HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER

The computer as we know it today is most likely one of the great technological "triggers" for future
change. In the short period since the "invention" of the computer, its impact on our lives has been
felt in a variety of ways. From the workplace to the home, the computer is rapidly becoming an
indispensable tool. What is this device that has become so important, and how does it work? The
answers lie in the history of its development, as we shall study in this course.
1. EARLY HISTORY OF COMPUTER
The computer is relatively new but its development to its present stage is long. Computers were
developed as a result of man’s search for fast and accurate devices to do things easier. Historically,
Computer started as a mechanical counting and calculating devices, later as electromechanical
devices, and presently as digital electronic devices. The development takes place in three (3)
directions:
1. Miniaturization – reduction of computer in size to become smaller.
2. Speed – making computer to be faster
3. Affordability – cost reduction
The modern computer had its beginning with 19th century prominent devices which include Abacus,
slide rule, Napier’s bones, Difference Engine, Hollerith Tabulating Machine, and others.
The Abacus -2500 BC:
Abacus was the first known calculating machine used for counting. It was made of beads strung on
cords. The cords correspond to positions of decimal digits. The beads represent digits. Numbers are
represented by beads close to the crossbar. Abacus was mainly used for addition and subtraction and
later for division and multiplication.

Fig. 1.1: Abacus Fig. 1.2: The Slide Rule

The Slide Rule - 1633 AD:
The Slide Rule was invented by William Oughtred. It was based on the principle that actual distance
from the starting point of the rule is directly proportional to the logarithm of the numbers printed on
the rule. The slide rule is embodied by the two sets of scales that are joined together, with a marginal
space between them. The slide rule could perform multiplication and division by a method of
addition and subtraction and be used for calculating numbers raised to powers.
Napier’s Bones - 1614 AD
The Napier’s Bones was the first system of algorithm invented by John Napier, a Scottish
mathematician as an aid to a multiplication of large numbers. A set of bones consisted of nine rods,
one for each digit 1 to 9 and a constant rod for the digit ‘0’. A rod is similar to one column of a
multiplication table. John Napier invented the idea of logarithms (remember: if x = yz then logy
x = z) and used this concept to develop a device known as Napier’s bones that managed to reduce
the complexity of multiplication and division into the simpler operations of addition and subtraction.
He did this by taking advantage of the fact that if a number is expressed in exponential form,
multiplication can be carried out by adding the exponents (for example, 102 × 104 = 10(2+4), which is
a simplified calculation of 100 × 10,000).
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The Rotating Wheel Calculator - 1642 AD:
The Rotating Wheel Calculator called Pascaline was developed by a French philosopher, Blaise
Pascal, using simple components such as gears and levers. This is a predecessor to today’s electronic
calculator. He was only 19 years old when he devised this model. The machine has 6 wheels each
has a digit on it and 1 pointer. The first wheel to the right counted the units, the second 10s, the third
100s in that order.

Fig. 1.3: Napier’s Bones Fig. 1.4: The Rotating Wheel Calculator
The Difference Engine - 1822 AD:
The Difference Engine was built by Charles Babbage, the British mathematician, and engineer which
mechanically calculated mathematical tables. The machine contains all the necessary elements of a
modern computer and was very large. His Analytical Engine was the first machine able to receive
instructions in the form of holes in paper punch cards and hence is considered as the first
programmable machine. Also, the Analytical Engine was the first machine to support conditional
program execution. Although he spent all his fortune and worked for nearly 40 years on the project,
it was never completed. Babbage is called the father of today’s modern computer because his
machine formed the basis on which modern computers were made.
Sequel to this development, when Augusta Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace heard of Babbage’s idea for
a new engine. She suggested to Babbage a plan for how the engine might work. This plan is regarded
as the first computer program. So, Ada Lovelace was regarded as the first computer programmer.

