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FOREWORD
This is the first edition training manual developed for Drones Pilot Training (Basic) Course
which introduces fundamental knowledge, skills and attitude required to operate drone
safely. The course introduces Drone pilots to a framework that keeps the aviation industry
safe, fair and efficient for both national and international air operations.

Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA)/Drone Pilot Training is one of the newly designed course of
four weeks duration. It is delivered through a number of subjects that highlights the
duties and responsibilities of drone pilot, its organisation on air carrier and operational
process on description of Air law, RPAS General and Flight Performances, Human
Factors, Meteorology, Navigation and Chats and Operating Procedures.

This edition is expected to satisfy the current requirements, be a good source for future
requirements and could be revised from time to time to keep abreast with the future
technological, developmental and policy changes.

Aristid J. Kanje
PRINCIPAL

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD …………………………………………………………………………1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................... 2
GLOSARY …………………………………………………………………………9
Terms and Definitions .................................................................................... 9
Abbreviations and Codes............................................................................. 12
CHAPTER 1: AIR LAW .................................................................................. 14
1.1 Part I Preliminary Provisions ............................................................................................................. 14
1.1.1 Citation. ....................................................................................................................................... 14
1.1.2 Interpretation ............................................................................................................................... 14
1.1.3 Application .................................................................................................................................. 19
1.2 Part II Categorisation and Registration .............................................................................................. 20
1.2.1 Categorisation classification of RPAS Equipment ..................................................................... 20
1.2.2 Eligibility for ownership of RPAS .............................................................................................. 21
1.2.3 Permit to import and export ........................................................................................................ 21
1.2.4 Registration of RPAS .................................................................................................................. 21
1.2.5 Application for registration ......................................................................................................... 22
1.2.6 RPAS register .............................................................................................................................. 22
1.2.7 Certificate of registration ............................................................................................................ 23
1.2.8 Change of registration or ownership particulars ......................................................................... 23
1.2.9 Airworthiness of RPAS ............................................................................................................... 24
1.2.10 Maintenance of RPAS ................................................................................................................. 24
1.2.11 Inspection, testing, and demonstration of compliance ................................................................ 24
1.2.12 Suspension or revocation by contravention of law ..................................................................... 25
1.3 Part III Operation Of RPAS ............................................................................................................... 25
1.3.1 General obligation of RPAS operator ......................................................................................... 25
1.3.2 Authorisation of RPAS operations .............................................................................................. 26
1.3.3 Operation in prohibited or restricted areas .................................................................................. 26
1.3.4 Operation in controlled airspace ................................................................................................. 26
1.3.5 1.3.5 Hazardous operation ........................................................................................................... 27
1.3.6 Carriage of dangerous goods....................................................................................................... 27
1.3.7 RPAS operating limitations ........................................................................................................ 28
1.3.8 Daylight operation....................................................................................................................... 28
1.3.9 Visual line of sight (VLOS) aircraft operation ........................................................................... 28
1.3.10 Operation of multiple RPAS ....................................................................................................... 29
1.3.11 Operation near aircraft; right- of-way rules ................................................................................ 29
1.3.12 Operation over people ................................................................................................................. 29
1.3.13 Pre-flight familiarisation, inspection, and actions for remotely piloted aircraft operation ......... 29
1.3.14 Reporting of incidents and accidents relating to RPAS operations ............................................ 30

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1.3.15 Cancellation, suspension or variation of authorisation ............................................................... 31

1.3.16 Command and control ................................................................................................................. 31
1.3.17 ATC communication ................................................................................................................... 31
1.3.18 Operation vicinity of aerodromes ............................................................................................... 31
1.3.19 Operations at an aerodrome ........................................................................................................ 32
1.4 Part IV Commercial Operation Of RPAS ........................................................................................... 32
1.4.1 Certifications of RPAS operations .............................................................................................. 32
1.4.2 ROC compliance ......................................................................................................................... 32
1.4.3 Application for RPAS Operator Certificate ................................................................................ 33
1.4.4 Issuance of ROC ......................................................................................................................... 34
1.4.5 Validity and renewal of RPAS Operator Certificate ................................................................... 34
1.4.6 Amendments of ROC .................................................................................................................. 35
1.4.7 Conducting surveillance, inspections and tests ........................................................................... 35
1.4.8 Personnel required for RPAS commercial operations ................................................................ 35
1.4.9 Operations manual ...................................................................................................................... 36
1.4.10 Authorisation for commercial RPAS operations ........................................................................ 36
1.4.11 Pilot Licence ............................................................................................................................... 38
1.4.12 Application of remote pilot licence with RPAS rating ............................................................... 39
1.4.13 Eligibility requirements for RPAS Pilot Licence ........................................................................ 39
1.4.14 Aeronautical knowledge ............................................................................................................. 40
1.4.15 Knowledge tests: General procedures and passing grades.......................................................... 40
1.4.16 Initial and recurrent knowledge tests .......................................................................................... 41
1.4.17 Validity of RPAS Pilots Licence ................................................................................................ 42
1.4.18 Training requirements for commercial RPAS operations ........................................................... 42
1.4.19 Instruments and equipment requirements ................................................................................... 42
1.4.20 Medical condition and drug or alcohol use ................................................................................. 43
1.4.21 Responsibility of the remote pilot ............................................................................................... 43
1.5 Part V Private, Recreational And Sports RPAS Operations .............................................................. 43
1.5.1 Private RPAS operations ............................................................................................................. 43
1.5.2 Training requirements for private RPAS operations................................................................... 44
1.5.3 Recreational and sports RPAS operations .................................................................................. 44
1.5.4 Training requirements for recreational and sports RPAS operations ....................................... 44
1.6 Part Vi Autonomous RPAS ................................................................................................................ 44
1.6.1 Use of autonomous RPAS........................................................................................................... 45
1.7 Part VII Security Requirements For RPAS Operations ..................................................................... 45
1.7.1 Security requirements GN. No...... .............................................................................................. 45
1.7.2 Security obligations for RPAS operators .................................................................................... 46
1.7.3 Acts of unlawful interference against civil aviation GN. No.135 of 2015 ................................. 47
1.7.4 Security vetting for remote pilots or owner ................................................................................ 47

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1.7.5 Remotely Piloted Operator or owner’s security measures .......................................................... 48

1.7.6 Notification ................................................................................................................................. 48
1.7.7 Privacy of others ......................................................................................................................... 48
1.8 General Provisions ............................................................................................................................. 49
1.8.1 Records........................................................................................................................................ 49
1.8.2 Insurance ..................................................................................................................................... 50
1.8.3 Reports of violation ..................................................................................................................... 50
1.8.4 Offences and penalties ................................................................................................................ 51
1.8.5 Saving and transitional provisions .............................................................................................. 52
1.9 Certification of RPAS Pilot ................................................................................................................ 52
1.10 Required certificate, ratings and qualifications for Remote Pilot Certificate. ................................... 52
1.10.1 Credit ........................................................................................................................................... 53
1.10.2 Passing Grade .............................................................................................................................. 53
1.10.3 Retesting after failure .................................................................................................................. 53
1.10.4 Special conditions ....................................................................................................................... 53
1.10.5 Part A – General .......................................................................................................................... 53
1.10.6 Part B – RPAS Operating Information ....................................................................................... 55
1.10.7 Part C – Areas Routes and Aerodromes...................................................................................... 57
1.10.8 Part D – Training ........................................................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER 2: RPAS GENERAL AND FLIGHT PERFORMANCE.................. 60
2.1 Introduction to Drone Technology ..................................................................................................... 60
2.1.1 Drone Evolution .......................................................................................................................... 60
2.1.2 What is considered to be a drone? .............................................................................................. 60
2.1.3 History......................................................................................................................................... 61
2.1.4 The Beginning History ................................................................................................................ 61
2.2 Drone uses: ......................................................................................................................................... 63
2.3 Types of Drones ................................................................................................................................. 65
2.3.1 Multirotor Systems ...................................................................................................................... 65
2.3.2 Fixed-Wing Systems ................................................................................................................... 66
2.3.3 VTOL/ Hybrid systems. .............................................................................................................. 67
2.4 Drone components .............................................................................................................................. 68
2.4.1 Structure ...................................................................................................................................... 68
2.4.2 Propulsion system ....................................................................................................................... 68
2.4.3 Controls ....................................................................................................................................... 72
2.5 DRONE FEATURES ......................................................................................................................... 76
2.6 AERODYNAMICS ............................................................................................................................ 76
2.7 Laws of Motion .................................................................................................................................. 76
2.7.1 Newton’s 1st Law of motion (Law of Inertia) ............................................................................ 76
2.7.2 Newton 2nd Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration) ................................................................... 77

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2.7.3 Newton's third law of motion ...................................................................................................... 77

2.8 Forces acting on aircraft ..................................................................................................................... 78
2.8.1 The Four Forces of Flight ........................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 3: HUMAN FACTOR .................................................................... 80
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 80
3.2 Vision ................................................................................................................................................. 81
3.2.1 The main components of the eye; ............................................................................................... 81
3.2.2 Visual Acuity .............................................................................................................................. 84
3.2.3 Refraction errors ......................................................................................................................... 85
3.2.4 Visual illusions............................................................................................................................ 89
3.2.5 Landing illusions ......................................................................................................................... 91
3.3 Stress .................................................................................................................................................. 94
3.3.1 Types of stress ............................................................................................................................. 94
3.3.2 Categories.................................................................................................................................... 95
3.3.3 Stressors ...................................................................................................................................... 95
3.3.4 Stages of stress ............................................................................................................................ 96
3.3.5 Stress management ...................................................................................................................... 98
3.3.6 Flying And Health Stress ............................................................................................................ 99
3.3.7 Stimulation and Stress................................................................................................................. 99
3.4 Fatigue .............................................................................................................................................. 100
3.4.1 Types of fatigue ........................................................................................................................ 100
3.4.2 Symptoms.................................................................................................................................. 101
3.4.3 Prevention and treatment of fatigue .......................................................................................... 101
CHAPTER 4: NAVIGATION AND CHARTS ................................................ 106
4.1 Navigation ........................................................................................................................................ 106
4.1.1 Main Types of Navigation ........................................................................................................ 106
4.1.2 Performance Based Navigation (RNAV-PBN AND RNP-PBN) ............................................. 107
4.2 The Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 108
4.2.1 Cardinal points .......................................................................................................................... 109
4.2.2 Circles of the Earth ................................................................................................................... 109
4.2.3 Latitude and Longitudes............................................................................................................ 110
 Prime meridian ................................................................................................................................. 111
4.2.4 Position...................................................................................................................................... 112
4.2.5 Direction measurement ............................................................................................................. 113
4.2.6 Distance Measurements ............................................................................................................ 114
4.3 Aeronautical Maps and Charts ......................................................................................................... 114
4.3.1 Map ........................................................................................................................................... 114
4.3.2 Aeronautical chart ..................................................................................................................... 114
4.3.3 Topographic maps ..................................................................................................................... 114

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4.3.4 Map interpretation ..................................................................................................................... 115

4.4 Global Position System (GPS) ......................................................................................................... 118
4.4.1 Basic Concept ........................................................................................................................... 118
4.4.2 System organization .................................................................................................................. 118
4.4.3 The control Segment (Ground segment) ................................................................................... 118
4.4.4 Principal Operations of GPS ..................................................................................................... 121
4.4.5 System availability .................................................................................................................... 122
4.4.6 Aircraft equipment .................................................................................................................... 122
CHAPTER 5: METEOROLOGY ................................................................... 123
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 123
5.2 Air Density ....................................................................................................................................... 123
5.2.1 Density Altitude ........................................................................................................................ 123
5.2.2 Effects of Pressure on Density .................................................................................................. 124
5.2.3 Effects of Temperature on Density ........................................................................................... 124
5.2.4 Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density .............................................................................. 125
5.3 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) ........................................................................................ 125
5.4 Wind ................................................................................................................................................. 126
5.4.1 Low-Level Wind Shear ............................................................................................................. 127
5.4.2 Land and Sea breeze ................................................................................................................. 128
5.4.3 Instruments for Surface Wind ................................................................................................... 129
5.5 Visibility ........................................................................................................................................... 130
5.5.1 Modern day observations .......................................................................................................... 130
5.6 Thunderstorms .................................................................................................................................. 131
5.6.1 Effects of Thunderstorms .......................................................................................................... 131
5.7 Aviation Weather Reports ................................................................................................................ 132
5.7.1 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) ........................................................................... 132
5.7.2 Aviation Forecasts..................................................................................................................... 137
 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) ............................................................................................. 137
5.7.3 Convective Significant Meteorological Information (WST) .................................................... 140
CHAPTER 6: OPERATING PROCEDURES ................................................ 141
6.1 Standard operating procedures (SOPs): ........................................................................................... 141
6.2 Standard briefing .............................................................................................................................. 141
6.2.1 Pre-flight briefing ...................................................................................................................... 141
6.3 Flight checklist ................................................................................................................................. 141
6.3.1 In-flight activities ...................................................................................................................... 141
6.3.2 Post-flight activities .................................................................................................................. 142
6.3.3 Post-flight inspection and checklist .......................................................................................... 142
6.3.4 Debrief on flight ........................................................................................................................ 142
6.4 Accountabilities and responsibilities/duties ..................................................................................... 142

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6.4.1 Chief Pilot ................................................................................................................................. 142

6.4.2 Head of Training ....................................................................................................................... 143
6.4.3 Aviation Safety Officer ............................................................................................................. 143
6.4.4 Remote Pilot Instructors............................................................................................................ 143
6.4.5 Remote Pilots ............................................................................................................................ 143
6.4.6 Visual Observers ....................................................................................................................... 144
6.5 Organization structure ...................................................................................................................... 144
6.6 Insurance Requirements ................................................................................................................... 145
6.7 Airmanship principles ...................................................................................................................... 145
6.8 Operating limitations ........................................................................................................................ 146
6.9 Weather analysis............................................................................................................................... 146
6.10 Airspace and site survey analysis ..................................................................................................... 146
6.11 Risk management system: ................................................................................................................ 147
6.11.1 Safe flight practice .................................................................................................................... 147
6.11.2 Risk assessment......................................................................................................................... 147
6.11.3 Risk Matrix ............................................................................................................................... 148
6.11.4 Risk matrix codes ...................................................................................................................... 148
6.11.5 Analyze Risk Control Measures ............................................................................................... 150
6.12 RPAS Maintenance .......................................................................................................................... 152
6.12.1 Definition of maintenance ......................................................................................................... 152
6.12.2 Scheduled vs unscheduled maintenance ................................................................................... 152
6.12.3 Hardware ................................................................................................................................... 153
6.12.4 Batteries: ................................................................................................................................... 154
6.12.5 Motors and propellers: .............................................................................................................. 154
6.12.6 Airframe: ................................................................................................................................... 154
6.12.7 Software .................................................................................................................................... 155
6.13 Personnel .......................................................................................................................................... 155
6.13.1 Training ..................................................................................................................................... 155
6.14 Safety Management System (SMS) ................................................................................................. 155
6.14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 155
6.15 Occupational Health and Safety ....................................................................................................... 156
6.15.1 Fatigue ....................................................................................................................................... 156
6.15.2 Sun ............................................................................................................................................ 156
6.15.3 Dehydration and Heat Related Risks ........................................................................................ 157
6.15.4 Thunderstorms .......................................................................................................................... 157
6.15.5 Personal Protective Equipment ................................................................................................. 158
6.15.6 Distractions and Interference .................................................................................................... 158
6.15.7 Common measures may include controls such as: .................................................................... 158
6.16 Hazard Safety Zones ........................................................................................................................ 159

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6.16.1 Hazard Identification (ID) ......................................................................................................... 159

6.16.2 Make Control Decisions............................................................................................................ 160
6.16.3 Implement Risk Controls .......................................................................................................... 161
6.17 General Operational Guidance ......................................................................................................... 161
6.18 Reporting system (ref management system performance) ............................................................... 162
6.18.1 File designation ......................................................................................................................... 162
6.18.2 Mandatory Incident/Accident Reporting System ...................................................................... 162
6.19 Hazard Incident and accident response ............................................................................................ 163
6.20 Emergency Response Plan ............................................................................................................... 164
6.20.1 Emergency Preparedness .......................................................................................................... 165
6.20.2 Emergency Response Coordinator ............................................................................................ 165
6.21 Aircraft Crash Procedure Goals ....................................................................................................... 166
6.22 Loss of GPS Procedures ................................................................................................................... 167
6.23 Lost Link Procedures........................................................................................................................ 167
6.24 Lost Orientation Procedures for VTOL RPA ................................................................................... 168
CHAPTER 7: PRACTICAL SESSION .......................................................... 169

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GLOSARY
Terms and Definitions
Automatic dependent surveillance — broadcast (ADS-B).
A means by which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles and other objects can automatically
transmit and/or receive data such as identification, position and additional data, as
appropriate, in a broadcast mode via a data link.
Automatic dependent surveillance — contract (ADS-C).
A means by which the terms of an ADS-C agreement will be exchanged between the
ground system and the aircraft, via a data link, specifying under what conditions ADS-C
reports would be initiated, and what data would be contained in the reports.
Beyond visual line-of-sight (BVLOS) operation.
An operation in which the remote pilot or RPA observer does not use visual reference to
the remotely piloted aircraft in the conduct of flight
Command and control (C2) link
The data link between the remotely piloted aircraft and the remote pilot station for the
purpose of managing flight
Detect and avoid (DAA).
The capability to see, sense, or detect conflicting traffic or other hazards and take
appropriate action.
Handover.
The act of passing piloting control from one remote pilot station to another.
Lost C2 Link.
The loss of command and control link contact with the remotely-piloted aircraft such that the
remote pilot can no longer manage the aircraft‘s flight

Operator.

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A person, organization or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft

operation.
Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS).
PANS are approved by the Council. They comprise, for the most part, operating procedures
regarded as not yet having attained a sufficient degree of maturity and stability for adoption
as international Standards and Recommended Practices, or material of a more permanent
character which is inappropriate or too detailed for incorporation in an Annex
Remote flight crew member.
A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of a remotely piloted
aircraft system during a flight duty period
Remote pilot.
A person charged by the operator with duties essential to the operation of a remotely piloted
aircraft and who manipulates the flight controls, as appropriate, during flight time
Remote pilot-in-command.
The remote pilot designated by the operator as being in command and charged with the
safe conduct of a flight
Remote pilot station (RPS).
The component of the remote pilot aircraft system containing the equipment used to pilot
the remotely piloted aircraft
Remotely piloted aircraft (RPA). An unmanned aircraft which is piloted from a remote pilot
station.
Remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS). A remotely piloted aircraft, its associated
remote pilot station(s), the required command and control links and any other components
as specified in the type design.

Required communication performance (RCP) specification.

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A set of requirements for air traffic service provision and associated ground equipment,
aircraft capability, and operations needed to support performance-based communication
Required navigation performance (RNP).
A statement of the navigation performance necessary for operation within a defined
airspace
RPA observer.
A trained and competent person designated by the operator who, by visual observation of
the remotely piloted aircraft, assists the remote pilot in the safe conduct of the flight
RPAS operator certificate (ROC). A certificate authorizing an operator to carry out
specified RPAS operations.
Visual line-of-sight (VLOS) operation. An operation in which the remote pilot or RPA
observer maintains direct unaided visual contact with the remotely piloted aircraft.
Unmanned aircraft system. An aircraft and its associated elements which are operated
with no pilot on board.
State of Manufacturer. The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for
the final assembly of the aircraft, engine or propeller
State of Registry. The State on whose register the aircraft is entered

State of the Operator. The State in which the operator‘s principal place of business is

located or, if there is no such place of business, the operator‘s permanent residence

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Abbreviations and Codes

TCAA Tanzania Civil Aviation Authority

CATC Civil Aviation Training Centre

ACAS Airborne collision avoidance system

ADS-B Automatic dependent surveillance — broadcast

AM(R)S Aeronautical mobile (route) service

AMS(R)S Aeronautical mobile satellite (route) service

ARNS Aeronautical radio navigation service

ARNSS Aeronautical radio navigation satellite service

ATC Air traffic control

ATM Air traffic management

ATS Air traffic services

C2 Command and control

C3 Command, control and communications CPDLC Controller-pilot data link

communications EASA European Aviation Safety Agency.

EUROCAE European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment HF High frequency

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

IFR Instrument flight rules

ITU International Telecommunication Union

PANS Procedures for Air Navigation Services

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QOS Quality of service RPA Remotely-piloted aircraft

RPAS Remotely-piloted aircraft system RTCA RTCA, Inc. SAR Search and rescue

SARPs Standards and Recommended Practices

SATCOM Satellite communication SMS Safety management system(s) SSP State safety

programme

UA Unmanned aircraft

UAS Unmanned aircraft system(s)

UAV Unmanned aerial vehicle (obsolete term) UOC UAS operator certificate

VDL VHF digital link VFR Visual flight rules

VHF Very high frequency

VLOS Visual line-of-sight

VMC Visual meteorological conditions

WRC World Radio communication Conference

EVLOS Extended Visual Line of Sight

BVLOS Beyond Visual Line of Sight

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CHAPTER 1: AIR LAW

The Civil Aviation (Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems) Regulations 2018, made under

section 4 of the Civil Aviation Act (CAP 80) published on 14/12/2018 under Government

Notice No. 758

1.1 Part I Preliminary Provisions

1.1.1 Citation.

These Regulations may be cited as the Civil Aviation (Remotely Piloted Aircraft
Systems) Regulations, 2018.

