Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

Chapter 1: Problem Solving

1.1 Algorithms
1.1.1
• An algorithm is a precise method for solving a problem.
• Algorithms can be displayed as written description, flowcharts and in pseudo-code.
• Written descriptions:
o Simplest way of expressing an algorithm.
o E.g. Fill Kettle with water. Turn on kettle. Place coffee in cup.
• Flowcharts:
o Can be used to represent an algorithm graphically. They provide a more visual
display.
• Pseudo-code:
o A structured, code like language that can be used to describe an algorithm.
o E.g. SEND ‘Please enter the first number.’ TO DISPLAY
RECEIVE first number FROM KEYBOARD……etc.
• Variable: A ‘container’ used to store data. Values stored are not fixed.
• Identifier: A unique name given to a variable or a constant.
• Constant: A ‘container’ that holds a value that never changes. They have unique
identifiers.
• Arithmetic operator: An operator that performs a calculation on two numbers.

1.1.2
• Construct: A component from which something is built. Letters and numbers are the
construct we use.
• Selection:
o A construct that allows a choice to be made between different alternatives.
o Represented using an IF….THEN….ELSE statement.
o This statement allows a choice to be made between two alternatives.
o Relational operators are also used to compare two values.
o Nested selection: consists of one or more IF statements placed inside each other.
Two possible courses of action.

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• Iteration:
o A construct that means the repetition of a process. An action is repeated until
there is a desired outcome or a condition is met. Also known as a loop.
o Definite iteration: Used when the number of iterations, or turns of the loop, is
known in advance. It can be set to as many turns as you want. It is count
controlled.
o Indefinite iteration: used when the number of iterations is not known before the
loop is started. The iterations stop when a specified condition is met. It is
condition controlled.
o Logical operator: A boolean operator using AND, OR and NOT.
o Nested loop: A loop that runs inside another loop. The inner one executes all of
its instructions for each of the outer loop.
• Sequence: An ordered set of instructions.
• Concatenation: The linking together of two or more items of information.
1.1.3,4,5,6
• Purpose of an algorithm: When you look at an algorithm, expressed either in pseudo-
code or as a flowchart, it is sometimes easy to see its purpose.
• A good way to follow the reasoning behind an algorithm and also to find any logic
errors, is to use some sample data and check if the output is what you expect.
• Logic error: An error is an algorithm that results in incorrect or unexpected behaviour.
• Trace table: A technique used to identify any logic errors in algorithms. Each column
represents a variable or output and each row a value of that variable.
• There are three types of error in computer programs:
o Syntax errors occur when algorithms are being converted into program code.
o Runtime errors occur when the program is executed.
o Logic errors are errors in the design of algorithms.
• Tracing the value of variable on an algorithm helps to identify logic errors.
• Understanding the order of precedence of arithmetic operators and the significance of
brackets will help you to avoid making logic errors.
1.1.7,8,9
• Arrays:
o An organised collection of related values that share a single identifier.
o All sorting and searching algorithms work on lists of data.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

• Bubble sort:
o Uses an algorithm design that does not include any techniques to improve
performance.
o When data is sorted, different items must be compared with each other and
moved so that they are in ether ascending or descending order.
▪ Starts at one end of the list and compares each neighbouring number.
▪ If they are in the wrong order they are swapped and keeps doing this
until the list is in ether ascending or descending order.
▪ This process is repeated until there are no swaps left to be done during
a pass.
• Merge Sort:
o A sorting algorithm that divide a list into two smaller lists then divided these
until the size of each list is one.
o Recursion: Repeatedly applying a method to the results of a previous
application of the method.
o Uses the ‘divide and conquer’ method.
• Liner search:
o Works by checking each element to see if it matches the target.
o Repeats until a match is found or the whole list has been checked.
o A linear search os sequential.
• Binary search:
o Uses a ‘divide and conquer’ method.
o In a binary search the middle item in a list is repeatedly selected to reduce the
size of the list to be searched.
o To use this method the list must be sorted into ascending or descending order.
• The choice of algorithm depends on the data that is to be processed.
1.2 Decomposition and abstraction
1.2.1
• Computational thinking: The thought process involved in formulating problems and
their solutions so that the solutions are represented in a from that can be effectively
carried out by a computer.
• Decomposition: Breaking a problem down into smaller, more manageable parts, which
are easier to solve. A technique of computational thinking.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