Fig. 1.5: The Difference Engine Fig. 1.6: Hollerith Tabulating Machine
Hollerith Tabulating Machine - 1890 AD:
A tabulating machine using punched cards that worked on electricity was designed by Herman
Hollerith and was called the Hollerith Tabulating Machine. This electronic machine was able to read
the information on the punched cards and process it electronically. The tabulator was used in
processing census data of 1890 in the US by reading of holes on punched cards. Hollerith founded a
tabulating machine company that changed to International Business Machine (IBM) cooperation in
1924.
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2. THE 20TH CENTURY DEVICES:
In the 1920s and ’30s, several new types of calculators were constructed. Some of the prominent
20th-century devices are:
1. Differential Analyzer: Vannerver Bush, an American engineer, developed an analog computer
that he called a differential analyzer; the first calculator to solve differential equations, but its
lack of precision prevented wider adoption.
2. Harvard Mark 1: In 1944, Howard Aiken, in an attempt to develop the machine that could help
him in solving difficult differential equations, invented the Automatic sequence controller
calculator called Mark 1, the world's first computer. It was an electromechanical machine,
similar to Babbage’s engine in design and so was described as Babbage’s dream come true. Mark
1 was very huge based on relays and was not fast.
3. ENIAC: In 1946, the machine based on very high-speed vacuum tubes called Electronic
Numerical Integrator And Calculator [ENIAC] was invented by John W. Mauchly. It was faster
than Mark 1. ENIAC was described as the first general-purpose electronic computer and is often
chosen as the main representative of vacuum tube computers now refer to as first-generation
computers. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, weighed over 30 tons, occupied 1600 square
feet of floor space, and required 100 kilowatts of power. Heat dissipation was a problem and the
vacuum tubes were not very reliable; when one burned out, it had to be replaced. The ENIAC
was much faster than the MARK I, capable of arithmetic operations in fractions of a second. One
difficulty that the ENIAC and MARK I had was that their design used a decimal representation
of numbers. John von Neumann, based on an idea by Claude Shannon, proposed that binary
numbers would simplify the design of computers.
4. EDSAC: Subsequently, to improve on ENIAC, Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert developed a
binary rather than a decimal electronic computer and was a stored program machine called
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator [EDSAC] in 1949. EDSAC was based on
Veneman’s idea to improve speed and flexibility.
5. UNIVAC: In 1951, Eckert -Mauchly put into service, the world’s first commercial computer
called UNIVAC. It is a stored-program computer and handled numbers and alphabet characters.
Moreover, in 1958, the breakthrough in computer miniaturization occurred, when Jack Kilby
designed the first true integrated circuit, the major component of electronic circuitry. This enables
makers of computers to cram more hardware components into small space into their machines and
more data storage capacity.
Another evolution in microchips technology occurred in 1971 when Marcian E. combined the basic
elements of a computer on one tiny silicon chip, called a microprocessor. The personal computers;
desktops and laptops that we use today were invented in the 1970s.
3. GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
This occurs due to a change in technology used for building computers based on devices being used,
hardware organization, and programming languages used. At present we have six prominent
generations of computers. Every new generation has dramatic improvements that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate compared to the previous one. These helped to develop smaller,
cheaper, powerful, efficient, and reliable machines.
First Generation Electronic Computers (1937-1953)

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The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and
circuitry for Central Processing Unit [CPU]. These tubes consumed a large amount of electricity and
generate enormous heat that can cause the computer to malfunction.
The features of the first-generation computers are:
1. the vacuum tube is the basic components for memory and Central Processing Unit circuitry
2. very large normally taking up entire rooms and so non-portable
3. consume a large amount of energy
4. generate a lot of heat
5. low in reliability due to slow input and output devices
6. very expensive because the vacuum tubes used and so, only large organizations can afford it
7. had limited memory size
8. It used machine language or 0s and 1s only, subroutines, and assemblers.
Computers of this generation could only perform a single task at a time, and mainly batch processing
operating system was used. The input was based on punched cards, magnetic tape, and paper tape,
and output was displayed on printouts. The first multi-purpose, programmable, computing device
was probably Charles Babbage's Difference Engine, which was never completed. A more ambitious
machine was the Analytical Engine, designed in 1842, but unfortunately, it was only partially
completed by Babbage. Some computers of this generation were: abacus (3000 BC), Pascaline (17th
century), Punch cards (1890) for data input, output, and storage. UNIVAC, ENIAC, EDVAC, IBM-
701, IBM-650, are classic examples of first-generation computing devices.

Fig. 3.1a: Vacuum Tube b: First Generation Computer (1937-1953)

Second Generation of computers (1954-1962 ):
The second generation of computers witnessed the vacuum tubes being replaced by transistors. The
transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, more compact in size, energy-efficient, and more reliable than their first-generation
counterparts. The transistors also generated considerable heat that sometimes caused the computer
to malfunction. But it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers
used punched cards for input and printouts for output. Magnetic cores were used as the primary
memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation,
computers moved from the use of machine language to assembly language and high-level
programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating
system.