1.1.2 Interpretation

In these regulations unless the context otherwise requires-

“Accident” means an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which, in
the case of a manned aircraft, takes place between the time any person boards the
aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked,
or in the case of an unmanned aircraft, takes place between the time the aircraft is ready
to move with the purpose of flight until such time as it comes to rest at the end of the
flight and the primary propulsion system is shut down, in which-
a) a person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of:

i. being in the aircraft;

ii. direct contact with any part of the aircraft, including parts which have become detached
from the aircraft; or

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iii. direct exposure to jet last,

Except when the injuries are from natural causes, self-inflicted or inflicted by other
persons, or when the injuries are to stowaways hiding outside the areas normally
available to the passengers and crew; or
b) the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which-

i. adversely affects the structural strength, performance or flight

characteristics of the aircraft; and
ii. would normally require major repair or replacement of the affected
component except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited to a
single engine (including its cowlings or accessories), to propellers, wing tips, antennas,
probes, vanes, tires, brakes, wheels, fairings, panels, landing gear doors, windscreens,
the aircraft skin (such as small dents or puncture holes), or for minor damages to main
rotor blades, tail rotor blades, landing gear, and those resulting from hail or bird strike
(including holes in the aerodrome); or
c) the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible;

G.N. No. 73 of 2017

“Aerodrome” means a defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations
and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and
surface movement of aircraft;
“Aerodrome codes” means aerodrome reference code specified in the Civil Aviation
(Aerodromes) Regulations, 2017;
“Aircraft” means any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions

of the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth‘s surface;

“Appropriate authority” means the authority having jurisdiction over the area in which the

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aircraft concerned is operated;

Cap 80

“Authority” means the Tanzania Civil Aviation Authority established under the Civil
Aviation Act;

“Autonomous aircraft” means an unmanned aircraft that does not allow pilot intervention
in the management of the flight;

“Autonomous operation” means an operation during which a remotely piloted aircraft is

operating without pilot intervention in the management of the flight;
“Command and control (C2) link” means the data link between the remotely piloted
aircraft and the remote pilot station for the purposes of managing the flight;
“Conspicuity” means quality of an aircraft (for example, lighting or paint scheme),
allowing it to be easily seen or noticed by others (for example, by pilots, ATCOs,
aerodrome personnel);
“Continuing airworthiness” means the set of processes by which an aircraft, engine,
propeller or part complies with the applicable airworthiness requirements and remains in
a condition for safe operation throughout its operating life;
“Controlled airspace” means an airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic
control service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification;
Note. - Controlled airspace is a generic term which covers ATS airspace Classes A, B, C,
D and E as described in Annex 11, 2.6.
“Dangerous goods” means articles or substances which are capable of posing risk to
health, safety, property or the environment and which are shown in the list of dangerous
goods of the Technical Instructions or which are classifieds according to those instructions;
“Detect and avoid” means the capability to see, sense or detect conflicting traffic or other
hazards and take the appropriate action;

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“Handover” means the act of passing piloting control from one remote pilot station to
another;
“Incident” means an occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of
an aircraft which affects or could affect the safety of operation;
Note: The types of incidents which are of interest for safety- related studies include the
incidents listed in Annex 13, Attachment C.
“Maintenance” means the performance of tasks required to ensure the continuing
airworthiness of an aircraft, including any one or combination of overhaul, inspection,
replacement, defect rectification and the embodiment of a modification or repair;

GN No.135 of 2015
“National Civil Aviation Security Committee (NCASC)” means the Committee
established by the Civil Aviation (Security) Regulations, 2015;
“Operational control” means the exercise of authority over the initiation, continuation,
diversion or termination of a flight in the interest of the safety of the aircraft and the
regularity and efficiency of the flight;
“Operations manual” means a manual containing procedures, instructions and guidance
for use by operational personnel in the execution of their duties;
“Operations specifications” means the authorizations, conditions and limitations
associated with the RPAS operator certificate and subject to the conditions in the
operations manual;
“Operator” means a person, organisation or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage
in RPAS operation;
“Person” means natural person, any institution or organization who engage in RPAS
operation;
“Prohibited area” means an airspace of defined dimensions, within which the flight of

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aircraft is prohibited;
“Remote crew member” means a crew member charged with duties essential to the
operation of a RPAS during a flight duty period;
“Remote cruise relief pilot” means a remote flight crew member who is assigned to
perform remote pilot tasks during cruise flight, to allow the remote pilot-in-command to
obtain planned rest;
“Remote flight crew member” means a licensed crew member charged with duties
essential to the operation of a RPAS during a flight duty period;
“Remote pilot” means a person charged by the operator with duties essential to the
operation of a remotely piloted aircraft and who manipulates the flight controls, as
appropriate, during flight time;
“Remote pilot-in-command” means the remote pilot designated by the operator as being
in command and charged with the safe conduct of a flight;
“Remote pilot station” means the component of the RPAS containing the equipment
used to pilot the remotely piloted aircraft;
“Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA)” means an unmanned aircraft which is piloted from a
remote pilot station.
“Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS)” means a remotely piloted aircraft, its
associated remote pilot station(s), the required command and control links and any other
components as specified in the type design;
“RPAS operating manual” means a manual, acceptable to the State of the Operator,
containing normal, abnormal and emergency procedures, checklists, limitations,
performance information, details of the RPA and each associated RPS model and other
material relevant to the operation of the RPAS; Note. - The RPAS operating manual is part
of the operations manual.
“Required Communication Performance (RCP)” means a statement of the performance

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requirements for operational communication in support of specific ATM functions;

“Required Communication Performance type (RCP type)” means a label (e.g. RCP
240) that represents the values assigned to RCP parameters for communication
transaction time, continuity, availability and integrity;
“Rest period” means a continuous and defined period of time, subsequent to or prior to
duty, during which remote crew members are free of all duties;
“RPA observer” means a trained and competent person designated by the operator who,
by visual observation of the remotely piloted aircraft, assists the remote pilot in the safe
conduct of the flight;
“RPAS operator certificate (ROC)” means a certificate authorising an operator to carry
out specified RPAS operations;
“Safety” means the state in which risks associated with aviation activities, related to, or in
direct support of the operation of aircraft, are reduced and controlled to an acceptable
level;
“Visual Line-of-Sight (VLoS) operation” means an operation in which the remote pilot or
RPA observer maintains direct unaided visual contact with the remotely piloted aircraft;
And
“Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC)” means meteorological conditions expressed
in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, equal to or better than specified
minima.

1.1.3 Application

These regulations shall apply to all persons operating or maintaining RPAS registered in
the United Republic of Tanzania wherever they may be and any RPAS operating in the
United Republic of Tanzania.

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1.2 Part II Categorisation and Registration

1.2.1 Categorisation classification of RPAS Equipment

(1) RPAS shall be categorised or classified by weight and usage.

(2) There shall be three classes of RPAS, namely: Class 1: that weigh 5 kilograms and
below including any payload carried by the RPAS;
Class 2: that weigh more than 5 kilograms but less than 25 kilograms including any
payload carried by the RPAS; and
Class 3: that weigh 25 kilograms and above including any payload carried by the RPAS.
(3) There shall be three categories of RPAS namely:
Category A: utilized for recreational and sports purposes only;
Category B: utilized for private activities excluding recreational and sports purposes; and
Category C: utilized for commercial activities

Cat. A Cat. B Cat. C

Recreational and Sports Private Commercial

Class 1
0 – 5kgs 1A 1B 1C
Class 2
2A 2B 2C
5 – 25kgs
Class 3 Note: can be authorized but
25kgs and above shall have to comply with
airworthiness certification, 3B 3C
continuing airworthiness,
operations, instruments,
pilot licensing and Air Traffic

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1.2.2 Eligibility for ownership of RPAS

A person shall be eligible to own a RPAS if he is-

a) a Tanzanian citizen;
b) a resident in the United Republic of Tanzania
c) a company registered in the United Republic of Tanzania; or
d) the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania.

1.2.3 Permit to import and export

(1) A person shall not import a RPAS or a component of a RPAS without a permit issued
by the Authority.
(2) A person who intends to export a Tanzanian registered RPAS shall notify the Authority
in writing and obtain a deregistration certificate.

1.2.4 Registration of RPAS

(1) A person shall not operate a remotely piloted aircraft within the United Republic of
Tanzania unless the remotely piloted aircraft has been registered by the Authority and a
certificate of registration has been issued in accordance with these Regulations.

(2) A remotely piloted aircraft shall acquire Tanzanian nationality when registered
under these Regulations.
(3) The Authority shall temporarily register the remotely piloted aircraft in the names of
the parties to the charter or hire purchase agreement for the duration of the lease,
charter or hire- purchase agreement when a remotely piloted aircraft is leased or is the
subject of a lease, charter or hire purchase agreement to a person qualified under

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regulation 5.
(4) The Authority shall establish and implement a system for registration and
identification of a RPAS in the United Republic of Tanzania.

1.2.5 Application for registration

(1) The owner of RPA shall submit an application for registration or operation of RPA to
the Authority.
(2) The owner of RPA shall submit to the Authority-

a) an application form provided in First Schedule to these Regulations provides

information about the remotely piloted aircraft and contact information for the
remotely piloted aircraft owner;

b) evidence of ownership (such as a bill of sale); and

c) the registration fee of one hundred United States Dollars or its equivalent in
Tanzanian Shillings.

1.2.6 RPAS register

The Authority shall establish and maintain a remotely piloted register containing the
following particulars: -
a) the number of the certificate;
b) the registration mark assigned to remotely piloted aircraft by the Authority;
c) the name of the manufacturer and the manufacturer's designation of the remotely
piloted aircraft;
d) the serial number of the remotely piloted aircraft;
e) the name and address of the owner;
f) entry date; and

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g) the use or conditions with regard to which remotely piloted aircraft is registered.

1.2.7 Certificate of registration

(1) The Authority shall register the remotely piloted aircraft by assigning a registration
number (“5H-…”) and issue to the owner where the applicant meets the registration
requirements, a certificate of registration, which shall include the particulars specified in
regulation 9 (RPAS registration particulars) and the date on which the certificate was
issued.
(2) The certificate of registration issued under sub regulation (1) shall not be transferable.

1.2.8 Change of registration or ownership particulars

(1) A person who is registered as the owner of RPAS in the United Republic of Tanzania
shall notify the Authority in writing within fourteen days before the change of :-
a) any change in the particulars which were furnished to the Authority at the time of
making application for the registration of the RPAS;
b) the destruction of the RPAS or its permanent withdrawal from use; and
c) in the case of the RPAS registered in pursuance of regulation 7(3), the
termination of the lease, charter or hire-purchase agreement.
(2) A person who becomes the owner of the RPAS registered in the United Republic of
Tanzania shall inform the Authority in writing.
(3) The Authority may, where it appears necessary or appropriate, or for purposes of
updating the register correct or amend the particulars entered on the register
(4) For purposes of this regulation a reference to the registered owner of the RPAS
includes, in the case of a deceased person, a reference to his legal representative and in
the case of a body corporate which has been dissolved, its successor.

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1.2.7 De-registration
(1) The Authority may de-register the registration of a RPAS under the following
circumstances:
a. upon application of the RPAS owner; or
b. upon destruction of the RPAS or its permanent withdrawal from use.
(2) The Authority shall, before de-registering the RPAS, require the registered owner to-
a) return to the Authority the certificate of RPAS registration;
b) settles any liens or encumbrances attached to the RPAS;
c) remove all nationality and registration marks assigned to the RPAS; and
d) comply with any such other conditions as the Authority may specify.

1.2.9 Airworthiness of RPAS

(1) The RPAS owner or operator shall ensure that all its components are in working
order and in accordance with the manufacturers‘ user manual.

(2) The Authority may require RPAS of a certain class and category with a type
certificate to obtain a certificate of airworthiness.

1.2.10 Maintenance of RPAS

The owner or operator of the RPAS shall-

a) maintain the RPAS in a condition for safe operation;
b) inspect the RPAS prior to flight to determine that the system is in a condition for safe
operation; and
c) keep a log of all the checks performed before and after each flight operation.

1.2.11 Inspection, testing, and demonstration of compliance

(1) The Authority shall have unrestricted access to-

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a) the remote pilot licence with a remotely piloted aircraft rating;

b) the certificate of registration for the RPAS being operated; and any other
document, record, or report required to be
c) kept by a remote pilot or owner of a remotely piloted aircraft under these
Regulations.
(2) The remote pilot, or owner of a RPAS shall, upon request, allow the Authority to
make oversight activities of the RPAS, the remote pilot, and facilities and equipment, to
determine compliance with these Regulations.

1.2.12 Suspension or revocation by contravention of law

Save as otherwise provided in these Regulations, the Authority may, in the interest of
safety and security revoke or suspend a certificate, approval, authorisation, exemption
or such other document of a person who contravenes any provision of these
Regulations.

1.3 Part III Operation Of RPAS

1.3.1 General obligation of RPAS operator

(1) The RPAS operator shall-

a) be responsible for the safe conduct of its operations;
b) comply with all requirements established by the Authority regarding its
operations; and
c) be responsible for contracted services from providers, as necessary, to carry out
its operations.
(2) The responsibility for operational control shall rest with the registered operator of the

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RPAS.

1.3.2 Authorisation of RPAS operations

(1) A person shall not operate a RPAS in the United Republic of Tanzania without
authorisation from the Authority.
(2) Notwithstanding sub regulation (1), RPAS operators shall be authorised in
accordance with the category of use, in the case of-
a) RPAS used for recreation and sports, authorisation shall be through registered
clubs established in accordance with the provisions of Part V of these Regulations;
b) RPAS for private use, authorisation shall be granted to the operator directly by the

Authority in accordance with the provisions of Part V of these Regulations; and

c) RPAS for commercial use, authorisation shall be issued in accordance with

the provisions of Part IV of these Regulations.

1.3.3 Operation in prohibited or restricted areas

A person shall not operate a RPAS-

a) in a manner that endangers other aircraft, persons or property;
b) in prohibited areas; or
c) in a restricted, danger areas or any other area notified by the Authority
except with the written permission of and in accordance with any conditions
imposed by the Authority

1.3.4 Operation in controlled airspace

(1) A remotely piloted aircraft shall not operate in a controlled airspace unless the

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operator has prior authorisation from the Air Traffic Control (ATC) facility having
jurisdiction over that airspace.

(2) A remotely piloted aircraft shall only operate at least 10 km away from the centre of
any aerodrome.

(2) Any person conducting remotely piloted aircraft operations shall ensure that the
appropriate air traffic service unit is advised immediately anytime the flight of a
remotely piloted aircraft inadvertently enters into controlled airspace.

1.3.5 1.3.5 Hazardous operation

(1) A person shall not:-

a) operate a RPAS in a deliberate, careless or reckless manner so as to endanger
the life or property of another; or
b) allow an object to be dropped from a remotely piloted aircraft if such action
endangers the life or property of another.

(2) The remote piloted aircraft shall discontinue the flight when he has reason to
believe that continuing the flight would pose a hazard to civil aviation operations,
people, or property.

1.3.6 Carriage of dangerous goods

A person shall not take or cause to be taken on board a RPAS or deliver or cause to be
delivered for loading any goods which that person knows or has reasonable cause to
know to be dangerous goods.

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1.3.7 RPAS operating limitations

(1) A person shall not operate a RPAS above 400 feet Above Ground Level and
within the radius of 50 meters of any person, vessel, vehicle or structure which is not
under the control of the person in charge of the RPAS.
(2) Notwithstanding sub regulation (1), operations for private and commercial categories
of RPAS may be conducted at such higher heights and lateral distances as the
Authority may approve.
(3) A person shall not operate a RPAS:_
a) in conditions other than Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC); and
b) beyond Visual Line of Sight (VLOS).
(4) Notwithstanding sub regulation (3)(b) a RPAS to be operated Beyond Visual Line Of
Sight shall be equipped with a detector and avoid system.

1.3.8 Daylight operation

(1) All operations of a RPAS shall be conducted in day light.

(2) The night operations shall not be conducted unless authorised.

1.3.9 Visual line of sight (VLOS) aircraft operation

(1) The remote pilot operating shall maintain continuous unaided visual contact with the
remotely piloted aircraft sufficient to be able to:-
a) maintain operational control of the remotely piloted aircraft; and
b) know the remotely piloted aircraft‘s location.

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(2) For purposes of this regulation, ―unaided visual contact‖ shall mean binoculars,
telescopic equipment, night vision equipment, visual enhancing equipment.

1.3.10 Operation of multiple RPAS

A person shall not act as a remote pilot in the operation of more than one RPAS at the
same time.

1.3.11 Operation near aircraft; right- of-way rules

(1) A remote pilot shall maintain awareness so as to see and avoid other aircraft and
vehicles and shall yield the right-of-way to all aircraft and vehicles.
(2) The remote pilot shall, at each point of the remotely piloted aircraft‘s flight, satisfy the
criteria specified in regulation 20 in order to maintain awareness so as to see other
aircrafts and vehicles.
(3) ―Yielding the right-of-way for purposes‖ of this regulation means that the remotely
piloted aircraft shall give way to the aircraft or vehicle and may not pass over, under, or
ahead of it unless well clear.

1.3.12 Operation over people

A person shall not operate a remotely piloted aircraft over an open-air assembly or crowd
of persons, who are not directly participating in the operation of the remotely piloted
aircraft.

1.3.13 Pre-flight familiarisation, inspection, and actions for remotely piloted aircraft
operation

(1) Prior to flight, the remote pilot shall:-

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a) assess the operating environment, considering risks to persons and property in the
immediate vicinity, both on the surface and in the air, the assessment shall include:-
(i). local weather conditions;
(ii). local airspace and any flight restrictions;
(iii). the location of persons and property on the surface; and
(iv). other ground hazards;
b) ensure that all persons involved in the operation of the remotely piloted aircraft receive
a briefing that includes operating conditions, emergency procedures, contingency
procedures, roles and responsibilities, and potential hazards;
c) ensure that all links between ground station and the remotely piloted aircraft are
working properly; and
d) if the remotely piloted aircraft is powered, ensure that there is enough available power
for the RPAS to operate for the intended operational time and to operate after that for at
least five minutes.
(2) Any person involved in the operation shall perform the duties assigned by the remote
pilot.

1.3.14 Reporting of incidents and accidents relating to RPAS operations

GN. No. 58 of 2017 and GN. No……

(1) The RPAS operator shall ensure that all incidents and accidents involving RPAS are
reported to the Authority in accordance to the provisions of the Civil Aviation (Safety
Management) Regulations and the Civil Aviation (Accident and Incident Investigation)
Regulations.
(2) Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation Department, Bureau or Branch shall be

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responsible for investigating all RPAS accidents and serious incidents.

1.3.15 Cancellation, suspension or variation of authorisation

Notwithstanding the provisions of regulation 17 (“General obligation of RPAS operator”),

the Authority may, in the interest of safety and security, cancel, suspend or vary any
authorisation granted under these Regulations.

1.3.16 Command and control

The RPAS pilot shall ensure that he has command and control of the RPAS at all times
during the flight.

1.3.17 ATC communication

(1) The RPAS pilots shall ensure that Air Traffic Control (ATC) is made aware of any
operations that shall take place in areas which are likely to affect manned and controlled
air traffic.
(2) The Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP) shall establish procedures, acceptable to
the Authority, for integration of RPAS operation into the airspace to ensure aviation safety
which shall include communication and surveillance detection.
(3) The procedures referred to in sub regulation (2) shall prescribe required information to
be passed to ATC by RPAS pilot before and during RPAS operations.

1.3.18 Operation vicinity of aerodromes

A person shall not operate a RPAS:-

a) within 10 kilometers of an aerodrome from the aerodrome reference point for

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code C, D, E and F aerodromes;

b) within 7 kilometers of an aerodrome from the aerodrome reference point for code
A and B aerodromes;
c) on approach and take-off paths;
d) within the vicinity of navigation aids;
e) within the aerodrome traffic zone; and f) within terminal traffic holding patterns,
f) Except with the written permission of the owner or operator of the aerodrome,
the appropriate ANSP and approval from the Authority.

1.3.19 Operations at an aerodrome

The Authority may upon approval of RPAS operation at an aerodrome: -

a) impose operating restrictions on the approval in the interest of safety;
b) publish details of the approval in the appropriate element of the Integrated Aeronautical
Information Publication (IAIP); and
c) revoke or change the conditions that apply to such approval and publish details of any
revocation or change in conditions in the appropriate element of the IAIP.

1.4 Part IV Commercial Operation Of RPAS

1.4.1 Certifications of RPAS operations

A RPAS for commercial operations shall be certified by the Authority in accordance with
the eligibility and training requirements set in the Second Schedule to these
Regulations.