• Abstraction: The process of removing or hiding unnecessary detail so that only the
important points remain. A technique of computational thinking.
• Subprograms: A self-contained module of code that performs a specific task. It can be
‘called’ by the main program the it is needed.
• When designing a solution to a problem the inputs, outputs and processing requirements
should be identified at the outset.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

Chapter 2 : Programming
2.1 Develop Code
• A program is an algorithm that has been converted into program code so that it can be
executed by a computer. A well-written algorithm should be free of logical errors and
easy to code in any high-level language.
• Syntax error: An error that occurs when a rule of the programming language is broken.
• When algorithms are converted into programs the computer needs to be told what type
of data is stored in each variable. Every programming language has a number of built-
in data types.
• Data type: Specifies what kind of data it can hold. Common data types are integer, real,
Boolean and character. The data type of a value determines the operations that can be
performed upon it.
• Variable initialisation:
o When a variable is declared, the computer allocates it a location in memory.
Initially this location is empty, so before a variable can be used it has to be given
a value.
o Once a variable has been initialised an assignment statement is used to change
its value.
o Assignment statement: The SET….TO command is used to initialise variables
in pseudocode.
• Type coercion: The data type variable gets changed during program execution. The
process of converting the value stored in a variable from one data type to another.
• Command sequence: A set of instructions that the computer executes one after another
in order. Usually combined with loops ad selection statements.
• Selection: Used to create a branch in a program. The computer selects which branch to
follow based on the outcome of a condition.
• Loops: Another name for an iteration. Used to make a computer repeat a set of
instructions more than once.
• The four basic data types are integer, float/real, Boolean and character.
• Variable and type decelerations, command sequences, selection and iteration are four
of the structural components of a program.
2.2 Making programs easy to read
• Techniques used to make programs easy to read and understand:
Technique
Description
Comments
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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

Used to explain what each part of the program does.

Descriptive names
Using descriptive identifiers for variables, constants and subprograms helps make their purpose
clear.
Indentation
Makes it easier to see where each block of code starts and finishes. Getting the indentation
wrong can result in the program not running.
White space
Adding blank lines between different blocks of code makes them stand out.
•

• Proving readable code makes it easier to understand what a program does and how it
does it.
2.3 Strings
• String: A sequence of characters. They can be letters, numbers, symbols, punctuation
marks or spaces.
• String indexing: Each character in a string has an index number, with the first character
at position 0. You can use the index to reference individual characters in a string.
• Length:
o LENGTH function used to find the number of characters in a string.
o Function: A subprogram that performs a specific task and can be used at any
point in the program.
• String traversal: Using a loop to cycle through each character in a string. Can use a FOR
loop.
• Concatenation: Involves joining two or more items of information together,
Concatenating two strings produces a new string object.
• Type conversion: Performed when a string and a non-string are joined together. The
computer converts the non-string into a string before joining the two strings together.
• Slicing: The process of extracting part of a string.
• String formatting: Used to control the way text is displayed on screen.
2.4 Data Structures
• Data structure: An organised collection of related elements. Arrays and records are two
common data structures used in programming.
• One-dimensional arrays: A list of elements, each of which has a unique index value
representing its position in the list.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

• Two-dimensional arrays: A matrix of rows and columns resembling a table.Two indices

