difference
A + B = B + A The order in which two variables are OR’ed makes
no difference

 Double Negation Law – A term that is inverted twice is equal to the

original term

A = A A double complement of a variable is always equal to

the variabl

 de Morgan´s Theorem – There are two “de Morgan´s” rules or theorems,

 (1) Two separate terms NOR´ed together is the same as the two terms
inverted (Complement) and AND´ed for example: A+B = A . B
 (2) Two separate terms NAND´ed together is the same as the two terms
inverted (Complement) and OR´ed for example: A.B = A + B

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Other algebraic Laws of Boolean not detailed above include:

 Distributive
Law – This law permits the multiplying or factoring out of an
expression.

A(B + C) = A.B + A.C (OR Distributive Law)

A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + C) (AND Distributive Law)

 AbsorptiveLaw – This law enables a reduction in a complicated expression

to a simpler one by absorbing like terms.

A + (A.B) = A (OR Absorption Law)

A(A + B) = A (AND Absorption Law)

 AssociativeLaw – This law allows the removal of brackets from an

expression and regrouping of the variables.

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C (OR Associate Law)

A(B.C) = (A.B)C = A . B . C (AND Associate Law)

 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Present the truth table for 3-input and AND and 3-input OR
gates.

 MODULE SUMMARY

 The general procedure to perform mathematical operations is to

convert the number from the given base to decimal and then do the
operation and convert back to the given base.
 Negative numbers are usually expressed in complement form. There
are two types of complements: Radix Minus one and True
complement.

EEAC 109 Module I

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 In Boolean algebra, a variable has only two possible values either 1 or

0.
 The output of a logic OR is logic one when one of the inputs is logic
one.
 The output of a logic AND is one when all inputs are logic one.
 The output of a NOT gate or inverter in the complement of the input.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module I. now you are ready
to evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering
the summative test. Good Luck!!!

 SUMMATIVE TEST

1. What is the largest binary number that can be expressed with 14 bits?
What are the equivalent decimal and hexadecimal numbers?
2. Convert decimal number 431 in two ways: (a) Convert directly to
binary; (b) convert first to hexadecimal and then from hexadecimal
to binary. Which method is faster?
3. Obtain the 1’s and 2’s complements of the following binary numbers:
a. 10000000
b. 00000000
c. 11011010
d. 01110110
e. 10000101
f. 11111111
4. Find the 9’s and the 10’s complement of the following decimal
number:
a. 52,784,630
b. 63,325,600
c. 25,000,000
d. 00,000,000
5. (a) Find the 16’s complement of B2FA.
(b) Convert B2FA to binary.
(c) Find the 2’s complement of the result in b.
(d) Convert the answer in (c) to hexadecimal and compare with the
answer in (a).
6. Perform subtraction on the given unsigned numbers using 10’s
complement of the subtrahend. When the result should be negative,
find its 10’s complement and affix a minus sign. Verify your answers.
a. 6,428 – 3,409
b. 125 – 1,800
c. 2,043 – 6,152
d. 1,631 – 745
7. Decode the following in ASCII code:

EEAC 109 Module I

 27

1010011 1110100 1100101 1110110 1100101 0100000 1001010 1101111

1100010 1110011.

8. By means of a timing diagram similar to Fig. 1.5 , show the signals of

the outputs f and g in Fig. P1.35 as functions of the three inputs a, b,
and c. Use all eight possible combinations of a, b, and c.

EEAC 109 Module I