1.4.2 ROC compliance

(1) An operator shall not engage in commercial RPAS operations unless the operator

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holds a valid RPA Operator Certificate (ROC) issued by the Authority.

(2) The ROC referred to in sub regulation (1) shall authorise the operator to conduct
RPAS operations in accordance with the conditions and limitations detailed in the
operations specifications attached to the ROC.
(3) The issuance of an ROC by the Authority is dependent upon the RPAS operator
demonstrating an adequate organisation, method of control and supervision of flight
operations, training programme as well as ground handling and maintenance
arrangements consistent with the nature and extent of the operations specified and
commensurate with the size, structure and complexity of the organisation.
(4) A commercial RPAS operator shall establish and implement a Safety Management
System (SMS) in accordance with their operational requirements established under the
Civil Aviation Act or any other regulations made there under.

1.4.3 Application for RPAS Operator Certificate

(1) An operator applying to the Authority for an RPAS Operator Certificate (ROC) shall
submit an application:-
a) on a form and manner prescribed by the Authority;
b) accompanied by proof of payment for a fee as prescribed by the Authority; and
c) containing any other information that the Authority requires the applicant to
submit.
(2) The ROC shall contain at least the following: -
a) the issuing authority;
b) the ROC number and its expiration date;
c) the RPAS operator name, trading name (if different) and address of the principal
place of business;
d) the date of issue and the name, signature and title of the authority

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representative;
e) the location where the contact details of operational management can be found;
f) the description of the types of operations authorised;
g) the type(s) or model(s) of remotely piloted aircraft authorised for use; and
h) the authorised areas of operation.
(3) The continued validity of an ROC shall depend upon the RPAS operator maintaining
the requirements of sub regulation (3) under the supervision of the Authority.
(4) An applicant shall make the application for an initial issue or reissue of an ROC at
least sixty days before the date of the intended operation.

1.4.4 Issuance of ROC

The Authority may issue an RPAS Operator Certificate to an applicant if that applicant: -
a) has its principal place of business and the place is registered in the United
Republic of Tanzania;
b) meets the applicable regulations and standards for the holder of an ROC;
c) is properly qualified, adequately staffed and equipped to conduct
safe operations in commercial operations of the RPAS;
d) holds a security clearance issued by the appropriate authority; and
e) has an Approved Aircraft Operator Security Programme in accordance with the
Civil Aviation (Security) Regulations, and meets any other requirements as specified
by the Authority.

1.4.5 Validity and renewal of RPAS Operator Certificate

(1) An RPAS Operator Certificate issued by the Authority shall be valid for 12 months
from the date of issue or renewal unless: -
a) a shorter period is specified by the Authority;

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b) the Authority amends, suspends, revokes or otherwise terminates the certificate;

c) a certificate holder surrenders it to the Authority; and
d) the certificate holder notifies the Authority of the suspension of operations.
(2) A Certificate which is suspended or revoked shall be returned to the Authority.
(3) An applicant for a certificate which has expired shall make an initial application.

1.4.6 Amendments of ROC

(1) The Authority may amend an RPAS Operator Certificate (ROC) if the: -
a) Authority determines that the amendment is necessary for the safety of
commercial RPAS operations; and
b) ROC holder applies for an amendment and the authority determines that the
amendment is necessary.
(2) The ROC holder shall operate in accordance with the amendment unless it is
subsequently withdrawn.

1.4.7 Conducting surveillance, inspections and tests

The Authority shall conduct surveillance, inspections and tests on the RPAS Operator
Certificate (ROC) holder to ensure continued eligibility to hold an ROC and associated
approvals

1.4.8 Personnel required for RPAS commercial operations

(1) The RPAS operator shall have accountable manager acceptable to the authority, with
corporate authority for ensuring that all necessary resources are available to support
ROC operations.
(2) The accountable manager shall have sufficient qualified and competent personnel for
the planned tasks and activities to be performed in accordance with the applicable

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requirements;
(3) The RPAS operator shall establish initial and recurrent training to ensure
continuing competence of its personnel.

1.4.9 Operations manual

The RPAS operator shall develop and submit to the Authority for approval an operations
manual as set out in the Third Schedule to these Regulations.

1.4.10 Authorisation for commercial RPAS operations

(1) The ROC holder shall not undertake commercial operations of RPAS except with
authorisation issued by the Authority.
(2) The ROC holder shall not conduct an RPAS flight commencing at a place within the
United Republic of Tanzania and terminating at a place outside the United Republic of
Tanzania without authorisation from the State of destination or any other State over
whose airspace the RPAS shall fly.
(3) The ROC holder shall not conduct a RPAS flight commencing at a place outside the
United Republic of Tanzania and terminating at a place within the United Republic of
Tanzania or overflying the Tanzanian airspace without authorisation from the Authority.
(4) Any person who intends to conduct a RPAS operation shall seek authorisation from
the Authority prior to conducting any operations.
(5) The RPAS shall meet the performance and equipment carriage requirements for the
specific airspace in which the flight is to operate.
(6) Unless otherwise specified by the Authority the request for authorisation shall include
the following: -
a) name and contact information of the operator;
b) RPAS characteristics (type of aircraft, maximum certificated take-off mass,

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number of engines, wing span);

c) a copy of certificate of registration;
d) an aircraft identification to be used in radiotelephony, if applicable;
e) a copy of the certificate of airworthiness;
f) a copy of the RPAS operator certificate;
g) a copy of the remote pilot(s) licence;
h) a copy of the aircraft radio station licence, if applicable;
i) a description of the intended operation (to include type of operation or purpose),
flight rules, visual line-of-sight (VLOS) operation if applicable, date of intended
flight(s), point of departure, destination, cruising speed(s), cruising level(s), route
to be followed, duration or frequency of flight;
j) take-off and landing requirements;
k) a RPAS performance characteristics, including:
(i) operating speeds;
(ii) typical and maximum climb rates;
(iii) typical and maximum descent rates;
(iv) typical and maximum turn rates
(v) other relevant performance data (e.g. limitations regarding wind, icing,
precipitation); and
(vi) maximum aircraft endurance;
l) communications, navigation and surveillance capabilities;
m) Aeronautical safety communications frequencies and equipment, including: -
i. ATC communications, including any alternate means of communication;
ii. command and control links (C2) including performance parameters and
designated operational coverage area;
iii. communications between remote pilot and RPA observer, if applicable;
iv. navigation equipment; and
v. surveillance equipment (e.g. SSR transponder, ADS-B);

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n) detect and avoid capabilities;

o) emergency procedures, including: -
(i) communications failure with ATC;
(ii) C2 failure; and
(iii) remote pilot or RPA observer communications failure, if applicable;
p) number and location of remote pilot stations as well as handover procedures
between remote pilot stations, if applicable;
q) document attesting noise certification, if applicable;
r) confirmation of compliance with the Civil Aviation (Security) Regulations;
s) payload information or description; and
t) proof of adequate insurance coverage.
(7) Where documents identified in sub regulation (6) above are issued in a language
other than English, the RPAS operator shall ensure that an English translation is
included.

1.4.11 Pilot Licence

(1) A person shall not fly a RPAS for commercial or private purposes, without a valid
licence issued by the Authority in accordance with these Regulations.
(2) An applicant for RPAS Pilots Licence referred in sub regulation (1) above shall: -
a) be at least 21 years old;
b) hold a current medical certificate;
c) demonstrate English language proficiency;
d) hold a radio telephony licence;
e) have completed a course of training approved by the Authority; and
f) have passed a knowledge and skills test.
(3) Where applicable RPAS pilot shall hold an appropriate rating for the type of
operations they will perform including: -
a) type rating;

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b) instrument rating;
c) night rating; and
d) instructor rating.

1.4.12 Application of remote pilot licence with RPAS rating

(1) An applicant for a remote pilot licence with a RPAS rating under these Regulations
shall make the application in a form and manner acceptable to the Authority.
(2) The application shall include: -
a) a knowledge test report showing that the applicant passed an initial aeronautical
knowledge test, or recurrent aeronautical knowledge test;
b) a declaration signed by the applicant stating that the applicant does not know or
have reason to know that he has a physical or mental condition that would interfere
with the safe operation of a RPAS; and
c) proof of payment of two hundred United States Dollars or its equivalent in
Tanzanian shillings for remote pilot licence issuance.

1.4.13 Eligibility requirements for RPAS Pilot Licence

(1) A person shall not act as a remote pilot unless that person holds: -

a) a remote Pilot Licence;

b) a rating for the specific RPAS type or is operating under the supervision of a rated

remote pilot for the purpose of qualifying for the rating;

c) the required knowledge for the type of RPAS; and

d) a current Class 3 medical certificate.

(2) A person undergoing training to qualify for a remote Pilot Licence or rating shall not: -

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a) act as solo remote pilot of an RPAS:

(i) unless under the supervision of, or with the authority of, an authorised RPAS
instructor; or
(ii) on an international RPA flight; and
b) form a part of the crew of a commercial RPAS flight.

1.4.14 Aeronautical knowledge

A person shall not operate an RPAS unless that person has completed one of the

following, within the previous 24 calendar months-

a) passed an initial aeronautical knowledge test covering the areas of knowledge

specified in regulation 50(1) (“Knowledge tests: General procedures and passing

grades”); or

b) passed a recurrent aeronautical knowledge test covering the areas of knowledge

specified in Regulation 51 (“Initial and recurrent knowledge tests”).

1.4.15 Knowledge tests: General procedures and passing grades

(1) Knowledge tests prescribed by or under these Regulations shall be conducted by the

Authority or by persons designated by the Authority.

(2) An applicant for a knowledge test shall have proper identification at the time of

application that contains the applicant‘s : -

a) photograph;

b) signature; and

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c) date of birth, which shows the applicant meets or will meet the age requirements

of these Regulations for the certificate sought before the expiration date of the

applicant knowledge test report.

(3) The minimum passing grade for the knowledge test will be specified by the Authority.

1.4.16 Initial and recurrent knowledge tests

(1) An initial aeronautical knowledge test covers the following areas of knowledge: -

a) applicable regulations relating to a RPAS rating privileges, limitations, and flight

operation;

b) airspace classification and operating requirements, obstacle clearance

requirements, and flight restrictions affecting remotely piloted aircraft operation;

c) official sources of weather and effects of weather on remotely piloted aircraft

performance;

d) a RPAS loading and performance;

e) emergency procedures;

f) crew resource management;

g) radio communication procedures;

h) determining the performance of remotely piloted aircraft;

i) physiological effects of drugs and alcohol;

j) aeronautical decision making and judgment; and

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k) airport operations.

(2) A recurrent aeronautical knowledge test covers the following areas of knowledge: -

a) applicable regulations relating to a RPAS rating privileges, limitations, and flight

operation;
b) airspace classification and operating requirements, obstacle clearance
requirements, and flight restrictions affecting remotely piloted aircraft operation;
c) official sources of weather;
d) emergency procedures;
e) crew resource management;
f) aeronautical decision making and judgment; and
g) airport operations.

1.4.17 Validity of RPAS Pilots Licence

The RPAS Pilots Licence shall be valid subject to validity of the holder‘s medical

certificate.

1.4.18 Training requirements for commercial RPAS operations

The commercial RPAS operations pilots will be trained in accordance with training

requirements specified in the Second Schedule to these Regulations.

1.4.19 Instruments and equipment requirements

The Authority shall prescribe instrument requirements for RPAS operators for specific
operations depending on : -

a) the class and category of the RPAS;

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b) type of operations; and

c) special authorisations sought.

1.4.20 Medical condition and drug or alcohol use

(1) A person shall not act as a remote pilot if he knows or has reason to know that he has
a physical or mental condition that would interfere with the safe operation of a RPAS.
(2) A person shall not operate a remotely piloted aircraft if that person is or appears to be
under the influence of:
a) alcohol, or
b) any drug that affects that person's faculties in any way contrary to safety.

1.4.21 Responsibility of the remote pilot

(1) The remote pilot is directly responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation
of the RPAS.
(2) The remote pilot shall ensure that the remotely piloted aircraft will pose no undue
hazard to other aircraft, people, or property in the event of a loss of control of the
remotely piloted aircraft for any reason.

1.5 Part V Private, Recreational And Sports RPAS Operations

1.5.1 Private RPAS operations

A person shall not operate a RPAS for private purposes except with prior authorisation
issued by the Authority and subject to the conditions contained therein.

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1.5.2 Training requirements for private RPAS operations

The private RPAS operations pilots shall be trained in accordance with training
requirements prescribed by Authority.

1.5.3 Recreational and sports RPAS operations

(1) The sports RPAS operations for recreational and sports purposes shall be authorised
and conducted within registered clubs which are approved by the Authority based on the
operational guidelines specified in the Fourth Schedule of these Regulations.

(2) The authorisation given under sub regulation (1) shall be valid for twelve months.
(3) The Authority shall develop a system for approval of recreational and sports clubs
including requirements for composition, documentation, club rules and regulations
(4) The clubs referred to in sub regulation (1) shall provide the Authority with details of
their operation areas and working hours for approval purposes.
(5) The Authority shall segregate and notify through the applicable element of the IAIP of
such airspaces designated for use by RPAS operators, including limitations that may
apply.

1.5.4 Training requirements for recreational and sports RPAS operations

(1) Clubs referred to in regulation 59 shall prescribe minimum training requirements for
RPAS operations under the club.
(2) Training requirements for RPAS referred to in sub regulation (1) above shall be
documented and submitted to the Authority for approval.

1.6 Part Vi Autonomous RPAS

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1.6.1 Use of autonomous RPAS

(1) Use of autonomous RPAS shall be strictly limited to State functions such as delivery
of disaster or emergency supplies, search and rescue, and other Government operational
missions.
(2) The Chairperson of the National Civil Aviation Security Committee (NCASC) shall, on
a flight-by-flight basis, issue a Certificate of Authorisation for a specific period of time that
permits a Government entity to operate an autonomous RPAS, in a particular area.
(3) The NCASC shall prescribe conditions and limitations for autonomous RPAS
operations to ensure that they do not jeopardize national security and the safety of other
aviation operations.
(4) The Government entity conducting autonomous RPAS operations shall comply with
the prescribed conditions and limitations for autonomous RPAS operations and any
other operational requirements.
(5) Autonomous RPAS operations shall comply with the rules of air, as applicable to all
aircraft in the United Republic of Tanzania Airspace.

1.7 Part VII Security Requirements For RPAS Operations

1.7.1 Security requirements GN. No......

(1) A person shall not operate a RPAS without Operator Security Procedures developed
in accordance with the provisions of the Civil Aviation (Security) Regulations and other
security requirements developed by the Authority.
(2) The RPAS operator shall specify the security measures, procedures and practices to
be followed by the operator to protect pilots and facilities from acts of unlawful
interference.
(3) The RPAS operator shall carry out and maintain security measures including

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identification and resolution of suspicious activity that may pose a threat to civil
aviation: -
a) at a remote pilot station;
b) on an RPAS; and
c) at any facility under the control of the RPAS operations.
(4) The specific security measures referred to in sub regulation (3) shall provide: -
a) that the premises used for preparing, storing, parking including RPAS ground
station shall be secured at all times against unauthorised access;
b) for protection of critical information technology and communication systems used
for operations purposes from interference that may jeopardize the security of civil
aviation;
c) for protection of flight documents;
d) that Commercial Operators requesting to operate with a camera shall be required
to include details of the camera usage in the application for Security review and
approval;
e) requirements for checks and searches of specific areas and accessible
compartments of the interior and exterior of RPAS; and
f) that persons engaged in RPAS operations are subject to recurrent background
checks and selection procedures and are adequately trained.

1.7.2 Security obligations for RPAS operators

The RPAS operator shall: -

a) be responsible for the security of the RPAS operations including associated
facilities, personnel and equipment;
b) ensure that the RPAS or any component thereof that is no longer in use is
completely disabled or destroyed to prevent unauthorised use; and

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c) comply with any security directives or circulars issued by the Authority.

1.7.3 Acts of unlawful interference against civil aviation GN. No.135 of 2015

(1) The RPAS operator or owner shall have response procedures for operations
personnel for threats and incidents involving RPAS operations.
(2) The RPAS operator or owner shall ensure that reports on acts of unlawful interference
are promptly submitted to the Authority as per the Civil Aviation (Security) Regulations.

1.7.4 Security vetting for remote pilots or owner

(1) On receipt of an application for a remote pilot licence or registration of a remotely

piloted aircraft, the Authority shall verify compliance and the accuracy of the application
and provide the applicant‘s information to competent security agencies for security vetting
prior to issuance of a certificate.
(2) The Authority shall only issue certificates to individuals who have successfully
completed a security threat assessment conducted by the competent security
agencies.
(3) The security threat assessment shall consist of a check of intelligence-related
databases, including Interpol and international databases, terrorist watch lists, and other
sources relevant to determining whether an individual poses or may pose a threat to
national security, and that confirm the individual's identity.
(4) Where the competent security agencies determine that the applicant poses a
security risk, the Authority shall deny the application for a certificate.
(5) A holder of a remote pilot licence or the certificate of registration who will be
determined to pose a security risk shall have his certificate amended, modified,
suspended or revoked (as appropriate) based on the competent security agencies‘
security findings.

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(6) The competent security agencies shall conduct background and criminal record
checks every 24 months on all personnel employed in the deployment, handling, and
storage of remotely piloted aircraft.

1.7.5 Remotely Piloted Operator or owner’s security measures

(1) The holder of an RPAS Operator Certificate issued under these Regulations shall-
a) ensure that remotely piloted aircraft not in use are stored in a secure manner to
prevent and detect unauthorised interference or use;
b) ensure that the remotely piloted aircraft is protected from acts of unlawful interference;
c) ensure that the remotely piloted aircraft is stored and prepared for flight in a manner
that will prevent and detect tampering and ensure the integrity of vital systems;
d) designate a security coordinator responsible for the implementation, application and
supervision of the security controls; and
e) ensure that all personnel employed in the deployment, handling, and storage of
remotely piloted aircraft have received security awareness training.

1.7.6 Notification

(1) A remotely piloted aircraft shall not be launched or recovered from any public or
private property without the consent of the relevant Authority.
(2) The RPAS pilot or the owner shall seek permission or notify the appropriate
authorities, as well as people around the area before starting the operations.

1.7.7 Privacy of others

(1) Any person conducting operations using a remotely piloted aircraft fitted with
cameras shall operate them in a responsible way to respect the privacy of others.

(2) A person shall not use a remotely piloted aircraft to do any of the following: -

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a) conduct surveillance of:

i. a person without the person's consent; and
ii. private real property without the consent of the owner; and

b) photograph or film an individual, without the individual's consent, for the

purpose of publishing or otherwise publicly disseminating the photograph or film:

Provided that, the photograph or film is for newsgathering or is taken at the events
or places to which the general public is invited.

(3) Infrared or other similar thermal imaging technology equipment fitted on remotely
piloted aircraft shall be for the sole purpose of-
a) scientific investigation;
b) scientific research;
c) mapping and evaluating the earth’s surface, including terrain and surface water
d) bodies and other features;
e) investigation or evaluation of crops, livestock, or farming operations;
f) investigation of forests and forest management;
g) investigations of vegetation or wildlife; or
h) investigation of other matters upon authorisation by the Authority.

1.8 General Provisions

1.8.1 Records

(1) A RPAS operator shall establish an system of record-keeping that allows adequate
storage and reliable traceability of all activities developed, covering at a minimum-
a) operator‘s organisation;
b) Safety Management Systems (SMSs);
c) personnel training and competence verification;

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d) documentation of all management system key processes;

e) maintenance records; and
f) security management records.
(2) The records under sub regulation (1) shall be stored in a manner that ensures protection
from damage, alteration and theft.
(3) The records identified in this subregulation shall be current and in a sufficient detail to
determine whether the experience and qualification requirements are met for the purpose of
commercial operations.

1.8.2 Insurance

(1) A person shall not operate, or cause to be operated or commit any other person to
operate a RPAS unless there is in force an adequate insurance policy in respect of third
party risks.
(2) The minimum sum of insurance in respect of any RPAS insured in accordance with sub
regulation (1) shall be notified by the Authority.
(3) An operator of RPAS shall make available third party liability insurance certificate, in
authentic form, at the location of the RPAS operator‘s operational management or
other location specified by the Authority.
(4) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub regulation (1), the Authority may dispense with
requirement depending on the class and category of the RPAS.

1.8.3 Reports of violation

(1) Any person may report to the Authority any violation made under these Regulations.
(2) The Authority will determine the nature and type of any additional investigation or
enforcement action that requires to be taken in case of any violations under these
Regulations.