are used, one to reference the rows and the other the columns. All the elements of a two
dimensional array share the sam data type.
• All the elements in an array have the same data type.
• A record consists of a collection of fields. The values stored in a record can be of
different data types.
2.5 Input/Output
• Validation: To check that the data entered by a user or from a file meets specified
requirements. Any program that requires data entry should have appropriate forms of
validation built in.
• Range check: Used to ensure that data is within a specified range.
• Length check: Used to ensure that data has a length within a specified range.
• Presence check: Used to ensure the user has entered some data.
• Look-up check: Used to ensure the data matches one of the values in a predefined list.
• Who user are required to choose from a list of options, their inout should be validated
to ensure that their choice is valid.
• Large sets of data are normally stored in text files. The advantage of writing data to a
file is that the data is not lost when the program is terminated. It can be read format he
file whenever it is needed.
2.6 Subprograms
• Subprogram:
o A self-contained module of code that performs a specific task.
o Using subprograms reduces the complexity of programs and makes them easier
to understand.
o There are two types of subprograms : functions and procedures.
o Procedures: A subprograms contains a set of statements that are executed when
the procedure is called. Unlike a function, a procedure does not return a value
to the main program.
o Functions: A subprogram that returns a value to the main program.
• Abstraction: The process of removing or hiding unnecessary detail so that only the
important points remain.
• The two variables that store the random number generated by the function:
o Local variable: Can be accessed only from within the subprogram in which it is
created.

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o Global variable: Can be accessed from anywhere in the program, including

inside subprograms.
• Built-in functions: Functions that are provided in most high-level programming
languages to perform common tasks.
• Procedure: A subprogram that does not return a value to the main program.
• Parameters: Values that are passed to a subprogram when it is called.
2.7 Testing and evaluation
• Testing: This is the only way ensuring that the program functions correctly and meets
all of the specified requirements.
• Evaluating programs: Need to able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
programs as well as those created by other programmers and identifying areas for
improvement.1
• Runtime errors: An error that occurs while the program is running - the operation the
computer is asked to do is impossible to execute.
• Logic errors occur when there is an error in the logic of the code, causing the program
to produce an unexpected result.
• Syntax error: Occurs when part of the code breaks the rules of the programming
language.
• Runtime error: Occurs while the program is running and it is asked to do something
that is impossible.
• Truth tables: Can be used to manually trace the execution of an algorithm, allowing you
to track the changes in variable values.

Daw Ohnmar Thet

M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

Chapter 3: Data
3.1 Binary
• Binary: Information represented by only two values. There are no communication
errors or misunderstandings because there are no small differences. It is needed to
represent data and program instruction because of the way in which computer work.
• A system with separate states is said to be digital and if there are two states it is binary.
• Digital: Information represented by certain fixed values.
• A system such as this, where there is a continuous range between two values, is said to
be analogue.
• Analogue: Using signals or information represented by a quantity that is continuously
variable.
• Representing information
o There are only two digits, 1 and 0, bu to represent the symbols in text there must
be at least 52 separate items of information - 26 lower-case and 26 upper-case
letters.
o In a similar way the two binary digits (bits) can be combined into groups.
o Binary digits: The smallest unit of data that is represented in a computer. It has
a single binary value, either 1 or 0.
• Number systems
o Binary is a number system based on two digits, 0 and 1.
o The difference is that the denary system works in powers of 10, whereas the
binary system uses powers of 2.
• Denary system
o Every digit has a value and the one to the ;eft has a value 10 times higher that
the one to to the right.
• Binary system
o The binary system has similar place value but they increase by powers of 2.
o Byte: The basic combination of bits used to represent an item of information. A
byte typically consists of 8 bits.
• Binary arithmetic
o Binary numbers can be manipulated in the same way as denary ones.
• Denary addition
o When addition is performed n denary, a ‘carry over’ is used if the result is
greater than 9.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

o Binary addition works int he same way but a ‘carry over’ is needed if the result
is greater than 1.
• Binary addition
o We are adding eight-bit numbers and this has caused a problem. All eight bits
have been used and the 1 that was carried over in the last column has nowhere
to go - it has been carried out.
o Therefore the result of the calculation would be wrong. This is called an
overflow error.
o This condition occurs when a calculation produces a result that is greater than
the computer can deal with or store.
o The processor is informed that an error has occurred.
• Signed and unsigned numbers
o When an integer is indicated as being positive or negative it is described as
being signed.
o Sign and magnitude
▪ In a multiple-bit binary number, the left-most it, the one with the greatest
value, is called the most significant bit (MSB). We can use this to
represent signed integers.
• Two’s complement (flip, add 1)
o The most common method used to represent signed integers in modern
computers is two’s complement.
o This method works on the principle above-the result of any number added to its
negative equivalent should be zero.
• Binary Shifts
There are two types of binary shifts, logical shifts and arithmetic shifts.
• Logical Shifts
o For unsigned numbers , shift to the left for multiplication and shift to the right
for division
o Replaced by 0s after shift
• Arithmetic Shifts
o Arithmetic shifts are used with signed numbers expressed in two’s complement
format.
o Left Arithmetic Shift is identical to a left logical shift expect that the left-most
bit (MSB) is not included because it remains in place to indicate the sign.
o Right Arithmetic Shift replaced at the left by copies of the MSB.
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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