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 Fig. 3.2a: Transistor b: Second Generation computer (1954-1962 )
The features of second-generation computers are:
1. The invention of transistors which replaces vacuum tubes
2. The transistor made computers smaller, less expensive, and increased calculating speeds.
3. Consumed less electricity as compared to first-generation computers
4. Generated less heat as compared to first-generation computers
5. Reliable in comparison to first-generation computers
6. Supported machine and assembly languages
Memory technology was based on magnetic cores which could be accessed in random order
Some computers of this generation were: IBM 1620, TADIC, IBM 704, IBM 7030, IBM 7094, CDC
1604, CDC 3600, UNIVAC 1108.
Third Generation of computers (1963-1972):
The computers of the third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) invented by Jack Kilby in place
of transistors. Transistors were made smaller in size and placed on silicon chips, which dramatically
increased the speed, efficiency, reliability of computers and made computers smaller in size. A single
IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. In this
generation, keyboards and monitors were used instead of punched cards and printouts. The
computers were interfaced with an operating system that allowed remote processing, time-sharing,
and multi-programming. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
BASIC, ALGOL-68, etc.) were used during this generation
The features of third-generation computers are:
1. hundreds of transistors were replaced by integrated circuits(IC) on a silicon chip (LSI
and VLSI)
2. This made computers even smaller and faster
3. Consumed lesser electricity
4. Generated less heat
5. More reliable in comparison to the previous two generations
6. Costly with lesser maintenance
7. Supported high-level languages such as BASIC, Pascal, C, COBOL, and Fortran
Some computers of this generation were: IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, PDP (Personal
Data Processor), IBM-370/168, TDC-316, Intel 4004, Intel 8008, etc.

Fig. 3.3a: Integrated Circuit b: Third Generation computer (1963-1972)

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Fourth-generation computers (1972-1984):
Fourth-generation computers used Large scale integrated circuits [LSI] and Very Large Scale
Integrated [VLSI] circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements
with their associated circuits on a single silicon chip made it possible to have microcomputers of the
fourth generation. They are more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave
rise to the Personal Computer (PC) revolution, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. In this generation, time-sharing, real-time networks, distributed operating system were used.
All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE, etc., were used in this generation.
The features of the fourth generation are:
1. used Silicon Chips (Large scale integrated circuits)=LSI and VLSI
2. Very small size, entire processors will fit onto a single chip (microprocessor)
3. Very cheap, easily available, Portable, and reliable
4. The concept of the internet was introduced with great developments in the fields of networks
5. Pipeline processing and No AC required
Some important events were: the development of the C programming language and the UNIX
operating system, inventions of word processors, video games, laser printers, inkjet printers,
spreadsheets, cell phones, Walkman, MS-DOS.
Some computers of this generation were: DEC 10, STAR 1000, PDP 1, CRAY-11(Super Computer),
CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer), APPLE 1, IBM PC, MACINTOSH, etc.

Fig. 3.4a: Microprocessor b: Fourth generation computers (1972-1984)

Fifth Generation computers (1983-1990):
In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology,
resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This
generation is based on parallel processing hardware, allowing many processors to work on different
parts of a single program, and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in
computer science, which interprets the means and methods of making computers think like human
beings. AI includes Robotics, Neural Networks, Game Playing, Development of expert systems to
make decisions in real-life situations, Natural language understanding, and generation, etc.
All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net, etc., are used in this generation, and CD-
ROM, Windows programs, first 3D video games were invented.
The features of fifth-generation computers are:
1. Based on ULSI technology due to advancement in Superconductor technology
2. The devices are based on true artificial intelligence and are still in their developmental stage
3. Development of Natural language processing to bridge the gap between computing and
thinking.
4. Advancement in Parallel Processing
5. More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
6. Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
7. use more than one CPU for faster processing speed.
8. solve the highly complex problem including decision making, logical reasoning.

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Some computer types of this generation are Desktop, Laptop, NoteBook, UltraBook, ChromeBook,
IBM PC-AT, Intel 80486, video toaster, etc.