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1.8.4 Offences and penalties

(1) A pilot or any person in charge of the RPAS or the owner thereof who operates, or
causes to be operated or commits any other person to operate a RPAS in such a manner
as to endanger the safety of the air space, other aircraft, persons and property on the
ground, commits an offence and shall be liable on conviction to a fine of not exceeding one
million shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or both.
(2) A person who operates a RPAS, without authorisation commits an offence and on
conviction shall be liable to a fine of not exceeding one million shillings or
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or both.
(3) A person who fails to display a unique identifier or the registration number commits an
offence and on conviction shall be liable to a fine of not exceeding one million shillings or
imprisonment for a term of not exceeding six months or both.
(4) A person who operates, or causes to be operated or commits any other person to
operate an RPAS which has not been registered by the Authority commits an offence and
on conviction shall be liable on conviction to a fine of not exceeding one million shillings or
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or both.
(5) Any person who fails to comply with any direction given to him by the Authority or by any
authorised person under any provision of these Regulations shall be deemed for the
purposes of these Regulations to have contravened the provisions of these Regulations.
(6) An RPAS operator who fails to comply with any of the obligations provided for by these
Regulations shall be liable to a fine not exceeding one million shillings or to imprisonment
for a term of not exceeding six months or both.
(7) Any person who contravenes any of the provisions of these Regulations may have his
licence, certificate, approval, authorisation, exemption or other such document issued by
the Authority, revoked or suspended.

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1.8.5 Saving and transitional provisions

Any RPAS operated prior to the publication of these Regulations, shall be registered within
twelve months of such publication.

1.9 Certification of RPAS Pilot

The Schedule sets forth the eligibility and training requirements for the certification of

RPAS Pilots.

1.10 Required certificate, ratings and qualifications for Remote Pilot Certificate.

Knowledge and skill requirements

a) An applicant for a Remote Pilot Certificate shall have demonstrated a level of
knowledge appropriate to the privileges granted to the holder of the certificate holder, in
the following subjects-
i. air law;
ii. RPAS general knowledge;
iii. flight performance, planning and loading;
iv. human performance;
v. meteorology;
vi. navigation;
vii. operational procedures;
viii. principles of flight related to RPAS; and
ix. radiotelephony
b) An applicant for a remote pilot certificate shall pass a skill test to demonstrate the ability
to perform, as remote PIC of the appropriate RPA category and associated RPS, the
relevant procedures and maneuvers with the competency appropriate to the privileges

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granted.

1.10.1 Credit

A holder of a licence issued by the Authority may be credited towards the requirements for
theoretical knowledge instruction and examination requirements for the remote pilot
certificate.

1.10.2 Passing Grade

The Authority shall prescribe the minimum passing grade.

1.10.3 Retesting after failure

An applicant for a knowledge or practical test who fails that test, may retest after the
applicant has received the necessary training from an authorised instructor who has
determined that the applicant is proficient to pass the test.

1.10.4 Special conditions

a) In the case of introduction of new RPA or RPS in an operator‘s fleet, when compliance
with the requirements established by the Authority is not possible, the Authority may
consider issuing a specific authorisation giving privileges for RPAS instruction. Such an
authorisation shall be limited to the instruction flights necessary for the introduction of the
new type of RPA or RPS.
b) The validity period for this authorisation shall be for the instruction sought only.
An operations manual shall include each item set forth below which is applicable to the
specific operation, unless otherwise approved by the Authority.

1.10.5 Part A – General

1. Introduction

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1.1 Purpose and scope of manuals

1.2 A statement that the manual complies with all applicable Authority regulations and
requirements and with the terms and conditions of the applicable RPAS operator certificate
1.3 A statement that the manual contains operational instructions that are to be complied
with by the relevant personnel in the performance of their duties
1.4 List of manuals comprising operations manual
1.5 A list and brief description of the various operations manual parts, their contents,
applicability and use.
1.6 Responsibility for manual content
1.7 Responsibility for manual amendment
1.8 List of effective pages
1.9 Distribution of manuals and amendments

2. Safety Management System

2.1 Safety Policy

2.2 Description of safety management system
2.3 Accident and Investigation policies
3. Quality System
3.1 Description of quality system adopted
4. Management Organisation
4.1 A description of the organisational structure including the general company
organisation and operations department organisation. The relationship between the
operations department and the other departments of the company. In particular, the
subordination and reporting lines of all divisions, departments etc., which pertain to the
safety of the RPAS operations, shall be shown

4.2 Accountable Manager –duties and responsibilities

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4.3 Nominated personnel – Functions duties and responsibilities

4.4 RPAS Pilot- duties and responsibilities
4.5 Support personnel in the operation of RPAS- duties and responsibilities
4.6 A description of the objectives, procedures and responsibilities necessary to exercise
operational control with respect to flight safety
5. Documentation
5.1 Documents required in RPAS operations
5.2 Document storage and retention period

1.10.6 Part B – RPAS Operating Information

1. Crew Information
1.1 Flight team or crew composition
1.2 Qualification requirements of RPAS Pilot and support crew
1.3 Medical competencies
1.4 Operations of different types of RPAS
2. Operations of RPAS
2.1 Operating site location and assessment
 Risk management
 Pre-notification
 Site permission
 Preparation and serviceability of equipment and remotely piloted aircraft operating
limitations and conditions
2.2 Communications
2.3 Weather
2.4 On site procedures and pre flight procedures

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 Site survey
 Selection of operating area and alternate
 Crew briefing
 Cordon procedure
 Loading of equipment
 Preparation and correct assembly of the remotely piloted aircraft
 Pre-flight checks on remotely piloted aircraft and equipment
 Start
 Take-off
 In flight
 Landing
 Shutdown

3. RPAS Flight Management

3.1 Assembly and functional checks
3.2 Pre –flight checks
3.3 Normal flight procedures associated with relevant systems
3.4 Inflight checks associated with relevant systems
3.5 Abnormal procedures associated with relevant systems
3.6 Emergency Procedures associated with relevant systems
 Appropriate to the remotely piloted aircraft and control system
 Fire
 Accidents
4. RPAS User Manual

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1.10.7 Part C – Areas Routes and Aerodromes

1. Areas of operations
2. Operating site planning and assessment
3. Authorisations including site permissions

1.10.8 Part D – Training

1. Training syllabi and checking programs for RPAS crew

2. Training syllabi and checking programs for RPAS support crew
3. Training syllabi and programs for personnel other than crew
4. Recurrent training programs
5. Additional training requirements that individual clients specify for the proposed
operations.
The following requirements shall apply to RPAS clubs intending to operate for sport and
recreation as required under regulations 59 and 60 in Part V of these Regulations.
General Provisions
1. A RPAS club shall be registered in accordance with the provisions pertaining to the
registration of clubs in the United Republic of Tanzania for it to be recognised and
approved by the Authority.
2. No RPAS club shall operate without the approval by the Authority.
3. The club is required to develop an operational manual that provides for:
a) membership requirements;
b) administration of members;
c) training requirements for its members;
d) procedures and guidelines of operations;
e) types of operation;
f) class of equipment operated;

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g) security arrangement for operations; and

h) reporting mechanisms of incidents and accidents of the RPAS operations.
i) Administration of the club
4. The club management shall ensure that members:
a) have adequate training to facilitate operations;
b) are informed on current regulations, policies and procedures;
c) adhere to safe business practices in their activities;
d) are knowledgeable of airspace restrictions that apply in the area of operation as
approved; and
e) are conversant with and meet the training requirements of the club.
f) Responsibility of the club management
5. The administrator of the club shall: -
a) obtain consent of the property owner or person in charge of the area of operation;
b) ensure that the club‘s recognition status is current with the Authority;
c) develop and operationalise a training programme and plan for their membership;
d) a current list of members and particulars of their RPAS;
e) maintain a record or database of all accidents and incidents that occur within their
area of jurisdiction;
f) ensure that it has adequate personnel are properly qualified and competent to
perform their allocated tasks and responsibilities;
g) have procedures for responding to an incident, accident, medical emergency, or if
any RPAS becomes uncontrollable.
h) immediately stop all operations if unable to meet the exemption requirements or if
the safety of a person, property or other aircraft is at risk,
i) ensure that club activities does not interfere with civil aviation;
j) Adhere to laws from all levels of Government;

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k) inspect their RPAS on site before conducting of any flight to ensure that they are
safe.

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CHAPTER 2: RPAS GENERAL AND FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

2.1 Introduction to Drone Technology

2.1.1 Drone Evolution

2.1.2 What is considered to be a drone?

Before we get into the nitty-gritty of the history of drones, it might be useful to actually
define what we are talking about.
According to various dictionaries, a drone tends to be defined as:-
"An unmanned aircraft or ship guided by remote control or onboard computers." -
While the term also has other meanings, for the context of this manual, a drone is, in
effect, an unmanned flying object either controlled remotely or operating completely
autonomously.
"A drone, in technological terms, is an unmanned aircraft. ... Essentially, a drone is a flying
robot that can be remotely controlled or fly autonomously through software-controlled flight
plans in their embedded systems, working in conjunction with onboard sensors and GPS."
Drones belong to a class of aerial vehicles known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs).
These vehicles can take to the air without pilots. Essentially, this makes drones flying
robots. Encompassing both planes and quadcopters, they have software-controlled flight
plans integrated into their systems. These systems work with Global Positioning
Technology (GPS) to guide and track their movements.
The quadcopter is a newer UAV. As its name suggests, this rotorcraft (a craft lifted by
spinning rotor blades) depends on four quick-turning rotors to give it thrust. Two spin
clockwise and the other two, counter-clockwise. Two sets of identical, fixed pitch
propellers help the process. Pilots achieve control of the craft by using remote control
transmitters to change the speed of its rotor discs.

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2.1.3 History

A drone is an unmanned aircraft. Drones are more formally known as unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs) or unmanned aircraft systems. Essentially, a drone is a flying robot that
can be remotely controlled or fly autonomously using software-controlled flight plans in
its embedded systems, that work in conjunction with onboard sensors and a global
positioning system (GPS).

2.1.4 The Beginning History

When it comes to aviation war worth it. World war 1 & 2 and cold war as well was the
golden age of design and manufacturing newer and better manned, unmanned aircrafts
throughout the world. You might not believe the first unmanned aerial vehicle was created
almost 170 years ago.
The primary nations that began inquires about on UAVs were the Assembled States, the
Unified Kingdom, Russia, Germany and Israel. The first run through an unmanned flying
vehicle was utilized by the Austrians in August of 1849. At the time there were utilized the
inflatables (loaded up with explosives) which have been known for right around 150 years
and which were be utilized as bombs. One of the principal makers of drones was Charles
Kettering, who in a joint effort with Elmer Sperrym, Orville Wright and Robert Milikanem
made in 1915, the air ship named "Kettering Bug". It was a crude programmed plane,
which based on sensors characterized its stature (by utilizing an indicator), the separation
voyaged (in view of the measure of motor twists) and the position. Conversely, the
principal civilian air ship was delivered just during the 80s of the twentieth century in Japan
in line with the Pastor of Farming, Backwoods and Fisheries.
Historical Timeline:
• 1839: The earliest UAV in the history of drones was seen in 1839, when Austrian soldiers
attacked the city of Venice with unmanned balloons filled with explosives.
• 1896: First use of UAV using camera for surveillance.

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• 1907: The world’s first quadcopter was created by inventor brothers Jacques and Louis
Bréguet.
• 1917: The Ruston Proctor Aerial Target became the first pilotless winged aircraft in
history. It was a radio-controlled pilotless airplane, based on RC technology from the
inventor Nikola Tesla.
• 1943: Created for use by the German military during World War II, “Fritz X” was the
nickname given to the FX1400, the first remote-controlled weapon that was actually put
into operational use.
• 1960: Boom in RC planes popularity in the U.S. Mostly coming in kit form, these RC
planes offered everything from indoor-flyable models to much larger outdoor models.
• 1982: Modern drone warfare began in 1982, when Israel coordinated the use of
battlefield UAVs alongside manned aircraft to wipe out the Syrian fleet with very minimal
losses.
• 1993: Monitoring of climate and environment using drone begins.
• 2001: In the aftermath of 9/11, the CIA began flying armed drones over Afghanistan as
part of the war against the Taliban. The first CIA drone-based kill operation took place in
February 2002.
• 2006: Recognizing the potential of non-military, non-consumer drone applications, the
FAA issued the first commercial drone permits.
• 2010: The French company Parrot released their Parrot AR Drone, the first ready-to-fly
drone which can be controlled entirely via Wi-Fi, using a smartphone.
• 2013: In December 2013, Amazon released a concept video showcasing founder Jeff
Bezos’ dream for a dronebased delivery system.
• 2014: General use of drone as toy started to introduced.
• 2016: DJI’s Phantom 4 introduced smart computer vision and machine learning
technology in drone.

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• 2016: The first passenger drone was introduced at the Consumer Electronics Show
(CES) 2016 by Chinese entrepreneurs and is called the Ehang 184.

2020 – Pandemic Alleviation

From quarantine & social distancing enforcement to mass disinfection and medical supply
delivery assistance, drones have been a staple during the coronavirus outbreak.
Now, more than ever before, regulations are being adjusted to provide fast-track
authorizations for promising use-cases. It’s impossible to predict the long-term impact of
these developments, but one thing is certain: the pandemic has helped countries around
the world imagine the potential that drones hold for society.

2.2 Drone uses:

They were initially used for anti-aircraft target practice, intelligence gathering and,
Drones are now also used in a range of civilian roles, including the following: -
• Search and rescue.
• Surveillance.
• Traffic monitoring.
• Weather monitoring.
• Firefighting.
• Personal use.
• Drone-based photography.
• Agriculture.
• Delivery services.

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Drone image

Drone camera

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To fly, drones must have a power source, such as battery. They also have rotors,
propellers, and a frame. The frame of a drone is typically made of a lightweight,
composite material to reduce weight and increase maneuverability.
Drones require a controller, which lets the operator use remote controls to launch,
navigate and land the aircraft. Controllers communicate with the drone using radio waves,
such as Wi-Fi.

2.3 Types of Drones

Main Existing Drone Types and their technical characteristics

An important technical characteristic of drones is the type of drone. The main drone types
are Multirotor systems, fixed-wing systems and VTOL/ Hybrid systems. The majority of
existing drones can be defined within these three types.

2.3.1 Multirotor Systems

Multirotor systems are a subset of rotorcraft. The term rotorcraft is used in aviation to
define aircraft that use rotary wings to generate lift. A popular example of a rotorcraft is the
traditional helicopter. Rotorcraft can have one or multiple rotors. Drones using rotary
systems are almost always equipped with multiple small rotors, which are
necessary for their stability, hence the name multirotor systems. Commonly, these
drones use at least four rotors to keep them flying. A popular example of these
multirotor drones is the widely used Phantom drone made by the Chinese
company DJI. This four-rotor drone will be discussed in more detail later in this section.
Differences between fixed-wing drones and multirotor drones are important for the
different applications consumers want to use the drone for. For example, multirotor drones
do not need a landing strip, make less noise than their fixed-wing counterparts and can

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hover in the air. Fixed-wing drones can fly faster and are more suitable for long distances
than their multirotor counterparts. These characteristics determine which of these drone
types to use for a specific application.

2.3.2 Fixed-Wing Systems

Fixed-wing is a term mainly used in the aviation industry to define aircraft that use fixed,
static wings in combination with forward airspeed to generate lift. Examples of this
type of aircraft are traditional airplanes, kites that are attached to the surface and different
sorts of gliders like hang gliders or paragliders. Even a simple paper airplane can be
defined as a fixed-wing system. An example of a fixed-wing drone is the widely used
Sense fly ebeex

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2.3.3 VTOL/ Hybrid systems.

Some types of drones cannot be labeled as a fixed-wing or a multirotor drone. Sometimes

because the drone simply is neither fixed-wing nor multirotor, sometimes because
the drone has characteristics of both types. Hybrid systems are systems that have
characteristics of both multirotor and fixed-wing systems. The hybrid quadcopter is an
example of such a drone. This drone uses multiple rotors to take-off and land vertically but
also has wings so it can fly longer distances.
Drones that are neither fixed-wing nor multirotor systems are far less frequent. An
example of such a drone is the Wing copter drones. These drones fly by mimicking wing
motions of insects or birds.

VTOL Drone: CL-866E

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2.4 Drone components

The following are drone components

1. Structure
2. Propulsion system
3. Controls

2.4.1 Structure

Body Frame and Arms

The essential component of a drone is a frame, which ought to be greatest light. The order
of frame development is for the most part dependent on the quantity of arms.
Frame is the main body part of the drone where arms are connected. It should have
sufficient strength to hold the propeller momentum and additional weight for motors and
cameras.

2.4.2 Propulsion system

The following parts of a drone are engine and propellers. They establish the principle drive
arrangement of a drone and are exposed to the most astounding burdens, consequently
their toughness is essential. The propellers change a torque (got from the engine) for a
work utilized for lifting the vehicle noticeable all around.

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The brush engines are utilized all the time for building drones. Nonetheless, the
encounters have indicated that utilizing brushless motors enhances solidness,
effectiveness and lessens the utilization of moving parts. This considers longer and less
crisis work of the engines.
The twofold propellers pivot in inverse ways, adjusting one other the latency constrain.
The wings of drones can be separated additionally on adjusted for pivot:
 ClockWise (CW)
 Counter-ClockWise (CCW)

The greater are the propeller blades the more grounded should likewise be the engine to
adapt torque, which is required to push propellers, into movement. Furthermore, it is
critical to adjust every propeller before use to limit vibrations created by the unequal
activity of the framework
Propulsion system of a multirotor drone comprise of the following components
Propellers:
• The speed and load lifting ability of a drone depends on shape, size, and number
of propellers
• The long propellers create huge thrust to carry heavy loads at a low speed (RPM)
and less sensitive to change the speed of rotation
• Short propellers carry fewer loads. They change rotation speeds quickly and
require a high speed for more thrust.

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Motor
• Both motors brushless and brushed type can be used for drones
• A brushed motor is less expensive and useful for small-sized drones
• Brushless type motors are powerful and energy very efficient. But they need Electronic
Speed Controller (ESC) to control their speed. These brushless motors are widely used for
racing freestyle drones, traffic surveys and aerial photography drones.

ESC (Electronic Speed Controller)

• ESC is used to connect the battery to the electric motor for the power supply
• It converts the signal from the flight controller to the revolution per minted (RPM)
of motor

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• ESC is provided to each motor of the drone

Flight Controller (FC)

• It is the computer processor which manages balance and telecommunication
controls using different transmitter

• Sensors are located in this unit for the accelerometer, barometer, magnetometer,
gyrometer and GPS
• The distance measurement can be carried out by an ultrasound sensor

Radio Transmitter sends the radio signal to ESC to pilot to control motor speed.

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Radio Receiver: Received the signal from the pilot. This device is attached to the
quadcopter

Battery: High-power capacity, Lithium Polymer (LiPo) is used for most drones. The battery
can have 3S (3 cells) or 4S (4 cells).

2.4.3 Controls

There are four main drone controls:

• Roll: Done by pushing the right stick to the left or right. Literally rolls the drone, which
maneuvers the drone left or right.

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• Pitch: Done by pushing the right stick forwards or backward. Tilts the drone, which
maneuvers the drone forwards or backward.

• Yaw: Done by pushing the left stick to the left or to the right.
Rotates the drone left or right. Points the front of the copter in different directions
and helps with changing directions while flying.
• Throttle: To increase, push the left stick forwards. To decrease,
Pull the left stick backward. This adjusts the altitude, or height, of the drone

• Roll (Right Stick)

Roll moves your drone left or right. It’s done by pushing the right stick on your controller
to the left or to the right. It’s called “roll” because it literally rolls the drone. For

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example, as you push the right stick to the Left, the drone will angle diagonally downwards
to the left. When you
Push the stick to the left, the propellers will be pushing air to the right, forcing the drone to
fly to the left. If you push the stick to the right, the propellers will be pushing air to the left,
forcing the drone to fly to the right.

Pitch (Right Stick)

Pitch is done by pushing the right stick on your controller forwards or
Backward. This will tilt the drone, resulting in forwards or backward
Movement. When the right stick is pushed forward, the back of the drone will pitch up
causing the air to push the drone forward. If the right stick is pulled backward, the front of
the drone will pitch up causing the air to push the drone backward.

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Yaw (Left Stick)

Yaw was a little bit confusing for me in the beginning. Essentially, it rotates the
drone clockwise or counterclockwise. This is done by pushing the left stick to the left or to
the right. Yaw is typically used at the same time as throttle during continuous flight. This
allows the pilot to make circles and patterns. It also allows videographers and
photographers to follow objects that might be changing directions. (uav coach et al 2021)

Throttle (Left Stick)

Throttle gives the propellers on your drone enough power to get airborne. When flying,
you will have the throttle engaged constantly. To engage the throttle, push the left stick
forward. To disengage, pull it backwards.
Make sure not to disengage completely until you’re a couple of inches away from the
ground. Otherwise, you might damage the drone, and your Training will be cut short

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2.5 DRONE FEATURES

1. Cameras with high-performance, zoom and gimbal Steadicam and tilt capabilities.
2. Artificial intelligence (AI) that enables the drone to follow objects
3. Augmented reality features that superimpose virtual objects on the drone's camera
feed
4. Media storage format
5. Maximum flight time, which determines how long the drone can remain in the air
6. Maximum speeds, including ascent and descent
7. Hover accuracy
8. Obstacle sensory range
9. Altitude hold, which keeps the drone at a fixed altitude
10. Live video feed

2.6 AERODYNAMICS

Aerodynamics is the way air moves around things. The rules of aerodynamics explain how
an airplane is able to fly. Anything that moves through air reacts to aerodynamics. A rocket
blasting off the launch pad and a kite in the sky react to aerodynamics. Aerodynamics
even acts on cars, since air flows around cars.