• Hexadecimal Numbers
o Uses 16 digits from 0 to 15.
o 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F

Data Representation
Character set
The defined list of characters recognized by a computer’s hardware and
software is known as its character set.
ASCII Code
The ASCII code consisted of 7 bits and so 128 characters could be represented.
All of the lower and upper case English characters, punctuation marks and control
actions such as backspace, shift on, shift off and carriage return were represented.
- 65 to 90 for upper case
- 97 to 122 for lower case
- 0 to 9 are represented by codes 48 to 57
Analysing a String
To a computer, a string is just a stream of binary codes that represent the characters.
In the Python programming language, the functions are ord( ), and chr( ).
Eg. ord ( c ) would return 99
chr (100) would return ‘d’

chr ( ) function can build up a string using characters entered by their denary codes.
ord ( ) function needs to take the character as a parameter and return its denary code.

The Extended ASCII code

In the ASCII code, there are 96 printable characters but there was always a need for
more characters in order to accommodate foreign languages, mathematical symbols, and
special symbols for drawing pictures.

Unicode
To overcome the problem of multiple versions of ASCII, the Unicode Consortium was
founded to develop and promote a Unicode standard. Unicode can represent the characters in

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all known languages. For compatibility and because ASCII was the recognized standard,
Unicode characters 0 to 127 are the same as ASCII.

Representation of BITMAP imges

Image size and resolution
Eg- 640 x 480 pixels (lower resolution)
4288 x 2848 pixels (Higher resolution)

Encoding the pixel information

The number of different colours that can be used is decided by the number of bits used
to encode colour. For example, if 1 bit is used for each pixel, then there will be only two colors-
black and white.

Color depth
If 1 bit (color depth) is used, the number of colours is 21 or 2.
If 3 bits (color depth) are used, the number of colours is 23 or 8.
If 8 bits (color depth) are used, the number of colours is 28 or 256.

➢ The current standard represents the color of each pixel in 24 bits. There are 8
bits for each of the red, green and blue primary colors.
➢ There are 256 variation for each primary color contributing to the overall colour
of the pixel and that gives 256 x 256 x 256 or 16777216 different colors.It is
often referred to as true color.

File sizes (bits/ bytes)

With x Height x Color depth

Sampling
Sound data must be represented as streams of 1s and 0s. Continuous change cannot be
represented by a digital stream, so digital recording take a series of sound ‘snapshots’. When
these are played back rapidly in succession the sound produced seems to be continuous. These
‘snapshots’ of the sound are called samples and the process of taking them is called sampling.
Fidelity
The fidelity of the recording is influenced by two factors.
1.Sample rate and
2. How precise the bit depth of sampling.
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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

Digital Audio file sizes

The size of a digital audio sound file depends on the following.
1.sample rate per second
2. bit depth
3. duration of recording
4.number of channels -mono (one channel) or stereo (two channels)
Data Storage and Compression

Data Compression
There are many benefits of the files being made as small as possible- users don’t
waste time while their date is being transferred or saved and providers can store them in as
little space as possible. This is why file compression is so important. Compressed files use
less network bandwidth to upload and download. There is less Internet congestion and it
makes possible the streaming of video and audio files.

There are two types of compression

1. Lossless
2. Lossy compression

Lossless Compression
When lossless compression is used, no data is lost and the original file can be restord.
It is especially used for files where the same data occurs many times.Losseless compression
is essential for text, as missing data would completely change the meaning of what was being
communicate so that it could be understood.
Run-Length Encoding (RLE)
The RLE is used to reduce the size of a repeating string of items.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Lossy Compression
Lossy compression decreases the file size by deleting some the data. The original file
cannot be re-formed entirely when it is decompressed. So, it is cannot be used with text or
program files. It can be used for bitmap image and audio files.
Encrption
Asymmetric encryption
This method encrypts and decrypts data using two different keys.It is commonly used
to send encrypted messages because anyone who wants to send an encrypted message can get
the intended can get the intended receipient’s public key from a public directory.
Symmetric encryption
This method encrypts and decrypts a message using the same key. This is the method
used by HTTPS connection.