Fig. 3.5: IBM PC-AT 1984

Sixth Generation computers (1990-till date):
Many of the developments in computer systems since 1990 reflect gradual improvements over
established systems. These significant changes represent a transition to a new ``generation'' the six-
generation. Some of the popular inventions are WWW, HTML, Web TV, DVD, YouTube, etc.
Examples of computers in this generation are: Power Book by apple (1991), Pentium
microprocessors by Intel (1993), Sun Ultra workstation (1996), and many more like core processor,
etc.
4. WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
A Computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its memory
unit, that can: accept data (input), manipulate the data according to specified
rules (process), provide information (output) in a useful format, and store the results for future use.
It is a kind of electronic machine that assists mankind to solve different types of problems. It can
also be regarded as an automatic machine capable of processing the data and producing the
information.

Fig. 4.1: A typical computer

Data: It is the collection of unstructured facts, figures & symbols that have not been processed by
humans or with a computer, from which information and knowledge are derived.
Example: Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random order.
Information: It is the data that is processed and presented in an organized manner.
Example: When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and average marks
are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information.
Program: Set of instructions that enable a computer to perform a given task.
Processing: is the method of converting the input data into the required output form with the help
of the computer program and hardware.
Functionalities of a Computer
Any digital computer works as an Input-Process-output system and carries out the following
functions/operations in sequence:
1. Input: Takes data as input and command from the input device to the computer.
2. Processing: it Processes the data and converts it into a useful format.
3. Output: it generates the output which is displayed by the computer to the user, either hard copy
or soft copy.
4. Storage: it Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required inside or outside
the computer.
5. Control all the above four steps.
Advantages of Computers
The following are certain advantages of computers.
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 1. High Speed: The computer is a very fast device that can perform millions of calculations in a
few seconds (in a microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond) as compared to a man.
2. Accuracy: Computers perform thousands of operations with 100% accuracy provided that the
input is correct.
3. Storage Capability: A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings, that can
store a large amount of data in small space such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
4. Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer can perform jobs for a long time obediently, free
from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
5. Versatility: It can be used to solve multiple (tedious) tasks in various domains at the same time.
6. Reliability: A computer does exactly what it is told to do without human intervention.
7. Automation: A computer is an automatic machine that can perform a given task automatically
under the control of a stored program.
8. Communication: A computer can connect to share resources.
9. Power: the larger the word length of a computer the more powerful it becomes
10. Paperless processing: data can be processed using computers instead of papers
Disadvantages of Computers
Though computers are intelligent machines:
i. No I.Q. A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
ii. It cannot correct any wrong instruction fed in by an operator, it is Garbage-In-Garbage-out
iii. Dependency: It functions unless programmed; thus, it is fully dependent on humans.
iv. A computer cannot decide how they are to be programmed or provide input.
v. A computer cannot implement their decisions or interpret their results. A child can easily tell the
difference between a cat and a sheep while a computer cannot.
vi. No Feeling: Computers have no feelings or emotions and so cannot make judgments based on
feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge, unlike humans.

5. COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS

A computer is made up of two constituents: hardware and software.
The term hardware refers to all of the physical devices, or components, that a computer is made of.
A computer is not one single device, but a system of devices that all work together. A typical
computer system consists of five major categories of hardware components (devices): Processing
devices, Secondary storage devices, Input devices main memory, and Output devices

Fig. 5.1: Computer hardwares

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The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually, it's a rectangular box that houses many
electronic components that process information. The most important of these components is the
central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer.
Processing devices: These are the devices in the processing unit to interpret instructions, process
data, and control the other devices. They include CPU, ALU, control unit, and main memory.
The CPU: The central processing unit, or CPU, is the part of a computer that runs programs. The
CPU consists of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the control unit.

Fig 5.2: CPU

ALU: It is where all arithmetic operations and logical functions are performed.
The Main Memory / Primary Memory Units: It stores data, program instructions, internal results,
and final output temporarily before it is sent to an appropriate output device. They are:
✓ RAM (Random Access Memory) - Active, temporary.
✓ ROM (Read-only Memory) - Permanent
RAM is a temporary storage device or primary workspace that stores information that the CPU uses
while the computer is on. RAM is a memory that does not hold its contents without power. ROM is
a special type of memory that can only be read and contents of which are not lost even when the
computer is switched off. It typically contains the manufacturer’s instructions and ‘bootstrap loader’
whose function is to start the computer software operating, once the power is turned on.
Input Devices: The component that collects the data and sends it to the computer is called an input
device. They allow you to enter data, programs, commands, and user responses into a computer.
Common input devices are the keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, and digital camera. Disk
drives and optical drives can also be considered input devices because programs and data are
retrieved from them and loaded into the computer’s memory.
Keyboard: This is a peripheral device used to enter data, feed information to the system, or to
communicate with the system. When you press a key on the keyboard, the action sends a signal to
the system processing unit, the signal can make the character you typed appear on the screen, or it
trigger a response based on the command issued by your input.