2.7 Laws of Motion

2.7.1 Newton’s 1st Law of motion (Law of Inertia)

States that, every object persists in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it.
How it applies in Drone
When flying at constant altitude; If Thrust and Drug are equal, aircraft holds constant air
speed

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If thrust is increased; Aircraft accelerates – airspeed increases. Drag depends on

airspeed- Drag increases
When drag equal to Thrust; Aircraft no longer accelerates but holds a new, higher,
constant airspeed.

2.7.2 Newton 2nd Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration)

The motion of an object is determined by the sum of the forces acting on it; if the total
force on the object is not zero, its motion will change. The greater the mass of the object,
the greater the force needed to achieve the same change in motion

2.7.3 Newton's third law of motion

It states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
How it applies in Drone:
When a quadcopter's propellers spin, they push air downward. Using Newton's third law,
this represents the action. For Newton's law to be true, there must be an equal and
opposite reaction.

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2.8 Forces acting on aircraft

2.8.1 The Four Forces of Flight

The four forces of flight are lift, weight, thrust and drag. These forces make an object move
up and down, and faster or slower. How much of each force there is changes how the
object moves through the air.
Lift: Lift is defined as the vertical component of the aerodynamic force, opposed to weight.
In cases where lift points downwards, effectively increasing the vehicle's effective weight,
we call it Down Force.
Lift ascends the drone

Weight/Force of Gravity
It is the measure of the force of gravity acting on a body.

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Everything on Earth has weight. This force comes from gravity pulling down on objects. To
fly, an aircraft needs something to push it in the opposite direction from gravity. The weight
of an object controls how strong the push has to be. Weight pulls down the drone
Thrust
Is a mechanical force generated by the engines to move the aircraft through the Air Thrust
is the force which moves an aircraft through the air. Thrust is used to overcome the drag of
an airplane, and to overcome the weight of a rocket. Thrust is generated by the engines of
the aircraft through some kind of propulsion system. Thrust force moves the drone forward
Drag: We define drag force as the backward force, or the force opposing the motion of the
vehicle (relative wind)
Drag is the Resistance when the drone moves forward
Straight and level
Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constant heading and altitude are maintained. It
is accomplished by making immediate and measured corrections for deviations in direction
and altitude from unintentional slight turns, descents, and climbs.

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CHAPTER 3: HUMAN FACTOR

3.1 Introduction

It is important for the PIC and all crew members to be aware of their own limitations in
regards to flying. Several factors can negatively affect the performance of the flight crew
and precautions must be taken to avoid such performance inhibitors to best guarantee
safe flights.
 Dehydration
Dehydration is another form of human factors that is commonly seen by pilots, particularly
due to the fact that most pilots will be flying in warm, sunny conditions as these are also
some of the best flight times. It is important that everyone is drinking water liberally to
avoid the side effects of dehydration.
Signs of dehydration include, but are not limited to: -

- Headaches
- Fatigue
- Cramps
- Sleepiness
- Dizziness
It is recommended that crew members should drink two to four liters of water every 24
hours while working. It is best to have water at the flight site, carry a container for easy
intake tracking, and making sure to drink preventively, not reactively, to avoid the worst of
dehydration.
 Distractions
Distractions are another form of human factors that can affect the pilot’s ability to do their
job. One of the best ways to avoid distractions is through proper mission planning. By
ensuring that all crew members are aware of the mission and environment, any form of

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unwanted distractions are best avoided. It is also advised that crew members wear bright
vests or clothing for the purposes of identification as well as a means of advising against
distraction for pedestrians not involved in the flight operations. The sterile cockpit policy is
designed to minimize the opportunity for distraction.

3.2 Vision

From the pilot’s point of view, perfect vision is not necessary, good functional vision is.
There are various aspects concerning vision that are important to pilots and so a basic
understanding of the physiology and limitations of the eye is important.

3.2.1 The main components of the eye;

i. The Cornea
The Cornea is a transparent window of about 10- 12mm which seals the front of the eye
and allows light to pass through it. The surface of the Cornea is curved and some
refraction of the light rays takes place.

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ii. The Iris

The iris is a coloured muscular membrane, it is situated behind the Cornea and contains
the Pupil. The iris is the first means of enabling the eye to adapt to changing light
Conditions. Poor light Conditions- The Iris expands Bright light conditions- The iris
contracts

iii. The Lens

Located behind the Iris, it is supported by Ciliary muscles which is used to change the
shape of the Lens. If the muscles relax the lens will flatten and if the muscles contract the
lens will become more curved. The flattening and contracting of the Lens is known as
accommodation. Accommodation reduces with an increase in age, this is easily corrected
by using glasses or contact lenses.

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iv. The Retina

The Retina is a soft transparent layer of light sensitive nervous tissue located at the rear
of the eye.

It contains two types of photo-receptor cells, known as Rods and Cones.

Rods: The primary function of the rods is to define movement, but not in detail. Rods have
no perception of color, only in shades varying from black to white.
They are able to function in dim light and are thus instrumental in our peripheral vision, the
function of which is essential for both orientation and night vision.
v. Cones

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Cones provide the best visual acuity or accuracy. They achieve maximum efficiency in
conditions of good illumination and become less effective in poor light and darkness.

Cones are important for our central vision.

3.2.2 Visual Acuity

This is the measure of a person’s ability to see. The term 6/6 (m), 20/20(ft) vision means
that a person can, at a distance of 6 metres (20ft) clearly see the same size of character
that a normal observer can also see at a distance of 6 Metres (20ft).
 Factors affecting Visual Acuity
a. Cornea quality
b. The efficiency of the Lens
c. Level of illumination
d. Age
e. Alcohol
f. Drugs

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3.2.3 Refraction errors

Refraction is the ability of the cornea and the lens to bend light rays in order to focus them
on the retina to produce an image. Refractive errors are namely:
a) Hypermetropia (long sightedness) - Convex lenses.
In this case the refractive power of the eye is weak?? and light rays are focussed behind
the retina. The person can see far but not close This is corrected by wearing Convex
Lenses.

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b)Myopia (short sightedness) – Concave Lenses.

In this case the refractive power of the eye is too strong and light rays are focussed in
front of the retina. The person can see objects that are near but not far away from
Concave Lenses

 Empty Field Myopia

Myopia means short sightedness. This is caused by flight at high altitude or at night, when
there is nothing to look at. The eyes tend to adopt a resting focus at a point approximately
two metres away, with the result that a distant object has to be fairly large in order to be
seen, an obvious dangerous situation. This can be overcome by actively refocusing the
eyes on distant objects such as the ground, clouds or stars.

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 Night Vision
Physiologically, night vision is achieved through the rods because of their greater
sensitivity. Greatest night visual acuity is achieved by looking slightly off centre at an
object, due to the fact that the rods are concentrated away from the centre of the retina.
Maximum night efficiency of the rods may take as much as 30 minutes to achieve and
therefore a period of dark adaption may be necessary to acquire good night vision.

A very brief exposure to bright light requires a further period of adaption. A good policy for
pilots is to close one eye before exposure to bright light in order to retain good night vision
in that eye.
 Factors which can adversely affect night vision
a. Mild hypoxia (oxygen deficiency)
b. Smoking
c. Alcohol
d. Stimulants
e. Increasing age
 Color Vision

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Although normal colour vision is not necessarily essential for a pilot, the ability to
distinguish between:
 Red
 White
 Green
Color vision is important for normal operations. Total color blindness is quite rare, current
estimates have it occurring in less than 0.1% of the population, but between 5% and 10%
of males have difficulty in distinguishing between red, green and white, whilst up to 20%
may have a degree of color deficiency.
Increasing age may cause yellowing of the cornea and lens and may decrease the
intensity of blue light. It is known that smoking and alcohol also have an adverse effect of
color vision. There is no cure for this deficiency.

Contact Lenses

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These are often used in preference to traditional spectacles and have certain advantages,
in that they provide better peripheral vision and are not subject to misting. However, for the
pilot there are certain associated problems of significance. The cornea, not having its own
blood supply, obtains oxygen from ambient air. Contact lenses can reduce this and cause
mild hypoxia and corneal damage as a result. Dehydration in the eye can also occur as a
result of low humidity.

3.2.4 Visual illusions

 Optical illusions
 False Horizon
 Ground lighting
 Autokinesis

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A pilot operating in an environment which provides limited visual cues, i.e. full or partial
IMC or at night, and at the same time is subjected to stress, owing perhaps to fatigue or
the nature of the conditions he encounters, will be inclined to perceive, even to the extent
of supplying an illusory perception.
 False Horizon
Common during flight in partial IMC, the pilot observes sloping cloud formations, and
obscured horizon, or at night, a combination of stars and ground lights and geometric
ground light patterns.

False Horizon

 Ground Lighting
Many pilots, especially in unfamiliar areas, have mistaken lights along a straight road or on
a moving train, as approach or runway lights.
 The effect of a bright runway
Pilot thinks he is close to the runway which results in a high approach
The effect of an unlit runway. The lack of lights reduces height cues, and the pilot may fly a
low approach.

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 Autokinesis
Is an illusion that makes a static light appear to be moving when stared for at a period of 8-
10 seconds in a dark environment.
Autokinesis

To prevent autokinesis do not stare/focus on a source of light and expand your visual field.

3.2.5 Landing illusions

o The effect of a wide runway

o The effect of a narrow runway
o The effect of an upslope runway
o The effect of a downslope runway
 Wide runway
Create the that the aircraft is too low on finals and this results in the pilot flying a higher
approach. The Pilot will thus overshoot the runway if not corrected for.

Landing illusions

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 Narrow Runway
Create the illusion that the aircraft is too high on finals and this results in the pilot flying a
lower approach. The Pilot will thus undershoot the runway if not corrected for.
 Upsloping Runway

 Downslope runway
Creates the illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, thus the pilot tends to fly a
higher approach. The tendency is to overshoot the runway and fly into terrain.

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 The black hole approach

It occurs at night during an approach to a runway where there are little or no other lights in
the area except runway lights.
The tendency for the pilot is to think that he higher than he actually is resulting in the pilot
flying a lower approach and undershooting the runway. The black hole effect can be
reduced by the use of PAPI or VASIS lights.

 Spatial Disorientation
Spatial disorientation refers to one in which the subject is unable to perceive his position,
attitude and motion relative to the earth. Spatial disorientation affects the ears.
 Vertigo
Vertigo: Is a sensation of rotation when in fact no such rotation is occurring. Vertigo can
be caused by:
a. Fatigue
b. Discomfort
c. Self-medication
 Flicker vertigo

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Flicker vertigo is caused by a flashing light such as a strobe light being reflected by
clouds. Flicker vertigo can be avoided by avoiding flashing lights in the cockpit, and
turning the strobe lights off when it is being reflected by clouds.
Vertigo normally occurs during:
a. Steep turns
b. Spiral dive recoveries
c. High G-Loading
d. No visual reference

3.3 Stress

3.3.1 Types of stress

 Physical stress
Physical Stress can be caused by prolonged physical discomfort, such as flying an
aeroplane through turbulence for any length of time.
 Emotional Stress
With regard to flying, emotional stress is considered to be the more important of the two
and can broadly categorized as either acute or chronic. Stress inducing factors are
referred to as stressors.

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3.3.2 Categories

 Acute stress
 Chronic stress
 Acute Stress
Acute stress is considered to be relatively short-term and occurs as a result of immediate
demands placed on the body.
 Causes of acute stress
 Bad weather
 Diversion
 Flight deck crisis
Acute stress is of short term, once the pilot has safely landed the aircraft this type off
stress dissipates.
 Chronic stress
Chronic stress is more serious, is longer lasting and may be brought about by both
positive and negative events, such as:
Both of these stress conditions will impact on flying performance.

3.3.3 Stressors

These are generally placed in three categories:

a. Physical
b. Physiological
c. Emotional
 Physical Stressors
This comprises environmental conditions such as:
a. Extremes of both temperature and humidity
b. Lack of oxygen

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c. Noise and vibration

This includes:
a. Sleep deprivation (fatigue)
b. Hunger which may result in low blood sugar
c. The discomfort of full bladder or bowel
d. a mild infection i.e. flu
e. Pain i.e. chronic back ache
 Emotional Stressors
These are usually associated with social interaction; problems related to the home and
work environment.

3.3.4 Stages of stress

The human response to sudden demands is almost instinctive and is often referred to as
the “fight or flight” response. **The “fight or flight” reaction comprises of three stages:
a. The Alarm Stage

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b. The Resistance Stage

c. Exhaustion
 The Alarm Stage

The immediate reaction to a stressor is to either confront it or flee from it. During this stage
Adrenaline is released into the blood stream. The adrenaline increases the heartbeat, Rate
of breathing and blood sugar.
At the same time it is common to experience improved vision, hearing and muscular
strength – all of which may be necessary requirements for the solution to the alarm.
 The Resistance stage
The body enters a recovery cycle and starts to repair the damage either physiologically or
by adapting to the new situation (learning to cope). No doubt you will already have
recognized these first two stages simply because you will experience them many times
during your life. The third stage is more complex.
 Exhaustion Stage
If the body is continually subjected to a stressor it will remain in the alarm stage for a
prolonged period of time. **Aviation related examples include bad weather experiences
without an instrument rating. A prolonged alarm condition means that the body may
eventually be unable to keep up with the demands placed on it and exhaustion results.
In this condition control is lost because the mind is unable to keep a correct perspective of
matters and in really extreme cases the person may simply abandon themselves to

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fate.**For the pilot, the ability to recognize and manage stress is vital.
 Anxiety
This is a condition which usually results from excessive worry.
Symptoms of anxiety varies from:
 Unease
 Fear
 Anxiety

During Anxiety a person may perform poor and the following signs may displayed:
Physical:
Breathing difficulties, nervous twitches, dry mouth, stomach pains, headache and an
increased heart rate.
 Behavioural
Mood changes from being light-hearted to depressed, sudden changes in emotion,
laughing when it is inappropriate, being over co-operation, impatience, unwarranted anger,
being rude, smoking, drinking and even eating excessively.

3.3.5 Stress management

 Incorrect Stress Management

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Ego can be our biggest enemy. We are all subject to stress; it is a necessary catalyst for
action.
This person may try to avoid stress by ignoring it, or by resorting to alcohol, drugs or
medication- which may relieve the symptoms but not the cause. Clearly, they are
unacceptable methods of dealing with stress. **These are referred to as defence
mechanisms and may be joined by other subconscious actions.

3.3.6 Flying And Health Stress

Stress is the logical results of an overload of mental and/or physical pressure and can be
divided into either physical or emotional stress.

3.3.7 Stimulation and Stress

It is a generally accepted principle that in order to act we need a stimulus and this often
takes the form of pressure: we tend to react to demand. The danger is not so much the
demand, but rather how we cope with it. Our ability to handle stress varies from person to
person.
 Health
Is the person well rested or not, in good physical condition with a happy and relaxed
external life.
 Personality
Is the Person outgoing, Confident and does he make decisions easily?
Factors which determine our response to stress:
 Preparation
Has the person adequately prepare for the flight. Does he know all the theory for the
exam?
 Intelligence
Is the person right for the Job. Is he qualified for the job?

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3.4 Fatigue

Fatigue is one of the biggest contributors to pilot error. Fatigue can hurt a pilot’s
concentration, affect coordination, and decrease the pilot’s ability to properly communicate.
There are two types of fatigue; mental and physical. Mental fatigue can arise from stress or
prolong cognitive work while physical fatigue can result from exercise and sleep loss.
A pilot should never fly while suffering from acute fatigue for all of the reasons listed above.
No matter the experience level of any pilot can overcome the detrimental effects of
fatigue. important to consult the IMSAFE checklist to evaluate whether or not a pilot is fit
for flight at that time.
Being extremely tired from lack of sleep and/or over-worked and/or chronically stressed.
Fatigue can be best described as a very deep tiredness. It can be caused by the same
factors which lead to stress and can also be divided into two types.

3.4.1 Types of fatigue

a. Acute Fatigue
This condition can occur as a result of intense and undivided mental concentration, or
physical activity, over a prolonged period. The cure is relatively straight forward: a restful
and uninterrupted natural sleep, uninfluenced by alcohol or drugs.
b. Chronic Fatigue
This condition occurs over a longer period as a result of lack of sleep, excessive workload
stress and even jet lag. It cannot be as easily cured as acute fatigue as it requires a
prolonged recovery period. The laws regarding flight and duty time are regarded as a
preventative measure against Chronic Fatigue occurring.

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3.4.2 Symptoms

 Obvious tiredness: slow and frequent yawning, drooping head.

 Decreased awareness resulting in lack of response.
 Much slower reactions.
 Poor concentration, (Noticeable in instrument flying).
 Forgetfulness.
 Being unable to sleep.
 Reduced short – term memory, (Forgetting clearances).
 Tending to make more mistakes.
 Loss of appetite and increased reliance on alcohol and drugs such as caffeine

3.4.3 Prevention and treatment of fatigue

 The most obvious prevention and treatment for fatigue is sleep, combined with a
prober balance between work and rest.
 A proper balanced diet and workout also reduces fatigue. Excessive alcohol,
 caffeine and drugs should be avoided.
Sleep is the body’s method of re-charging and re-vitalising itself and the amount and quality
thereof ultimately determines how well we can perform both mentally and physically.

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 Stages Of Sleep
a) REM Sleep
b) Non-REM Sleep

 REM Sleep
This commences some 90 minutes after falling asleep and is characterized by the sleeper’s
eyes moving rapidly back and forth beneath the closed eyelids.
REM sleep is closely related to wakefulness. This is due to the high frequency electrical
waves which occur during this condition.
REM sleep is believed to be the sleep period which rejuvenates the brain.

 Non-REM Sleep
This comprises four distinct stages:
Stage 1 is the transition between waking and sleeping and is characterized by decreasing
brain wave activity, slow rolling eye movements and can last from 1 to 10 minutes.

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Stage 2 sleep continues for approximately 10 minutes during which brain wave activity
declines still further.
Stages 3 and 4 are referred to as slow wave sleep which is characterized by very low
frequency brain waves and is thought to be associated with physical restoration.
 Sleeping Problems
a) Nervous Insomnia
b) Situational/Acute Insomnia
c) Clinical/Chronic Insomnia

 Nervous Insomnia
The most common of all and probably one to which we are all subjected to at some time or
other, is based on the anticipation of some near-future event, perhaps an exciting one in
the case of children, or in the case of aircrew perhaps a major flight test.
Sufferers will experience disturbed sleep for a few nights and recovery from any tiredness
is fairly quick.

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 Acute Insomnia
This is the result of an disturbance in body rhythms also revered to as Jet
Lag. Again recovery is relatively easy which will occur within one week.

 Clinical Insomnia
This is difficulty in sleeping under normal circumstances when the body requires sleep.
The Person can be affected for weeks or months.
 Clinical Insomnia

 Sleep Management
Clearly, sleep is a vital part of our well-being and should be managed carefully with the
emphasis on natural sleep rather than on drug-induced sleep. This will involve proper
roistering in both normal and long-distance flight operations.

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 The following recommendations are noted

a) Be relaxed. Avoid strenuous physical, mental exercise, alcohol, caffeine and large
meals before going to bed.
b) Environment. A comfortable bed in a dark, quiet room at a pleasant temperature with
fresh air is ideal.
c) Maintain a regular sleep schedule.

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CHAPTER 4: NAVIGATION AND CHARTS

4.1 Navigation

Navigation is the art of finding a way from a known point A to another known point B.

4.1.1 Main Types of Navigation

 Ancient Navigation
 Using maps
 Using compass
 Using landmarks
 Using horizon
 Using celestial
 Celestial Navigation
 the sun

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 the stars
 the moon
 Electronic Navigation
 GPS,
 Computer systems
 Dead reckoning
 Performance Based Navigation (RNAV-PBN AND RNP-PBN)

4.1.2 Performance Based Navigation (RNAV-PBN AND RNP-PBN)

 Communication sensors
 Navigational sensors
 Surveillance sensors

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4.2 The Earth

The Earth, third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest planet in the solar system in
terms of size and mass. 150 Million kilometres away from the Sun. It is where we live,
and a place where all aviation related issues are taking place.
Constituents of Atmosphere by volume are:
 78.08% nitrogen (N2; dry air)
 20.95% oxygen (O2)
 0.934% argon
 0.0408% carbon dioxide
 0.25% water vapor

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The earth’s atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally in Pressure, Temperature,

Density and Humidity.
It rotates in its own axis from west to east taking one day (24hrs) giving days and
nights and it revolves around the Sun once for every 3651⁄4 times -one year.

4.2.1 Cardinal points

North, east, south, and west are the four cardinal directions, often marked by the
initials N, E, S, and W. East and west are at right angles to north and south. East is in
the clockwise direction of rotation from north.