The PIGPEN cipher

The pigpen cipher does not substitute one letter for another. It substitues each letter
with a symbol.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

The CAESAR cipher

The letters of the alphabets are shifted a set number of places. A positive shift moves
the letters to the right. A negative shift moves them to the left.

The VIGENERE cipher

This cipher uses polyalphabetic substitution. There are 26 rows, each matching one of
the 26 possible ciphers. Each alphabet is shifted cyclically to the left producing a table.Using
the keyword, the keystream is developed by repeating the keyword until it is the same length
as the plaintext.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

The RAIL FENCE cipher

This is a simple cipher which transposes the characters following a simple rule based
on a key.

The encrypted ciphertext would be …

tieghsssmsaeias

To decrypt a message a grid is created with as many rows as the key. The letters, starting
from the left, replace the rows, starting with the top row.

Daw Ohnmar Thet

M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
09-263557744
Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

Chapter 4 : Computers
4.1 Machines and computational modelling
• The input-process-output-model
o Input: To enter data into a computer.
o Process: To change the meaning or format of some data.
o Output: To display or output data that has been processed (or has been stored).
• A computer is a machine that takes some kind of input from its surroundings,
processes the input according to given rules, and provide some kind of output.
• Computational models:
o Sequential: One in which instructions are executed one after another. There
may be branches in the program, but the general principle is that each
instruction follows on from the previous one.
o Parallel: One in which each program instruction is executed simultaneously on
multiple processors in order to get the results faster. Using multi-cores in
processors is an example of parallel computing. It is by using parallel
processing that super computers are getting faster and faster.
o Multi-agent: one in which computer systems co-operate and co-ordinate with
other agents to achieve their goals. Swarm robots are examples of multi-
agents.
4.2 Hardware
• Stored programs: the von Neumann model
o Von Neumann architecture: Computer design in which the program is stored in
memory with the data.
o Central processing Unit (CPU): hardware device that carries out the
processing in a computer.
o Random-access memory (RAM): A temporary store for data and instructions.
o Bus: A group of connections between devices in a computer
o Fetch-decode-execute cycle: Sequence of steps carried out repeatedly by a
CPU.

• Hardware components of a computer system RAM and ROM

o Writing: When the CPU sends data to memory to be stored at a given address.
o Reading: When the CPU retrieves the data stored at a given address.
o Memory address: A number that uniquely identifies a (memory) storage
location.
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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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o RAM is described as volatile (memory that is erased when the power is turned
off).
o Read-only memory (ROM): Memory that cannot be altered and is not lost
when the power is turned off. Is non-volatile (memory that is not lost when the
power is turned off).
• Cache memory
o Third kind of memory.
o Small amount of fast, expensive memory that is used in-between two devices
that communicate at different speeds.
o Cache: memory used to make up for the difference in speed between two
internal components.
• Fetch-decode-execute: In detail
o Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU): The part of the CPU that performs calculations
and logic operations.
o Register: A storage location inside the CPU used to hold an instruction, an
address or other single item of data.
o Control unit: The part of the CPU that organises the actions of the other parts
of the CPU.
o Clock: An electronic device inside a CPU that ‘ticks’ at regular intervals and is
used to synchronise the actions of the other parts of the CPU.
• Secondary storage: Any kind of permanent storage to which the contents
ROM/RAM are copied (usually a hard disk, optical or solid-state device).
o Magnetic storage: Secondary storage that works by magnetising parts of a
substance as north and south poles to represent binary 1s and 0s.
o Optical storage: Secondary storage that works using differences in light
reflection from a material.
o Solid-state storage: Secondary storage that works by storing charge.
• Cloud storage: Secondary storage often belonging to a third party, that is accessed
via a network, usually the internet, and do is not in the same physical place as the
machine’s RAM/ROM. Files stored ‘in the cloud’ can be accessed from anywhere via
an internet connection.
o Virtualisation: Any process that hides the true physical nature of a computing
resource, making it look different, usually to simplify the way it is accessed.
• Embedded systems: Are cheap, low-power computers that are dedicated to a specific
task.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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Pearson Edexcel Computer Science Notes