Fig 5.3: Types of Keyboard

a. 101 Key enhanced keyboard: It has one hundred and one keys on it.
b. 104 Key windows keyboard: It has one hundred and four keys on it.
c. Ergonomic keyboard: Normal keyboard
d. Multimedia keyboard: provide media control to play mp3, CD, DVD.
e. Cordless keyboard: The cordless keyboard is run on battery
Features of a Keyboard
 Alphanumeric key: a-z, 0-9, punctuation keys, all keys associate with punctuation keys,
parenthesis.
 Virtual keys: (arrow keys, function keys)
 Modifier or command keys: [SHIFT, Alternate (ALT), and Control (CTRL)] keys are special
keys that modify the action of another key when pressed together.

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Each key on a standard keyboard has one or two characters. Press the key to get the lower character
and hold Shift to get the upper characters.
Some keyboard keys and their functions
i. Enter key- to begin the next line, paragraph, or tell the computer to obey a command
ii. Space bar- to insert spaces between words
iii. Backspace – to delete characters to the left of the cursor
iv. Caps lock- to notify the computer when to type upper case and when to type lower case letter
v. Shift key – to type symbols located on the keyboard with two symbols on then
The mouse: is an input device that is used to send messages (instructions) from the user to the
computer system (applications packages). Most modern computers today have two buttons the left
one is used to select objects and text and the right one is used to access menus.
Laptop computers use touchpads, buttons, and other devices to control the pointer. Hand-held use a
combination of devices to control the pointer, including touch screens.
A mouse performs the following functions
 A mouse can be used to select icons on the Desktop
 A mouse can be used to select commands in software applications.
 It can be used to open a program, a folder, or a file.
 A mouse can be used to move icons representing programs, folders, or files on the screen.

Fig 5.4: Examples of Mouse

The most common mouse actions are as follows:
a) Pointing b) Clicking c) Double-clicking d) Right-clicking
e) Dragging and dropping f) Highlighting/selecting
Scanner: This is an input device, used to produce electronic copy (soft copy) of a hard copy (text or
image) document. Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A
scanner 'scans' the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time, and transfers it to the
computer as a sequence of bits or a bitmap. The scanner does not recognize the content of the printed
material it is scanning. Everything on the page (text and graphics objects) is converted into one
bitmapped graphics image (bitmap), which is a pattern of dots.

Fig. 5.5: Scanner

Bar Code Reader: The barcode readers are used in places like supermarkets, bookshops, etc. A bar
code is a pattern printed in lines of different thickness. The bar-code reader scans the information on
the barcodes and transmits it to the computer for further processing. The system gives a fast and
error-free entry of information into the computer.

Fig.5.6: Bar Code and Reader

Digital Camera: The digital camera is an input device mainly used to capture images, sound, or
video. The digital camera takes a still photograph, stores it, and sends it as a digital input to the
computer. It is a modern and popular input device.

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 Fig. 5.7: Digital Camera
Light Pen: A light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a monitor. The tip
of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element that, when placed against the screen, detects the
light from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen.

Fig. 5.8: Light Pen

Light pens have the advantage of ‘drawing’ directly onto the screen, but this can become
uncomfortable, and they are not accurate.
Touch Sensitive Screen: Touch Sensitive Screen is a type of display screen that has a touch-
sensitive panel. It is a pointing device that enables the user to interact with the computer by touching
the screen. You can use your fingers to directly touch the objects on the screen and the screen senses
the touch and communicate the object selection to the computer.

Fig. 5.9: Touch Sensitive Screen

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): MICR is widely used by banks to process cheques.
Human readable numbers are printed on documents such as cheque using special magnetic ink. The
cheque can be read using a special input unit, which can recognize magnetic ink characters. This
method eliminates manual errors. It also saves time, ensures security and accuracy of data.