4.2.2 Circles of the Earth

The five major circles of latitude are, from north to south:

 The Arctic Circle (66.5°N)

 The Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N)
 The Equator (0°)
 The Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S)
 The Antarctic Circle (66.5°S)

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 Small circles
Are circles that cut the earth, but not into equal halves. Examples of small circles include
all lines of latitude except the equator, the Tropical of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, the
Arctic Circle, and Antarctic Circle.

 The Equator
Is another of the Earth's great circles. If you were to cut into the Earth right on its
Equator, you'd have two equal halves: the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The
Equator is the only east-west line that is a great circle.

4.2.3 Latitude and Longitudes

Cartographers and Geographers divide the Earth into Latitudes and Longitudes in order
to locate points on the globe. i.e a precise location on the Earth they forms geographical
coordinates and represent the angular distance of any location from the center of the
earth.

 Latitude
Latitudes are the angular distances in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north or
south of equator. The measurement of distance north or south of the Equator. Latitudes
are imaginary circles parallel to the Equator.

Latitudes are shown as horizontal lines in the globe often referred to as parallels and
expressed in angular measurements from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or
South). Lines of latitude run parallel to the Equator.

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 Longitudes
Is an imaginary vertical lines that run around the Earth (connecting north pole to south
pole).

The angular distances in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point east or west of the
Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitudes are often referred to as meridians.

 Prime meridian

Is the meridian (line of longitude) at which the longitude is defined to be 0° (zero

degrees). It passes through the Royal Observatory station in Greenwich, London.

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Latitudes and Longitudes

4.2.4 Position

By using the combination of longitude and latitude, we are able to express our position
on the Earth.
For more accuracy we divide degrees into minutes and minutes into seconds.
1°= 60’ (min)
1’= 60’’ (sec)

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E.g. 40° 08’ 02’’N 030° 14’ 34’’W

Latitude is always given first.

4.2.5 Direction measurement

Direction is always measured clockwise from true North. However a compass shows
magnetic North. The difference between true and magnetic North is called Variation.
Variation is either West or East of true North depending on your position on the earth.
Agonic line is where variation is zero.
Isogonal line is where variation is equal

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4.2.6 Distance Measurements

Nautical mile (nm) is the standard unit of distance measurement in aviation.

It is defined as the average length of arc of one minute of latitude measured at the Earth’s
surface.
The standard nm is assumed to be 6080ft
1’ of latitude = 1nm, the 1° of latitude = 60nm

4.3 Aeronautical Maps and Charts

4.3.1 Map

Map is a graphic representation of the features on the earth’s surface on a plane surface
to scale.

4.3.2 Aeronautical chart

is a map designed to assist in navigation of aircraft.

4.3.3 Topographic maps

The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is the use of elevation contour lines to
show the shape of the Earth's surface. Elevation contours are imaginary lines connecting

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points having the same elevation on the surface of the land above or below a reference
surface, which is usually mean sea level. Contours make it possible to show the height
and shape of mountains, the depths of the ocean bottom, and the steepness of slopes.
USGS topographic maps also show many other kinds of geographic features including
roads, railroads, rivers, streams, lakes, boundaries, place or feature names, mountains,
and much more. Older maps (published before 2006) show additional features such as
trails, buildings, towns, mountain elevations, and survey control points. Those will be
added to more current maps over time.
The phrase "USGS topographic map" can refer to maps with a wide range of scales, but
the scale used for all modern USGS topographic maps is 1:24,000. That covers a
quadrangle that measures 7.5 minutes of longitude and latitude on all sides, so these are
also referred to as 7.5-minute maps, quadrangle maps, or “quad” maps (modern
topographic maps for Alaska have a scale of 1:25,000 and cover a variable distance of
longitude). Each topographic map has a unique name.

4.3.4 Map interpretation

To be able to interpret aeronautical charts the following symbols are commonly used and
their meaning as explained below:

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4.4 Global Position System (GPS)

4.4.1 Basic Concept

The navigational system with time and Ranging (NAVSTAR) global Positioning system
(GPS) is all weather, space – based navigation system, which was designed by USA in
1973. It became operational worldwide in 1994 allowing the worldwide, instantaneous
determination of a vehicle position and velocity. And precise coordination of time.

4.4.2 System organization

GPS is made up of three major segments, namely;

 Ground Segment
 Space Segment and
 User Segment

4.4.3 The control Segment (Ground segment)

Responsible for monitoring the satellite and updating the information. They transmit
Maintain, command and support the rest of the system; it has three main activities;
(i) Precise Position Tracking, management of signal-in-space performance
(ii) Prediction for GPS performance and responding to GPS failure
(iii) Navigation message data Uploading operations

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Control Points

 The space segment

Providing the global coverage with four to eight simultaneously observable satellites above
150 elevations. Satellites operate in six nearly circular orbits with an altitude of 20,200km
above the Earth surface over a period of approximately 12 hours. The number of
“operational active” satellites is 21 (plus three additional “active spares”)

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A full-size model of the Earth observation satellite ERS 2

GPS Satellite Constellation

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4.4.4 Principal Operations of GPS

GPS position fixing is based on a principal called, ‘time of arrival’ which uses the
transmission of radio signals and accurate timing of transmission and arrival. Accurate
position fixing is achieved by using three distances from three different satellites.
Using the principal of distance= speed (of radio wave) / Time (Transmission sent)
For altitude a 4th satellite is used.

Errors:
If the position of the satellite is different to what is assumed by the receiver an error in
distance will accurse. This is called ‘ephemeris’ error. The time on the satellite and
receiver must be correct; otherwise errors in position will occur.
Propagation error occurs when radio signals travel from a vacuum (space) to a denser
atmosphere causing it to slow down causing a ‘timing error’.
Multipath interference, this is caused by reflection of satellite signals from object close to
the receiver. E.g. Airplane wings or fuselage.

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4.4.5 System availability

The minimum satellites, 3 for position and 4 for altitude. Signal integrity monitoring:
reliability is insured by using 6 satellites to monitor data from receiver.
The system relies on ground-base continuous satellites monitoring.

4.4.6 Aircraft equipment

Antenna to receive signals. The receiver / processor to perform the navigation solution.
The control/display to provide information to the pilot.
A GPS calculates speed at any given moment by measuring the Doppler shift in the
signals from the satellites. Just as a car engine or police siren sounds higher pitch when
it's heading towards you than when it's heading away, the signals from the satellites
change very slightly depending on how fast you are moving towards or away from them.
If you know where you are (you have a GPS position) and you know where and how fast
the satellites are moving (they broadcast that information) then by measuring the
Doppler on the signals you can calculate how fast the receiver is moving far more
accurately than by taking the difference between two positions. Thus, calculating the
speed.

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CHAPTER 5: METEOROLOGY
5.1 Introduction

In aviation, weather service is the effort of the Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA).
Because of the increasing need for worldwide weather services, foreign weather
organizations like World Meteorological Organization (WMO) also provide vital input.
While weather forecasts are not 100 percent accurate, meteorologists, through careful
scientific study and computer modelling, have the ability to predict weather patterns,
trends, and characteristics with increasing accuracy. Through a complex system of
weather services, government agencies, and independent weather observers, pilots and
other aviation professionals receive the benefit of this vast knowledge base in the form
of up-to-date weather reports and forecasts. These reports and forecasts enable pilots to
make informed decisions regarding weather and flight safety before and during a flight.
 Effects of Weather on Small Unmanned Aircraft Performance
This chapter discusses the factors that affect aircraft performance, which include the
aircraft weight, atmospheric conditions, runway environment, and the fundamental
physical laws governing the forces acting on an aircraft.

Since the characteristics of the atmosphere have a major effect on performance, it is

necessary to review the following dominant factors;

5.2 Air Density

5.2.1 Density Altitude

The more appropriate term for correlating aerodynamic performance in the nonstandard
atmosphere is density altitude—the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to
a particular value of air density.

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As the density of the air increases (lower density altitude), aircraft performance increases.
Conversely, as air density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft performance
decreases. A decrease in air density means a high density altitude; an increase in air
density means a lower density altitude. Density altitude has a direct effect on aircraft
performance.

Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, and humidity. High density
altitude refers to thin air while low density altitude refers to dense air. The conditions that
result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low atmospheric pressures, high
temperatures, high humidity, or some combination of these factors. Lower elevations,
high atmospheric pressure, low temperatures, and low humidity are more indicative of low
density altitude.

5.2.2 Effects of Pressure on Density

Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is compressed, a greater
amount of air can occupy a given volume. Conversely, when pressure on a given volume
of air is decreased, the air expands and occupies a greater space. That is, the original
column of air at a lower pressure contains a smaller mass of air. In other words, the
density is decreased. In fact, density is directly proportional to pressure. If the pressure is
doubled, the density is doubled, and if the pressure is lowered, so is the density. This
statement is true only at a constant temperature.

5.2.3 Effects of Temperature on Density

Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density. Conversely, decreasing

the temperature increases the density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely with
temperature. This statement is true only at a constant pressure.

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In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with altitude and have
conflicting effects upon density. However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is
increased usually has the dominant effect. Hence, pilots can expect the density to
decrease with altitude.

5.2.4 Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density

The preceding paragraphs are based on the presupposition of perfectly dry air. In reality,
it is never completely dry. The small amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere
may be negligible under certain conditions, but in other conditions humidity may become
an important factor in the performance of an aircraft. Water vapor is lighter than air;
consequently, moist air is lighter than dry air. Therefore, as the water content of the air
increases, the air becomes less dense, increasing density altitude and decreasing
performance. It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set of conditions, it contains the
maximum amount of water vapor.

Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount of water vapor contained in
the atmosphere and is expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount of water
vapor the air can hold. This amount varies with the temperature; warm air can hold more
water vapor, while colder air can hold less. Perfectly dry air that contains no water vapor
has a relative humidity of zero percent, while saturated air that cannot hold any more
water vapor has a relative humidity of 100 percent. Humidity alone is usually not
considered an essential factor in calculating density altitude and aircraft performance;
however, it does contribute.

5.3 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

Also known as the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, ISA is a standard against which to
compare the actual atmosphere at any point and time.

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The ISA is based the following values of pressure, density, and temperature at mean sea
level each of which decreases with increase in height:

 Pressure of 1013.2 millibar - Pressure is taken to fall at about 1 millibar per 30 feet in
the lower atmosphere (up to about 5,000 feet).
 Temperature of +15 °C - Temperature falls at a rate of 2 °C per 1,000 feet until the
tropopause is reached at 36,000 feet above which the temperature is assumed to be
constant at -57 °C. (The precise numbers are 1.98 °C, -56.5 °C and 36,090 feet)
 Density of 1,225 gm/m3.
The real atmosphere differs from ISA in many ways. Sea level pressure varies from day
to day, and there are wide extremes of temperature at all levels.
Variation in pressure, vertically and horizontally, affects the operation of the pressure
altimeter.

5.4 Wind

Is another atmospheric hazard exists that can create problems for pilots. Obstructions on
the ground affect the flow of wind and can be an unseen danger. Ground topography and
large buildings can break up the flow of the wind and create wind gusts that change
rapidly in direction and speed. These obstructions range from man-made structures, like
hangars, to large natural obstructions, such as mountains, bluffs, or canyons.

The intensity of the turbulence associated with ground obstructions depends on the size
of the obstacle and the primary velocity of the wind. This can affect the performance of
any aircraft and can present a very serious hazard.

This same condition is even more noticeable when flying in mountainous regions. (Figure
below) While the wind flows smoothly up the windward side of the mountain and the
upward currents help to carry an aircraft over the peak of the mountain, the wind on the

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leeward side does not act in a similar manner. As the air flows down the leeward side of
the mountain, the air follows the contour of the terrain and is increasingly turbulent. This
tends to push an aircraft into the side of a mountain. The stronger the wind, the greater
the downward pressure and turbulence become.

Turbulence in mountainous regions.

5.4.1 Low-Level Wind Shear

Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction over a very small
area. Wind shear can subject an aircraft to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as well as
abrupt changes to the horizontal movement of the aircraft. While wind shear can occur at
any altitude, low-level wind shear is especially hazardous due to the proximity of an
aircraft to the ground. Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with passing frontal
systems, thunderstorms, temperature inversions, and strong upper level winds (greater
than 25 knots).

Wind shear is dangerous to an aircraft. It can rapidly change the performance of the
aircraft and disrupt the normal flight attitude. For example, a tailwind quickly changing to
a headwind causes an increase in airspeed and performance. Conversely, a headwind

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changing to a tailwind causes a decrease in airspeed and performance. In either case, a

pilot must be prepared to react immediately to these changes to maintain control of the
aircraft.
The most severe type of low-level wind shear, a microburst, is associated with convective
precipitation into dry air at cloud base. Microburst activity may be indicated by an intense
rain shaft at the surface but virga at cloud base and a ring of blowing dust is often the
only visible clue. A typical microburst has a horizontal diameter of 1–2 miles and a
nominal depth of 1,000 feet. The lifespan of a microburst is about 5–15 minutes during
which time it can produce downdrafts of up to 6,000 feet per minute (fpm) and headwind
losses of 30–90 knots, seriously degrading performance. It can also produce strong
turbulence and hazardous wind direction changes. During an inadvertent microburst
encounter, the small UA may first experience a performance-increasing headwind,
followed by performance decreasing downdrafts, followed by a rapidly increasing tailwind.
This can result in terrain impact or flight dangerously close to the ground. An encounter
during approach involves the same sequence of wind changes and could force the small
UA to the ground short of the intended landing area.
It is important to remember that wind shear can affect any flight at any altitude. While
wind shear may be reported, it often remains undetected and is a silent danger to
aviation. Always be alert to the possibility of wind shear, especially when flying in and
around thunderstorms and frontal systems.

5.4.2 Land and Sea breeze

 Land breeze
In the other hand is coastal breeze blowing at night from land to sea, caused by the
difference in the rate of cooling of their respective surfaces. .

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At night the reverse happens, Land quickly loses its heat while the ocean cools at a
slower rate because water has a higher heat specific capacity.
This means air over the water is less dense and begins to rise creating low pressure
above the ocean’s surface. Cooler dense air from the land begins to move to the water
surface to replace the warm rising air. A cool gentle breeze blows towards the ocean.
This is called a land breeze.
 Sea breeze
It is a breeze blowing toward the land from the sea, especially during the day owing to the
relative warmth of the land. The land heats up quickly by conduction and air rises.
The air moves towards the sea and falls since it is denser. The air creates an area of high
pressure over the sea while the land has low pressure since it is hotter when compared to
the ocean’s surface.
The sea absorbs heat more slowly during the day and transmits it to greater depth so it
remains cool.
A cool sea breeze moves from the sea towards the land.
The sea breeze is capable of reducing temperatures by as much as 15°C along coastal
areas and may produce fogs.

5.4.3 Instruments for Surface Wind

Anemometer and Wind Vane

A cup Anemometer and wind vane are used to measure the wind speed and wind
direction respectively. The cup Anemometer normally has three cups mounted
symmetrically about a vertical axis so that the diametric plane of each cup is vertical. As
the force on the concave side of the cup, due to the wind, is greater than on the convex
side, the cup wheel rotates. The wind speed is determined by the rotation rate of the
cups.

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Wind direction is indicated by means of a wind vane. It consists basically of an

asymmetrically-shaped object mounted at its center of gravity about a vertical axis. The
end which offers the greater resistance to the motion of air moves to the downwind
position.

5.5 Visibility

Visibility sensors measure the meteorological optical range which is defined as the length
of atmosphere over which a beam of light travels before its luminous flux is reduced to
5% of its original value.
For a great many years meteorological visibility was estimated by the human observer
judging the appearance of distant objects against a contrasting background, usually the
sky. Various rules have been established for how visibility should be judged:
 An object should not merely be seen but should be identifiable against the background
as a specific object
 Visibility should be estimated at ground level where there is an uninterrupted view of the
horizon
 If the visibility varies from one direction to another, the lowest value should be reported
 For the purposes of aviation the prevailing visibility should be reported

5.5.1 Modern day observations

Today, most synoptic observing stations have sensors which provide a measurement of
visibility where the station operates in fully automatic mode. At the smaller number of
stations where there is still a human observer (e.g. at airfields) the sensor acts as an aid
in the estimation of visibility. Visibility sensors measure the meteorological optical range
which is defined as the length of atmosphere over which a beam of light travels before its
luminous flux is reduced to 5% of its original value. In most instances this is

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approximately equivalent to, but not the same as, visibility measured by the contrast of a
distant object against its background.
A typical visibility sensor used at synoptic observing stations applies the forward
scattering characteristics of light to measure the extinction coefficient of a beam
generated by a high intensity xenon strobe transmitter directed at a volume of air close to
the sensor. Reasonably accurate measurements are possible over a range of visibility
extending from a few tens of metres to a few tens of kilometres. The use of light within
the visible spectrum allows the sensor to most accurately simulate human perception of
visibility.

5.6 Thunderstorms

5.6.1 Effects of Thunderstorms

It is wise to avoid thunderstorms, as a flight instructor once said “A thunderstorm is never

as bad inside as it looks from the outside—it is worse.” Thunderstorms contain many
hazards to aviation such as the following:
 Lightning
By definition, all thunderstorms contain lightning. Although the NWS will mention lightning
as a hazard in some warning products, lightning is not a criteria used to determine if a
thunderstorm is severe. As an aviator, you should be aware that lightning can strike more
than 10 miles from a thunderstorm. Lightning can strike the g round, another cloud or
discharge into clear air.
 Turbulence
Pilot reports from aircraft encountering thunderstorms have noted up and down drafts
exceeding 6000 feet per minute. Turbulence exceeding the performance capability of
most aircraft can be found in and around thunderstorms.

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 Wind Shear
Thunderstorm outflow can cause extreme changes in wind speed and direction near the
surface during critical phases of flight. Microbursts are possible with many thunderstorms,
as is heavy rain. Often virga and blowing dust on the surface are your only clues to the
presence of a microburst.
 Icing
Because thunderstorms are driven, in part, from the conversion of liquid water to ice,
pilots can expect to find airframe icing in all thunderstorms. Although all forms of icing are
possible, clear icing, caused by larger drops of supercooled water, is the most common.
Ice accumulation can be rapid. Supercooled water and clear icing can extend to great
heights and to temperatures as low as -20o C.

5.7 Aviation Weather Reports

Aviation weather reports are designed to give accurate depictions of current weather
conditions. Each report provides current information that is updated at different times.
Some typical reports are METARs and PIREPs. To view a weather report, go to
[Link]

5.7.1 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)

A METAR is an observation of current surface weather reported in a standard

international format. METARs are issued on a regularly scheduled basis unless
significant weather changes have occurred. A special METAR (SPECI) can be issued at
any time between routine METAR reports.
Example: METAR KGGG 161753Z AUTO 14021G26KT 3/4SM +TSRA BR BKN008
OVC012CB18/17 A2970 RMK PRESFR

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A typical METAR report contains the following information in sequential order:

 Type of report
There are two types of METAR reports. The first is the routine METAR report that is
transmitted on a regular time interval. The second is the aviation selected SPECI. This is
a special report that can be given at any time to update the METAR for rapidly changing
weather conditions, aircraft mishaps, or other critical information.
 Station identifier
A four-letter code as established by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
In the 48 contiguous states, a unique three-letter identifier is preceded by the letter “K.”
For example, Gregg County Airport in Longview, Texas, is identified by the letters
“KGGG,” K being the country designation and GGG being the airport identifier. In other
regions of the world, including Alaska and Hawaii, the first two letters of the four-letter
ICAO identifier indicate the region, country, or state. Alaska identifiers always begin with
the letters “PA” and Hawaii identifiers always begin with the letters “PH.” Station
identifiers can be found by searching various websites such as DUATS and NOAA's
Aviation Weather Aviation Digital Data Services (ADDS).
 Date and time of report
Depicted in a six-digit group (161753Z). The first two digits are the date. The last four
digits are the time of the METAR/SPECI, which is always given in coordinated universal
time (UTC). A “Z” is appended to the end of the time to denote the time is given in Zulu
time (UTC) as opposed to local time.
 Modifier
Denotes that the METAR/SPECI came from an automated source or that the report was
corrected. If the notation “AUTO” is listed in the METAR/SPECI, the report came from an
automated source. It also lists “AO1” (for no precipitation discriminator) or “AO2” (with
precipitation discriminator) in the “Remarks” section to indicate the type of precipitation
sensors employed at the automated station. When the modifier “COR” is used, it

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identifies a corrected report sent out to replace an earlier report that contained an error
(for example: METAR KGGG 161753Z COR).
 Wind
Reported with five digits (14021KT) unless the speed is greater than 99 knots, in which
case the wind is reported with six digits. The first three digits indicate the direction the
true wind is blowing from in tens of degrees. If the wind is variable, it is reported as
“VRB.” The last two digits indicate the speed of the wind in knots unless the wind is
greater than 99 knots, in which case it is indicated by three digits. If the winds are
gusting, the letter “G” follows the wind speed (G26KT).
After the letter “G,” the peak gust recorded is provided. If the wind direction varies more
than 60° and the wind speed is greater than six knots, a separate group of numbers,
separated by a “V,” will indicate the extremes of the wind directions.
 Visibility
The prevailing visibility (¾ SM) is reported in statute miles as denoted by the letters “SM.”
It is reported in both miles and fractions of miles. At times, runway visual range (RVR) is
reported following the prevailing visibility. RVR is the distance a pilot can see down the
runway in a moving aircraft. When RVR is reported, it is shown with an R, then the
runway number followed by a slant, then the visual range in feet. For example, when the
RVR is reported as R17L/1400FT, it translates to a visual range of 1,400 feet on runway
17 left.
 Weather
Can be broken down into two different categories: qualifiers and weather phenomenon
(+TSRA BR). First, the qualifiers of intensity, proximity, and the descriptor of the weather
are given. The intensity may be light (–), moderate ( ), or heavy (+). Proximity only
depicts weather phenomena that are in the airport vicinity. The notation “VC” indicates a
specific weather phenomenon is in the vicinity of five to ten miles from the airport.
Descriptors are used to describe certain types of precipitation and obscuration’s. Weather

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phenomena may be reported as being precipitation, obscuration’s, and other phenomena,

such as squalls or funnel clouds. Descriptions of weather phenomena as they begin or
end and hailstone size are also listed in the “Remarks” sections of the report. (Figure 1)

Figure 1: Descriptors and weather phenomena used in a typical METAR

 Sky condition
Always reported in the sequence of amount, height, and type or indefinite ceiling/height
(vertical visibility) (BKN008 OVC012CB, VV003). The heights of the cloud bases are
reported with a three-digit number in hundreds of feet AGL. Clouds above 12,000 feet are
not detected or reported by an automated station. The types of clouds, specifically
towering cumulus (TCU) or cumulonimbus (CB) clouds, are reported with their height.
Contractions are used to describe the amount of cloud coverage and obscuring
phenomena. The amount of sky coverage is reported in eighths of the sky from horizon to
horizon. [Figure 2]

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Figure 2. Reportable contractions for sky condition.