4.3 Logic
• Truth tables: A table showing all possible combinations of the inputs and outputs of an
operator.
• Boolean: Something that can take only the values True or False; named after English
mathematician George Boole.
• Logic circuit: An electronic circuit that has inputs and outputs that follow one of the
Boolean operators.
• AND, OR and NOT are called logical or Boolean operators. They are used in
selection statements such as IF.
• The order of precedence is: brackets, NOT, AND, OR.
4.4 Software
• Software: The set of programs run by a computer system.
• Application software: Software that performs a task that would otherwise be done by
hand, perhaps with pen and paper.
• Operating software: Software designed for particular hardware and which manages
other programs access to the hardware.
• Utility software: Software that does a useful job for the user that is not essential to the
operating system and not the reason for using a computer in the first place.
• Operating system (eg-window11,windows 10, MacOS)
o Scheduling; The algorithm that the OS uses to allow each running process to
use the CPU.
o Paging: The algorithms the OS uses to move programs from RAM to disk and
back again when needed once main memory is full.
o Concurrent: Processes that run apparently at the same time are described as
being concurrent.
o Authentication: The process of proving to a computer system who you are.
o User interface: The way the user interacts with the operating system.
• Back-up(utility): A copy of files in another location so that they are still available if
the original copy is damaged or lost.
• Defragmenter: A utility that moves file clusters on a disk so they are closer to each
other in order to speed up disk access.
• Virus: Software that is designed to make and distribute copies of itself, usually for a
malicious purpose.
• Spyware: Software, possibly a virus, that is designed to be installed secretly on a
computer and record private information as the user enters it.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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• Firewall: A utility that controls program access to the network, both incoming and
outgoing.
• Computer models
o Heuristic: A type of algorithm capable of finding a solution to a problem
quickly and easily, by using a combination of trial and error and educated
guesswork to cut corners and eliminate less likely alternatives.
o Monte Carlo methods: Carrying out a statistical analysis of a number of
random samples in order to obtain approximate solutions to a problem.
o Neural methods: Processing information in a similar way to human brains and
learning and adapting over time.

4.5 Programming language

• Low-level programming language: A programming language that is closely related to
the CPU’s machine code.
o Instruction set: The list of all possible commands a particular CPU knows how
to carry out.
o Machine code: The binary codes representing each of the instructions in the
instruction set.
o Translator: A program that converts source code into machine code.
o Source code: The text of the program that a programmer writes.
o Assembly language: A low-level language written using mnemonics.
o Mnemonic: A short, simple, acronym that represents each of the instructions in
a CPU’s instruction set.
• Compiler: A translator that converts high-level language source code into object code,
often machine code.
• Interpreter: A translator that converts high-level language source code into object
code, often machine code.
• Humans program computers mostly using a range of high-level languages, but
sometimes in assembly language.

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Chapter 5: Communication and the internet

5.1 Networks
• Network: An arrangement of computers and other devices connected together to share
resources and data.
• Why are networks used?
o To access shared files among several users
o To download data or updates to computer programs
o To access the internet
o To communicate with each other
• Types of networks
o Local area network (LAN): A network that covers a relatively small
geographical area, often a single site.
o Wireless local area network (WLAN): A local area network in which connected
devices use high frequency radio waves to communicate.
o Wide area network (WAN): A network that covers a large geographical area. It
connects together two or more LANs and is usually under collective ownership.
The largest wide area network is the internet.
• Client-server network: A network that has at least one server to provide services to the
client computers.
• Peer-to-peer network: A network that doesn’t have any centralised servers. Each
computer in the network can act as client and server.

• Network topologies: Describes how the devices on a network are connected

together.

o Bus topology

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• Ring topology

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Star topology

Mesh Topology

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• Communication media: The means by which data is transmitted between devices

on a network. Coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable and microwaves are all forms of
communication media.
1) Wired connectivity
Wired connection methods involve a physical connection between the
computer and the network. Most computer connections are made of copper wire or
fiber optic cable.
2) Wireless connectivity
Wireless connectivity does not require a physical connection between devices.
Most wireless connections transmit and receive radio signals, but other connection
methos such as infra-red light can be used over limited distances.

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Network data speed

The speed that data can be transmitted through a communications medium is measured
in bits per second (this can be shortened to bps, b/s or bits/s). Modern high-speed networks can
transmit billions of bits per second. (The units listed have similar to the units used to measure
storage (such as the capacity of a hard drive or the amount of RAM a computer has).

Protocols: A set of rules that govern how communications on a network should be formatted
and what data they should include.
• Email protocols
o Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used when sending email through the
internet.
o Post Office Protocol, Version 3 (POP3): Current version of Post Office
Protocol that is used for retrieving email from an email server.
o Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Allows emails to be accessed using
multiple email clients.
• Network protocols
o Ethernet: Family of protocols that are used in wired LANs. Physical parts of a
network.
o Wi-Fi: A digital communications protocol that sets out how data is transmitted
on wireless LANs.
o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides a reliable connection between
computers.
o Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP): A protocol stack, a
collection of protocols that work together.

Layer
1) Application
The top layer of the stack. Layer which interacts with the user to provide access to services
and data is sent/received over a network.
2) Transport
This layer manages end-to-end communication over a network. There are two main protocols
that operate at this layer - TCP and UDP
3) Internet
This layer deals with sending data across multiple networks, from the source network to the
destination network.
4) Link
This layer controls the transmission and reception packets of data to/from a local network.
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HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Used when sending and receiving data between
web browsers and web servers.
HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): The secure version of HTTP.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used to transfer files over a network that uses TCP
protocol, such as the internet.
5.2 Network security
• Network security: Activities designed to protect a network and its data from threats
such as viruses, hacker attacks, denial of service attacks, data interception and theft.

Other ways to secure a network

1. Access control: This determines which users have access to which data, and
what they are allowed to do with it.
a) Read-only access-in this case, the user can open the file and read its
contents, but not modify the contents or delete the file.
b) Read and write access (modify access)- in this case, the user can read
the file, alter the contents and then save the changes.
2. Firewall: A network security system that monitor and control data that is moving
from one network to another. Firewalls can be software or hardware based.
Individual computers are likely to have a software firewall installed with some
default rules to protect computer from common threats. A business with a LAN
and internet connection is likely to have a hardware-based firewall.
3. Physical security: Controlling access to critical parts of a network using
physical methods rather than software.
• Authentication is the process of checking the identity of someone trying to use a
computer system.
• Cloud storage is storing data using a third party, usually in a system connected to the
internet.
1. Advantages of cloud storage
a) The cloud storage provider is responsible for the hardware your data is
stored on.
b) The amount of storage available to an organization can easily be
changed as and when required-the cloud storage provider can normally
make extra storage available in minutes.
c) Having data stored off-site (not on the organisations’ premises) means
that it is protected from loss due to fire, theft of computers/servers,
electrical failure, and so on.
d) Many cloud storage systems also manage the back-up of your data.

o Disadvantages of cloud storage

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a) Rely on a third-party storage provider to keep organization running.

b) Data stored anywhere accessible via the internet carried the risk of other
people gaining access to it.
c) Users of cloud storage have to assume that the people providing the
service are trustworthy and that their data is being held safely and
securely.
d) Access to cloud storage is dependent on having a reliable, high-speed
Internet connection available.
• NAS (network-attached storage)
1. NAS is a hardware device that is connected to a network to provide file storage
for any device connected to that network. A typical NAS device designed for
home use could consist of a single hard drive and associated network hardware,
while an organisation’s NAS device might consist of many hard drives and the
associated network hardware.
2. NAS device often includes a wide range of additional features, such as allowing
access over the Internet, and specialist apps to allow smartphones and tablets to
access the files stored on the NAS easily.
• USB (universal serial bus)
1. USB flash drives are easy to transport, relatively cheap for the amount of storage
available and very convenient to use.
2. The disadvantage is that people can carry large amounts of possibly sensitive
information around with them on a small drive that is easily lost. Anyone can
find a lost flash drive and access the information.