 Temperature and dew point

The air temperature and dew point are always given in degrees Celsius (C) or (18/17).
Temperatures below 0 °C are preceded by the letter “M” to indicate minus.
 Altimeter setting
Reported as inches of mercury ("Hg) in a four-digit number group (A2970). It is always
preceded by the letter “A.” Rising or falling pressure may also be denoted in the
“Remarks” sections as “PRESRR” or “PRESFR,” respectively.
 Zulu time
A term used in aviation for UTC, which places the entire world on one time standard.
 Remarks
The remarks section always begins with the letters “RMK.” Comments may or may not
appear in this section of the METAR. The information contained in this section may
include wind data, variable visibility, beginning and ending times of particular
phenomenon, pressure information, and various other information deemed necessary. An
example of a remark regarding weather phenomenon that does not fit in any other
category would be: OCNL LTGICCG. This translates as occasional lightning in the clouds
and from cloud to ground. Automated stations also use the remarks section to indicate
the equipment needs maintenance.
Example: METAR KGGG 161753Z AUTO 14021G26KT 3/4SM

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+TSRA BR BKN008 OVC012CB 18/17 A2970 RMK

PRESFR
Explanation: Routine METAR for Gregg County Airport for the 16th day of
the month at 1753Z automated source. Winds are 140 at 21
knots gusting to 26. Visibility is ¾ statute mile. Thunderstorms
with heavy rain and mist. Ceiling is broken at 800 feet, overcast
at 1,200 feet with cumulonimbus clouds. Temperature 18 °C
and dew point 17 °C.
Barometric pressure is 29.70 "Hg and falling rapidly.

5.7.2 Aviation Forecasts

Observed weather condition reports are often used in the creation of forecasts for the
same area. A variety of different forecast products are produced and designed to be used
in the pre-flight planning stage. The printed forecasts that pilots need to be familiar with
are the terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF), aviation area forecast (FA), inflight weather
advisories (Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET), Airman’s Meteorological
Information (AIRMET)), and the winds and temperatures aloft forecast (FB).

 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)

A TAF is a report established for the five statute mile radius around an airport. TAF
reports are usually given for larger airports. Each TAF is valid for a 24 or 30-hour time
period and is updated four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. The TAF
utilizes the same descriptors and abbreviations as used in the METAR report. These
weather reports can be beneficial to the remote pilot for flight planning purposes. The
TAF includes the following information in sequential order:

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1. Type of report—a TAF can be either a routine forecast (TAF) or an amended

forecast (TAF AMD).
2. ICAO station identifier
The station identifier is the same as that used in a METAR.
3. Date and time of origin
Time and date (081125Z) of TAF origination is given in the six number code with the first
two being the date, the last four being the time. Time is always given in UTC as denoted
by the Z following the time block.
4. Valid period dates and times
The TAF valid period (0812/0912) follows the date/time of forecast origin group.
Scheduled 24 and 30 hour TAFs are issued four times per day, at 0000, 0600, 1200, and
1800Z. The first two digits (08) are the day of the month for the start of the TAF. The next
two digits (12) are the starting hour (UTC). 09 is the day of the month for the end of the
TAF, and the last two digits (12) are the ending hour (UTC) of the valid period. A forecast
period that begins at midnight UTC is annotated as 00. If the end time of a valid period is
at midnight UTC, it is annotated as 24. For example, a 00Z TAF issued on the 9th of the
month and valid for 24 hours would have a valid period of 0900/0924.
5. Forecast wind
The wind direction and speed forecast are coded in a five-digit number group. An
example would be 15011KT. The first three digits indicate the direction of the wind in
reference to true north. The last two digits state the wind speed in knots appended with
“KT.” Like the METAR, winds greater than 99 knots are given in three digits.
6. Forecast visibility—given in statute miles and may be in whole numbers or
fractions. If the forecast is greater than six miles, it is coded as “P6SM.”
7. Forecast significant weather

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Weather phenomena are coded in the TAF reports in the same format as the METAR.
8. Forecast sky condition
Is given in the same format as the METAR. Only CB clouds are forecast in this portion of
the TAF report as opposed to CBs and towering cumulus in the METAR.
9. Forecast change group
For any significant weather change forecast to occur during the TAF time period, the
expected conditions and time period are included in this group. This information may be
shown as from (FM), and temporary (TEMPO). “FM” is used when a rapid and significant
change, usually within an hour, is expected. “TEMPO” is used for temporary fluctuations
of weather, expected to last less than 1 hour.
10. PROB30
A given percentage that describes the probability of thunderstorms and precipitation
occurring in the coming hours. This forecast is not used for the first 6 hours of the 24-hour
forecast.
Example: TAF KPIR 111130Z 1112/1212 TEMPO 1112/1114 5SM BR FM1500
16015G25KT P6SM
SCT040 BKN250 FM120000 14012KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB30 1200/1204
3SM
TSRA BKN030CB FM120400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 1204/1208 3SM
TSRA OVC030CB
Explanation:
Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota…on the 11th day of the month, at 1130Z…valid
for 24 hours from 1200Z on the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th…wind from 150° at 12 knots…
visibility greater than 6 SM…broken clouds at 9,000 feet… temporarily, between 1200Z
and 1400Z, visibility 5 SM in mist…from 1500Z winds from 160° at 15 knots, gusting to 25

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knots visibility greater than 6 SM…clouds scattered at 4,000 feet and broken at 25,000
feet…from 0000Z wind from 140° at 12 knots…visibility greater than 6 SM…clouds
broken at 8,000 feet, overcast at 15,000 feet…between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is 30
percent probability of visibility 3 SM…thunderstorm with moderate rain showers…clouds
broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds…from 0400Z…winds from 140° at 8
knots…visibility greater than 6 miles…clouds at 4,000 scattered and overcast at 8,000…
temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Z…visibility 3 miles… thunderstorms with moderate
rain showers…clouds overcast at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds…end of report
(=).

5.7.3 Convective Significant Meteorological Information (WST)

Convective SIGMETs are issued for severe thunderstorms with surface winds greater
than 50 knots, hail at the surface greater than or equal to ¾ inch in diameter, or
tornadoes. They are also issued to advice pilots of embedded thunderstorms, lines of
thunderstorms, or thunderstorms with heavy or greater precipitation that affect 40 percent
or more of a 3,000 square mile or greater region. A remote pilot will find these weather
alerts helpful for flight planning.

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CHAPTER 6: OPERATING PROCEDURES

6.1 Standard operating procedures (SOPs):

6.2 Standard briefing

6.2.1 Pre-flight briefing

Briefings are conducted by the RPIC to ensure the flight crewmembers are aware of the
current state of the flight and what intended actions are going to take place in the future.
Briefings also ensure pertinent information is shared between flight crewmembers so the
pilots can correctly and safely fly the airplane and make appropriate aeronautical decisions.

RPIC should brief everyone on the airspace conditions as provided in an earlier briefing
with the controlling authority, or through an analysis of the local airspace. This would
include a summary of FP02. The current and forecast weather conditions, and any weather
factors that are critical to safe flight operations are noted at this time. The RPIC will use
best judgement in assessing the operational risk given airspace, weather and flight mission
information.

6.3 Flight checklist

6.3.1 In-flight activities

During flight operations, the flight crew is expected to assume their assigned duties and not
deviate from preassigned tasks. The minimum flight crew would consist of only the RPIC.
The RPIC and other flight team members (as needed) would use effective communications,
crew resource management (CRM) principles, and sound principles of aeronautical
decision making to sustain safe flight operations.

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6.3.2 Post-flight activities

After the flight activity has terminated, the crew has the responsibility to continue operating
in a professional manner until final documentation has been finished.

6.3.3 Post-flight inspection and checklist

Once the aircraft is secured, batteries can be disconnected and the aircraft is inspected for
any anomalies to its structure that may have occurred during flight. Any abnormal sounds
during flight may be a good reason to inspect the airframe and propulsion system carefully
for possible damage. The post-flight checklist, AC03, is completed.

6.3.4 Debrief on flight

The final activity after flying has commenced is for the RPIC to ask the flight crew for any
feedback from the flight, and make notes about the procedures that were followed and
concerns about the flight that need to be addressed. Any and all comments and concerns
should be evaluated, with notes taken by the RPIC. These should be shared with the Head
of Training.

6.4 Accountabilities and responsibilities/duties

6.4.1 Chief Pilot

The Chief Pilot is the key accountable person regarding flight operations and training for all
pilots. This person ensures that flight operations and training are in compliance with the
guidelines as specified in this manual, the SOPM and the SMS. The Chief Pilot will assist
UAS instructors and students as needed regarding their questions and concerns about the
program.

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6.4.2 Head of Training

Head of Training is responsible to ensure curricular goals and objectives are met in
delivering the accredited curriculum to the students. The Head of Training is the direct
representative of the Chief Pilot.

6.4.3 Aviation Safety Officer

The Aviation Safety Officer is responsible for overseeing the safe flight operations primarily
through reference to the Safety Management System (SMS) rulebook. This person
provides an independent assessment of flight operations from a safety perspective, and will
report anomalies directly to the Chief Pilot. Students and instructors are encouraged to
contact the Aviation Safety Officer if there are safety of flight issues that need to be
addressed. It is the job of the Aviation Safety Officer to designate an Emergency Response
Coordinator (ERC) for each flight activity.
This person is notified at the beginning and end of flight activities and will be contacted if an
incident or accident occurs that results in injuries.

6.4.4 Remote Pilot Instructors

The Remote Pilot Instructors (RPI) are responsible for delivering the training curriculum. A
Remote Pilot Instructor is responsible for the safety of their students while demonstrating
flight maneuvers and supervising flight operations of their students in the practical portion
of the course. Instructors engage with their students directly to demonstrate and teach the
safe operation of unmanned aircraft, and they are critical evaluators of the students‘abilities
with reference to the assessments of their performance.

6.4.5 Remote Pilots

There are two categories of Remote Pilots, Student pilots (SP), and Remote pilots in
command (RPIC). The SPs will either fly under direct supervision from the RPI or will be
allowed to fly with another SP who acts as the VO for restricted training flight operations. It

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is important to recognize that the RPIC is the single point responsible person for the flight
operation – any questions or concerns about the flight activity should be brought to the
RPIC. The RPIC ensures the flight operation is safe and progresses to achieve the mission
outcome. In the event that any anomalous behavior occurs during the mission, the RPIC
will mitigate the effects of that anomaly by altering flight operations accordingly to reduce
risk. All flight operational decisions must be either made by and/or approved by the RPIC
before they are executed.

6.4.6 Visual Observers

Visual Observers (VO) are responsible for communicating operational hazards and air
traffic conflicts during flight activities. Visual Observers are familiar with this FOM, the SMS,
UAS- specific SOPMs, checklists, and applicable aircraft user manuals.

6.5 Organization structure

CATC established Organizational structure for governance of drone training at the Centre
An organizational chart for this leadership is shown in Figure below. Each position is
described below.

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6.6 Insurance Requirements

A person shall not operate, or cause to be operated or commit any other person to operate
RPA unless there is in force an adequate insurance policy in respect of third party risks.
The minimum sum of insurance in respect of any RPA insured in accordance with sub-
regulation (1) shall be notified to the Authority
An operator of RPA shall make available third party liability insurance certificate(s), in the
authentic form, at the location of the RPA operator‘s operational management or other
location specified by the Authority.

6.7 Airmanship principles

The RPIC must certify that airmanship principles for each mission are met using the
standard briefing checklist (SB01) which is conducted with the flight crew prior to flight. The
certification is accomplished by checking that these items have been addressed prior to
flight:
(i) Know your aircraft, the capabilities and limitations in normal and non-normal scenarios
– review the aircraft-specific SOPM
(ii) Know yourself, your limitations and personal habits that effect safety.
(iii) Know your environment, the airspace, the weather, the operation and the equipment
(iv) (Run up and ground checks)
(v) Know your team, conduct briefings, use your observers, communicate, be positive and
resolve conflicts quickly and fairly.
(vi) Know the Risks, always conduct a thorough risk assessment.
(vii) Stay Proficient, practice and conduct dry runs‘of complex operations, and scenario
based training for emergencies.
(viii) Have the discipline to keep up to date on the latest safety and operational knowledge,
including technical information regarding your platform.

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6.8 Operating limitations

 Flight in any type of precipitation is prohibited.

 Surface wind limit – 15 knots.
 Winds aloft limit – 15 knots.
 The flight must be conducted in VFR conditions
 The Drone must remain within VLOS of the PIC
 Flights must occur within the altitude under air law

6.9 Weather analysis

A weather briefing is also obtained both to ensure that the flights will be in compliance with
the governing authority (ceiling and visibility restrictions), but also to assess the overall
safety of the mission by examining forecast and observed winds, precipitation and cloud
conditions.
Weather is checked the day before the flight in a forecast product, and it is checked again
just before flight operations. Demonstrated wind and gust capabilities of the aircraft are
referenced from the SOPM and used in the check sheet to ensure that a flight is feasible. If
the steady or gusting wind conditions exceed the limits stated in the SOPM then the flight is
canceled. The weather forecast is recorded in both FP01 and FP02.

6.10 Airspace and site survey analysis

Usually, flight planning will be completed the day before the flight, and this incorporates a
few checks that will facilitate a safe flight operation. The first check that the RPIC will
conduct prior to flight activity is directed at the airspace to ensure the flight operations are
in compliance with the aviation regulatory system. This includes a check of the airspace for
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM), temporary flight restrictions and other flight operation activity
that is published and of interest to the flight crew.

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A site survey is also required to ensure the flying site is generally acceptable for the drone
operations. Site requirements can vary depending on the size of the aircraft being flown,
but these general rules apply.

6.11 Risk management system:

6.11.1 Safe flight practice

An overall assessment of risk is computed in FP01 and FP02 based on airspace and flight
operations parameters. SB01 also reviews the risk matrix prior to flight with the flight crew
present, so that everyone is aware of the risk level associated with the current flight.

6.11.2 Risk assessment

Each flight location brings with it certain hazards unique to the location. These can include
fixed hazards (trees, buildings, power lines, etc) as well as moving hazards (pedestrians,
vehicles, etc). It is recommended to choose a site that has fewer
risks present, but this is not always possible. It is the responsibility of the PIC to determine
potential risks before takeoff, and alert other team members to the risks. In the instance
that there are moving hazards, it may be necessary to manage the traffic with some
combination of barriers and personnel.

The Operations Request Form (ORF) is completed for each new flight operation to formally
identify the potential hazards and their consequences. They are then evaluated for their risk
level based on severity and likelihood based on the risk code matrix shown in Figure below.
A Risk mitigation plan is developed for all hazards that are at any risk level other than
green. The goal is to reduce the risk level by at least one color level.

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The risk level is determined in FP01 and FP02, and is repeated in SB01 with concurrence
from the flight crew. The flight risk assessment includes the risk levels from the ORF for the
site, aircraft, mission profile, and the operational, crew, and environmental factors.

6.11.3 Risk Matrix

Risk Risk Severity

Likelihood Catastrophic A Critical B Moderate C Minor D Negligible E

5 - Frequent 5A 5B 5C 5D 5E

4 – Likely 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E

3-Occasional 3A 3B 3C 3D 3E

2 -Seldom 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E

1-Improbable 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E

6.11.4 Risk matrix codes

The next step after hazards have been identified and their associated causes listed is an
initial assessment of each hazard for its Severity and Likelihood. This hazard assessment
is conducted by evaluating each hazard against the categories in the RPA Risk
Assessment Matrix (see Figure below). To better understand the classification of risk,
severity and likelihood can be addressed separately in a systematic evaluation.
Severity: The worst thing that can result due to an individual hazard.
Example: If the worst result of a hazard was death, its severity is A “catastrophic”.
Example: IF the worst result of a hazard was a mild delay, its severity is “E” “Negligible”.

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Likelihood: The degree to which the hazard is probable to occur.

Example: If the occurrences are common, then the likelihood is “5” “frequent”
Example: If the occurrences are non-existent, then the likelihood is 1 “extremely
improbable.”
Table 1: Safety risk severity table
Severity Meaning Value
Catastrophic Equipment destroyed, death A
Hazardous Large reduction in safety margins, physical B
distress, serious injury, major equipment
damage
Major Significant reduction in safety margins, C
reduction in ability to cope with adverse
conditions, serious incident, injury to persons
Minor Nuisance, operating limitations, use of D
emergency procedures, minor incident
Negligible Few consequences E

Table 2: Safety risk probability table

Likelihood Meaning Value

Frequent Likely to occur many times (has occurred 5

frequently)
Occasional Likely to occur sometimes (has occurred 4
infrequently)
Remote Unlikely to occur, but possible (has occurred 3
rarely)
Improbable Very unlikely to occur (not known to have 2
occurred)
Extremely Almost inconceivable that the event will occur 1
improbable

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Risk Likelihood Catastrophic A Critical B Moderate C Minor D Negligible E

5 – Frequent 5A 5B 5C 5D 5E
4 – Likely 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E
3 – Occasional 3A 3B 3C 3D 3E
2 – Seldom 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E
1 – Improbable 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E

Figure 1: After each hazard (with its associated causes) is evaluated for severity and
probability, the term Risk can then be applied. A Risk is the expression of a hazard in
terms of combined possible likelihood and severity (e.g. – ―Loss of mission due to bad
batteries, caused by lack of adequate number of batteries available - 2B [orange]:
Seldom/Critical).

6.11.5 Analyze Risk Control Measures

Safety risk management encompasses the assessment and mitigation of potential

hazards. This is done by considering risk control measures for each hazard and then
selecting an appropriate control. Safety risk management is therefore a key component of
the safety management process. Risks that are intolerable must be mitigated, while
tolerable risks may be passed through without mitigation (although mitigation is still
preferred when feasible).
Each risk without any interventions is analyzed to seek countermeasures that will
decrease its level by at least one color in the RPA Assessment Matrix (such as from
orange to yellow).
Reducing the level/color is done by: 1) decreasing severity, 2) decreasing likelihood, or 3)

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decreasing both. These interventions are called Risk Controls, Control Measures, or Risk
Mitigators. The goal is to reduce the risk level as much as practically possible. The Safety
Committee should pay attention to the alphanumeric Raw Risk score to see what effect a
control measure will have. In the battery example in section 3.2 where the risk is
categorized as 2B [orange], the RPA operation applicant can lower the level of risk to
yellow by either decreasing Severity by one level to Moderate (C), or by decreasing
Likelihood by one level to Improbable (1). The odds are that decreasing severity in this
case may be easier than decreasing likelihood from Seldom to Improbable, but there is no
set rule when determining such Control Measures. It should be done to the UAS operator‘s
best judgement.
A raw risk that is reassessed for control measures to be implemented becomes a mitigated
risk. A good mitigated risk is decreased by at least one level/color from the unmitigated
raw risk. A risk that is mitigated becomes a fully assessed risk. After all risks are fully
assessed they are combined into a master table and charted by color as seen in Figure 3.
The Safety Committee will analyze all the assessed risks to determine any further course
of action. Once the appropriate decision level is identified, the Safety Committee will take
the risk to the appropriate accountable personnel for approval. In most cases, the
accountable person is already a member of the Safety Committee.
Assessment Risk Index Criteria Accountability
Unacceptable under existing Program Lead, Project
circumstances, requires immediate Manager, Aviation Safety
5A, 5B, 5C, 4A, 4B, 3A action. Officer, & Head of
Training
Manageable under risk control & Project Manager,
5D, 5E, 4C, 3B, 3C, 2A, mitigation. Requires authorized Aviation Safety Officer,
decision. & Head of Training
2B

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Acceptable after review of the Project Manager or

operation. Aviation Safety Officer
4D, 4E, 3D, 2C, 1A, 1B Requires continued tracking and
recorded action plans.
Acceptable with continued data
3E, 2D, 2E, 1C, 1D, 1E collection and trending for RPIC
continuous monitoring.

Figure 2:Assessed Risk Table - Includes associated accountable people for each index

6.12 RPAS Maintenance

6.12.1 Definition of maintenance

For the purpose of this manual, UAS maintenance is defined as any activity performed on
the ground before or after flight to ensure the successful and safe operation of the system.
This definition covers a wide range of ground support activities including assembly, updates
to software, and pre-flight testing.
Maintenance and care of the equipment as well as frequent training of the personnel are
the most important parameters that ensure airworthiness and personnel safety. A careful
and regular inspection of the hardware ensures long lasting performance of the equipment.
Software on the other hand, requires to be always up to date to ensure the stability of the
software, add new or enhanced features and guarantee better compatibility with different
devices or applications.

6.12.2 Scheduled vs unscheduled maintenance

Ground support activities can be divided into the two broad categories of scheduled and
unscheduled maintenance, each with its own challenges.
Scheduled tasks include routine inspections, adjustments, and time replacements of
components. Scheduled maintenance also included planned ground support tasks such as
pre-flight system assembly, fuel mixing, battery charging and pre-flight functional tests.

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Scheduled tasks tend to be performed frequently and become familiar, routine activities for
the technician. The routine nature of such tasks can increase the chances of absent-
minded errors such as memory lapses.
Unscheduled maintenance includes the identification of damage and the replacement or
repair of components. Fault identification and diagnosis can be a time-consuming part of
UA maintenance,particularly when faults involve avionics or computer systems.
Unscheduled maintenance, by definition, is less predictable than scheduled maintenance,
and each task may be performed infrequently. As a result, unscheduled maintenance can
impose greater mental demands on the technician due to the need for problem-solving and
the need to deal with unfamiliar situations.
Although the distinction between scheduled and unscheduled maintenance is widely used
in the aviation industry, UAS personnel do not tend to make a clear distinction between the
two types of maintenance. This is partly because in the absence of maintenance
procedures, virtually all maintenance tasks are unscheduled.

6.12.3 Hardware

A regular inspection, maintenance and care of the equipment is a necessity to ensure that
the equipment will be perform safely as expected according to manufacturer’s and
airworthiness standards and to extend its life. Most small to mid-range UAS equipment
available at the moment are powered by electricity, thus, battery power source. Battery
inspection and proper use is one of the most important aspects in electrically powered UAS
equipment. Improper long-term use of the batteries may lead to catastrophic consequences
for the equipment and public safety, such as fire during flight etc. Nevertheless, other
maintenance procedures are important too, such as regular screws tightening, electric
motors and propellers inspection etc. In addition to hardware maintenance, software
updates and firmware upgrades should be checked to be up to date. To ensure equipment

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reliability, significant maintenance procedures and standards are summarized as shown

below. Although this manual highlights the important maintenance procedure, it is always a
requirement to follow the corresponding maintenance manuals of each equipment.

6.12.4 Batteries:

Correct usage of batteries duty cycle, charging and storing according to manufacturer’s
guidelines.
Avoid exposure of the batteries to extreme weather (e.g. high temperatures) for extended
period of time.
After every flight, batteries have to be inspected for possible swelling.

6.12.5 Motors and propellers:

 The motors should be cleaned regularly for possible dust and ensure that are rotating
freely.
 Check if an individual motor has higher temperature than others after flight. This should
indicate that there is a malfunction of the motor or Electronic Speed Control or even
Center of Gravity may need to be adjusted.
 Propellers have to be inspected for any possible cracks or weariness due to excessive
vibrations.
 Surfaces of the propellers should always be cleaned to ensure proper lift distribution.
6.12.6 Airframe:

 The airframe should be inspected regularly for possible cracks or structure separation.
Airframe components should be replaced if cracks are detected. Airframe screws
should be checked regularly to ensure that are not loosen.
 The airframe should be cleaned frequently, especially the electronic input and output
ports such as camera connectors etc. The equipment should be stored in dry and cool
places avoiding humidity and dust.
 Any waterproof covers have to be checked that are in place.

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6.12.7 Software

 Before every flight, software updates and firmware regarding the equipment should be
checked and updated to the latest available.
 After performing an upgrade of firmware, the equipment should be tested prior any
operational flight to ensure that the UAS performs as expected.
6.13 Personnel

6.13.1 Training

Considering that RPAS operations in disaster situations create heavy stress on operators it
is of paramount importance that team members of the RPAS unit be trained and certified
for disaster management operations. Training is necessary for all pilots and air crew
personnel to take the necessary knowledge, tools and skill-set to make informed decisions
on UAS utilization in emergency services. However, it is very important that all pilots within
the unit shall maintain proficiency in their abilities. Members who do not have any
documented training or flight time within predefined timespan will have to show proficiency
before performing any future deployment or exercise. Recurrent training is not limited to
actual pilot skills but includes knowledge of all pertinent UAS/aviation matters.

6.14 Safety Management System (SMS)

6.14.1 Introduction

The Safety Management System (SMS) outlines the safety policy and procedures for all
operations. The SMS outlines the safety procedures put into place to prevent
incidents/emergency, the procedures to respond to incidents/emergencies, and methods to
ensure the policies are promoted and followed consistently in all operations. The most
important part of safety is that everyone is responsible for it.
RPA Operational Safety

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Safe operation of each aircraft is guided by the Flight Operations Manual (FOM) and
aircraft manuals: the user manual and Standard Operating Procedures Manual (SOPM).
These documents fully describe the procedures, equipment, and documentation required to
operate each RPA.

6.15 Occupational Health and Safety

This section provides an overview - additional information is included in the Flight

Operations Manual. It contains policies to protect the well-being of the flight crew (pilots,
visual observers, and others).

6.15.1 Fatigue

Crew fatigue is a significant risk factor to successful mission completion and overall safety.
Hours of pilot rest is a factor in the preflight planning risk assessment that is part of the First
and Second Flight Planning forms (FP01 and FP02). The fatigue requirements for pilots
are:
1. Maximum duty time - 12 hours per day (this includes any required meetings,
standardization flights, ground labs, classes or any other assignment)
2. Maximum duty time - 70 hours per week
3. Minimum of 10 consecutive hours of rest during the 24-hour period that precedes the
completion of the last activity.

6.15.2 Sun

Sun exposure is a risk in two ways - it impacts a pilot's vision and can also cause sunburn.
Each crew member should have sunglasses and/or brimmed hat to protect their eyes when
it is sunny, so they can clearly see the UAS and any potential hazards. Individuals at risk of
sunburn should either wear clothing preventing sun exposure or sunscreen to protect
themselves.

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6.15.3 Dehydration and Heat Related Risks

Dehydration is a significant risk factor during operations of UAS. This is often related to
heat, but can still be a factor even when the weather is cooler. The flight crew needs to
ensure they have an adequate supply of water and breaks during operation to drink it. The
crew should watch for signs of dehydration in themselves and their fellow crew members.
Beyond thirst, these include: headache, fatigue, cramps, sleepiness, and dizziness. Un-
remedied dehydration can lead to even more serious conditions such as heat exhaustion or
heat stroke. The symptoms of heat exhaustion are similar to dehydration with the addition
of possible low blood pressure, nausea, and a low fever. Heat stroke is even more severe
and includes symptoms like rapid heartbeat and breathing and possible stroke-like
symptoms like confusion, hallucinations, seizures, and loss of consciousness. In addition to
getting fluids and cooling, the person with possible heat exhaustion or heat stroke should
get immediate medical attention.

6.15.4 Thunderstorms

Thunderstorms bring the potential hazard of lightning which is a risk to the crew and their
hardware. The crew should check the weather reports as part of flight planning the day
before and the day of the planned flight and avoid operations if the risk of thunderstorm is
high. If there is thunder in the area operations should be suspended until 30 minutes after
the last instance of thunder.
The crew should also review the weather radar when available to help make the decision on
whether it is safe to proceed.

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6.15.5 Personal Protective Equipment

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is used to reduce the risk to the crew related to UAS-
specific hazards and is required for all operations of UAS with the training program. The
minimum requirements are:
● Safety glasses
● Sleeved shirt (short or long)
● Closed-toe shoes
Additional PPE may be required based on the risk assessments/mitigation plans for specific
mission plans. Personnel and students are responsible for having appropriate clothing and
shoes.

6.15.6 Distractions and Interference

Care should be taken to minimize the possible distractions of the crew and opportunities for
interference. When operating in the proximity of any people other than the flight crew
(bystanders, spectators, or other flight crews) the measures to reduce distraction and
interference should be included in the mission plan.

6.15.7 Common measures may include controls such as:

● Barrier or marker separating the flight crew from others

● Signage explaining operations (to reduce questions addressed to the flight crew while
they try to set up, operate, etc.)
● Pre-flight briefing for crowd
● Additional crew for crowd control
● Crew clearly identified by clothing

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6.16 Hazard Safety Zones

Any multi-rotor platform regardless of its size will have a minimum hazard area of 2m. At no
time shall any person or property enter the hazard area during operations including
launching, flight, and landing (unless required during an emergency situation). Hazard areas
will vary in size based on individual aircraft characteristics and are defined in the aircraft
SOP (listed as launch and recovery areas). Hand launch and recovery of multi- rotor
platforms can be performed to meet specific objectives but these procedures must be
specifically addressed in the risk analysis prior to flight. Hand launch and recovery is limited
to multi-rotor systems weighing less than 2 pounds or if the manufacturers ‘procedures allow
for hand launch and recovery.

6.16.1 Hazard Identification (ID)

The ORM process begins with Hazard Identification (ID). A Hazard is a perceived item or
condition that will potentially jeopardize the mission or cause injury (or death) to any person,
or damage any property (including the aircraft). Hazard identification is often the most critical
step in the ORM process because it generates most of the risk management process.
Hazard ID should be performed by a team whenever possible. Multiple people (and thus
multiple perspectives) helps further the thoroughness of the Hazard ID process and thus
encourage safer practice.
Hazard ID should be performed by the RPA operator(s) after the initial site survey of the
operating area is complete. The RPA operator(s) should also be familiar with the aircraft and
the planned mission objectives before beginning Hazard ID. The most effective initial way to
identify hazards is to envision the entire mission plan in chronological order (including
preflight/planning, flight operation, and post-operation activities). This makes it easier to
point out hazards that can emerge at any point of the mission. Additional hazards can be

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identified through the division of larger tasks into subtasks, thus granting greater resolution
to mission procedures.
Once the hazards have been listed, each hazard should be assessed for possible causes
and those subsequent causes listed with the hazard. The causes will be the most important
component when the time comes for the Safety Committee to list potential control
measures.

6.16.2 Make Control Decisions

The RPA operator(s) will decide the appropriate risk controls for each hazard identified.
These controls are outlined in the Operations Request Form (ORF) that formally
documents the risk assessment. The Safety Committee may propose further risk
mitigation recommendations and expand the Safety Procedures (if so required) after the
Risk Analysis. These recommendations must mention which (if any) risk control measures
must be implemented prior to approval. Recommendations from the Safety Committee
should be made within a simple cost versus benefit framework that assesses the value of
each risk control measure, both individually as well as within the larger system of
proposed measures. The goal is to select the most effective mixture of risk control measures
that balances benefit and cost. The Safety Committee‘s recommendations can include
different implementation tactics such as risk deferral, risk transference, risk avoidance, risk
acceptance, and/or risk rejection.
Upon conclusion of the Safety Committee‘s analysis and proposal of recommendations, the
accountable people can make one of several decisions that include (but are limited to):
1. Approval
2. Approval with caveats
3. Rejection
4. Referral to another member of the Safety Committee.

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In all cases, the accountable person will relay to the operation applicant his/her decision.
The RPA operation proponent(s), upon receiving accountable person approval or approval
with caveats is then responsible to monitor the implementation of the risk control measures
that are specified in the accountable person‘s decision and ensure that they are carried out
by the RPIC.
The RPIC is then responsible for the operational (i.e., flight-related) implementation of risk
controls within the team. Though the RPIC is responsible for the overall implementation of
risk controls, the implementation of individual controls can be assigned to individual flight
team members.

6.16.3 Implement Risk Controls

Once the risk controls are selected they must be put into practice – identifying hazards and
planning to mitigate them has no value if this planning is not put into use. The RPIC is
responsible for ensuring that all controls are followed for each mission. This may take many
forms –direct oversight of a high risk operation, updating operating procedures and
documentation, and/or providing additional training to the RPA operators involved with a
potential hazard.
The risk controls should be clearly included in the mission plan description that is submitted
in the flight planning forms (FP01 and FP02).

6.17 General Operational Guidance

Aviation Safety Officer will review requests for RPA activities to ensure compliance with
applicable national and local laws and regulations and policy requirements. The Pilot in
Command or Head of Training will evaluate requests for use of an RPA to determine if use
of the equipment is within acceptable safety parameters. If the risk or process presented is

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acceptable, and/or control measures can be employed to satisfactorily mitigate the risk(s)
associated with the proposed operations, they will close out the request for further risk
assessment and approve the flight and issue a flight ID number. They will also perform a
general risk assessment for each site of operations to use as a baseline for site risk for each
flight plan.
National and local laws must be followed in conjunction with any RPA activities. Any RPA
operating in violation of any national or local laws will be grounded.

6.18 Reporting system (ref management system performance)

6.18.1 File designation

6.18.2 Mandatory Incident/Accident Reporting System

All RPA operators are required to submit a complete and detailed incident/accident report if
any of the following occur during operations:
Incidents
● Near miss with an object or person
● Airspace violations
● Traffic conflict in flight
● Procedure errors
● Human Factor Error including fatigue
● Crash with any amount of damage beyond normal wear and tear (includes
Prop Strike/Tipover and Hard Landings)
● Fuel/Energy Event
● Altitude Deviations
● Loss of data links
● Reputation conflict

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Accidents
● Property damage of any type/cost
● Injury of any type
The submission of a report triggers a notification to the Aviation Safety Officer. The ASO has
the discretion to trigger an investigation of the incident/accident by the internal safety
committee (ISC), and based on their findings, recurrency training or disciplinary action may
be taken against the pilot.

6.19 Hazard Incident and accident response

External reporting and pilot activity

Reportable incidents involving unmanned aircraft are defined as:
a. In-flight fire
b. Fly-away events that result in the aircraft leaving the immediate flight operations area
with no ability of the remote pilot to regain control of the aircraft.
c. Mid-air collision
d. Serious injury which falls into one of five categories:
(1) Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 days from the
date of the injury was received;
(2) Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose);
(3) Causes severe hemorrhages, nerve, muscle, or tendon damage;
(4) Involves any internal organ; or
(5) Involves second- or third-degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5 percent of the
body surface.

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Reportable accidents include:

Serious injury – classified as an abbreviated injury scale (AIS) level 3 injury, which
corresponds to, as an example, an open fracture of the humerus, or an 8 – 10% chance of
death
Internal Incident Reporting
Less serious incidents and accidents should be recorded internally in the flight log forms.
The expectation is that for every serious incident that requires an external report there will
be several
less severe incidents such as near misses in flight, hard landings, tip overs, etc. that do not
need to be reported, but do need to be recorded. Any deviation from the planned flight
should be recorded in the flight log with no exceptions.
Reporting
Potential hazards are first documented through the Operations Request Form (ORF). This
form guides the operator(s) through identification, assessment, and mitigation of risks. The
ORF is completed whenever new operation types are to begin (new sites, aircraft, mission
profiles, or payloads). In these cases, the new hazard will be evaluated through the Incident
and Hazard Response Report (IHR). In many instances, part of the recommended response
in the IHR will include a revision of the ORF that would include the hazard.

6.20 Emergency Response Plan

When an emergency occurs, it is crucial that the pilot maintains focus on flying the aircraft.
This means quickly forming a safe trajectory plan of the aircraft so that it is brought under
control or landed at the earliest possible opportunity. Unmanned aircraft systems are more
complex than manned aircraft in that the control may be distributed, and the root cause of
failure may not have any prior indicators. In these cases, it is always necessary for the pilot
to recognize the problem as early as possible and take manual control to stabilize and/or

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land the aircraft. It is the pilot‘s primary responsibility to: maintain aircraft control, analyze
the situation, take corrective action, and land the aircraft as soon as conditions permit.
The sole person who makes final flight decisions during an emergency is the Remote Pilot in
Command. As the person who is flying the aircraft, they should recognize that information
may be presented to them from other crewmembers, however they are ultimately
responsible for making flight control decisions after evaluating all the available information.

6.20.1 Emergency Preparedness

As part of all operations proper precautions need to be made to maximize readiness to

respond to an emergency. These preparations include:
1. All Flight Planning forms and Aircraft Checklist are properly completed before operations
begin.
2. Under no circumstances should UAS operation begin without a Flight ID number issued.
3. Ensure flight crew has first aid supplies, 2 liters of water, a communication device, and
sand before they proceed to site.
4. The flight crew should have the current emergency contact list available at the site.
5. All crew should have the appropriate PPE.
6. Identify alternative landing locations prior to takeoff so the RPIC can make a quick
decision about emergency landings if needed during flight.

6.20.2 Emergency Response Coordinator

An Emergency Response Coordinator (ERC) will be designated for each flight site. They will
be on-site and are expected to take the lead in executing the ERP. The flight crew should
check with the ERC before beginning any flight operations. The ERC prepares a base of

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operations in the event of an emergency. This location is chosen to be close to the flight
area will consist of the following provisions:
• An open and clean space to attend to the injured
• A first aid kit to administer aid for the most common injuries (cuts, minor
Lacerations, burns, dehydration)
• A phone number for the nearest emergency response unit for transportation to a
Hospital
2l of drinking water
• A bucket of sand for putting out fires
Emergency Procedures Quick Reference Checklist
If necessary, call emergency services.
Render first aid as necessary.
Preserve accident/incident site to ensure aircraft wreckage is not tampered with.
Secure the Ground Control Station.
Once the flight crew and scene are secure/safe take pictures and begin documentation of
the incident.

6.21 Aircraft Crash Procedure Goals

The crew and accompanying personnel following an aircraft crash are to:
Protect themselves and others first
Make sure that the situation is dealt with in order to prevent further injury and damage
Get help from surrounding personnel and bystanders as well as notify any authority figures
or emergency services, if required
Control the damage caused by the incident and prevent it from spreading
Record as much information about the aircraft crash as possible to identify the point of
failure, learn from the incident, and avoid similar incidents in the future.

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6.22 Loss of GPS Procedures

Upon first indication of GPS Loss, maintain visual contact with the RPA. If the RPA exceeds
visual range, note the system range and bearing to the RPA.
1. Select an attitude stabilized control mode.
2. Set/confirm safe altitude for area between RPA position and GCS.
3. Direct RPA to GCS by visual guidance.
4. If RPA has exceeded visual range, direct RPA to GCS using back azimuth of last known
position.
5. Recover RPA.

6.23 Lost Link Procedures

Upon first indication of Lost Link (LL), check the antenna orientation, GCS link status, and
cables and connections.
1. If all connections and links are secure and there is still no link, typically the RPA will
continue its current operation until a predefined LL timeout is exceeded then execute LL
procedures.
2. Notify flight crew about lost link.
3. Clear lost link landing area
Most RPA programs will automatically execute a predetermined flight profile when the LL
timeout is exceeded. When an RPA is at distant range and executes a Return-to-Home
(RTH) LL procedure, link may be re-established and the operator may have the option of
regaining control and resuming the operation (mode control switch). Care should be taken
when setting the minimum safe altitude (MSA) for the Return-to Home LL procedure. The
MSA should be chosen to address the highest obstacle within the flight area.

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6.24 Lost Orientation Procedures for VTOL RPA

1. Release sticks, allowing aircraft to stop.

2. Climb to a safe altitude above nearby obstacles.
3. Move stick forward, note apparent direction of flight.
4. If apparent sideways movement:
a) Yaw the aircraft for a second. Aim to change the aircraft‘s heading by ~45 degrees.
b) Continue until aircraft performs no apparent sideways movement.
5. Move the stick forward, staying at constant altitude (no altitude input change).
a) If aircraft appears to climb it is returning to to Ground Control Station.
b) If aircraft appears to descend, it is departing away from the Ground Control Station.
Stop and repeat process until returning to Ground Control Station.
6. If the pilot cannot reestablish orientation a Return-to-Home command should be
issued.

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CHAPTER 7: PRACTICAL SESSION

Guidance of flying practices refer Students Flying practice manual.

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