• A cyberattack is any kind of electronic attack on a computer system, server,

network or other IT device.

• Types of cyberattack
1. Social engineering . Attacks that rely on exploiting human behaviour are often
referred to as social engineering. Three common forms of social engineering are
phishing, shoulder surfing and pharming.
2. Technical weaknesses. Some common examples are described below.
a) Unpatched software. The patches to fix the security issues often have to
be manually installed by a technician. Sometimes these patches get
forgotten about or the organization doesn’t have any technicians to
install the patch. So. the software remains vulnerable.
b) USB devices. Any USB device can potentially be a security threat
because it might contain malware that could be transferred to system or
copy data to the attacker via the Internet.

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c) Eavesdropping. Eavesdropping means intercepting data being sent

to/from another computer system. Eavesdropping on a network is simply
reading data without actually copying or stealing it.
Security weaknesses such as unpatched software or a USB device might
allow malware to be installed on the network that allows an
eavesdropping attack to be carried out.
• Many different measures need to be taken to prevent cyber-attacks from being
successful. These start at the design stage of system and include keeping systems up to
date, training staff and proactively testing security if the network regularly.
• Other methods to reduce the chance of cyber attack succeeding.
1. Use and audit trail. An audit trail is a record of activities that have taken place
on a computer system, and which cannot be changed. The audit trail is
automatically generated and likely to be in chronological order.
2. Use secure operating system. When implementing a computer system that will
contain sensitive or confidential data, the choice of operating system must be
considered carefully.
3. Provide effective network security. Keeping a network secure requires effective
management, monitoring and training of its users.
• Identifying vulnerabilities
• Ethical hacking is essentially good hacking- it is looking for weaknesses in software
and systems so that they can be improved-while hacking is seen as bad if someone is
trying to gain access to a system to steal data or cause damage.
1. Penetration testing. Often shortened to pen testing is where the IT systems of
an organization are attacked to find any weaknesses. These attacks are
authorized by the organization and are therefore legal.
2. Commercial analysis tools. Commercial analysis tools or vulnerability
scanners can be either purchased or hired. These tools can only identify already
known vulnerabilities and must be kept up to date to be effective.
3. Review of network and user policies. Before an employee is given access to
the network, they should be given a copy of the network user policy to read and
sign to show they accept the organisation’s rules on the use of the network.

5.3 The internet and the World Wide Web

• Domain names. Domain names are used to identify one or more IP addresses. They
are more convenient to use and easier to remember than the four octets of binary number
such as bb.co.uk is 212.58.244.27
• Domain name service (DNS). Every time a user enters a domain name, a domain
name service (DNS) must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. The
DNS system is a network of servers. If one DNS server doesn’t know how to translate
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a particular domain, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct IP address is
returned to the user.

• The internet is a global network of networks. It is used to transfer data between

different computer systems.
• The internet has many different services running on top of it. Two common services are
the World Wide Web and email.
• The World Wide Web runs on top of the internet. Although people often mix the two
terms up, they are not the same.
• The web browser’s job is to convert the data received from a web server to a human-
readable format.
• IP addresses originally consisted of four 8-bit numbers (octets) for version addresses
(IPv4) and eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated by colons for (IPv6) version.

• Router
o A router is a piece of networking hardware that forwards packets between
networks. A router has a routing table that is essentially a list of rules stating
where to send packets for different destinations.

• Switch
o A switch is used to link the computers. They can read the destination addresses
and send them to only the intended computers rather than to all of them. They
can do this because they build up a table of all the addresses on the network.

• WAP (Wireless Access Point)

o WAP allow wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi. They
convert data they receive through cables into a wireless signal and vice versa.
They are similar to switch by cannot direct messages to particular devices they
transmit them to all.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
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• MODEM
o A modem is needed to convert the signals in a LAN, such as a home network,
into signals that can be transmitted along the cables provided by the Internet
Service Provider (ISP). To make setting up easier, modems are usually
combined with routers in a single box and referred to as an Internet router.

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M.C. Sc (Computer Security and Forensics), B.Ed., Diploma in IT
09-263557744