Fig. 5.10: MICR Cheque

Magnetic Reader: Magnetic reader is an input device that reads a magnetic stripe on a card. It is
handy and data can be stored and retrieved. It also provides quick identification of the card’s owner.
All the credit cards, ATM cards (banks), petro cards, etc. stores data in a magnetic strip which can
be read easily by the magnetic reader

Fig. 5.11: Magnetic Reader

Optical Character Recognition (OCR): The OCR technique permits the direct reading of any
printed character like MICR but no special ink is required. With OCR, a user can scan a page from
a book. The computer will recognize the characters on the page as letters and punctuation marks, and
stores. This can be edited using a word processor.

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 Fig. 5.12: OCR Sheet
Optical Mark Reading and Recognition (OMR): In this method, special pre-printed forms are
designed with boxes that can be marked with a dark pencil or ink. Such documents are read by a
reader, which transcribes the marks into electrical pulses that are transmitted to the computer. They
are widely used in applications like objective type answer papers evaluation in which a large number
of candidates appear, timesheets of factory employees, etc.

Fig. 5.13: OMR Reader

Smart Cards: This input device stores data in a microprocessor embedded in the card. This allows
information, which can be updated, to be stored on the card. These data can be read and given as
input to the computer for further processing. Most of the identification cards use this method to store
and retrieve vital information.

Fig. 5.14: Smart Cards

Notes Taker: Notes taker is a device that captures natural handwriting on any surface onto a
computer. Using an electronic pen, the notes taker displays the user’s handwritten notes, memos, or
drawings on the computer, and stores the image for future use.

Fig. 5.15: Notes Taker

Microphone: The microphone serves as a voice input device. It captures the voice data and input to
the computer. Using the microphone along with speech recognition software can offer a completely
new approach to input information into your computer.
Speech recognition programs, although not yet completely exact, have made great strides inaccuracy
as well as ease of use. The voice-in or speech recognition approach can almost fully replace the
keyboard and mouse. Speech recognition can now open the computer world to those who may have
been restricted due to a physical handicap

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 Fig. 5.16: Microphone
Output Devices: Output is anything that comes out of a computer. An output device is capable of
presenting information from a computer. There are many output devices attached to computers. But
the monitors and printers are commonly used output devices. Disk drives and CD recorders can also
be considered output devices because the system sends data to them to be saved
Monitors: The monitor is a commonly used output device, sometimes called a Visual Display
Unit(VDU). It provides a visual display of data. Monitors are connected with the computer and are
similar in appearance to a television set.

Fig. 5:17 a) CRT Monitor b) LCD Monitor c) Laptop screen

The monitors work like a television screen and also look alike. Most desktop computers use a monitor
with a cathode-ray tube or liquid crystal display. Most notebooks use a liquid crystal display
monitor. CRT is a vacuum tube used as a display screen in a video terminal or TV. CRT has higher
radiation, consumes more energy to operate, and it also big compare with LCD. LCD is a flat panel
display that uses liquid crystals.
Although almost exclusively used in laptops, LCD technology is also the most popular flat panel
desktop monitors. With their low power consumption, low radiation, and space-saving footprint, flat
panels are expected to eventually become the standard and gradually replacing the CRT.
The screen resolution can be adjusted by the user to control the screen's display. The smallest dot
that can be displayed is called a pixel (picture element). The number of pixels that can be displayed
vertically and horizontally gives the resolution of the monitor. The resolution of the monitor
determines the quality of the display. Some popular resolutions are 640 x 480 pixels, 800 x 600
pixels and 1024 x 768 pixels. A resolution of 1024 x 768 pixels will produce a sharper image than
640 x 480 pixels
Printers: The printer is an output device that prints text or images on paper or other media. By
printing, you create what is known as a ‘hard copy’. There are different kinds of printers, which vary
in their speed and print quality. The two main types of printers are impact printers and non-impact
printers.

Fig. 5.18 Types of Printers

Impact printers include all printers that print by striking an ink ribbon. Impact printers use a print
head containing several metal pins that strike an inked ribbon placed between the print head and the
paper. Line printers, dot matrix printers are some of the impact printers.
Characteristics of Impact Printers
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1. In impact printers, makes physical contact with the paper to produce an image
2. Due to being robust and low cost, they are useful for bulk printing and printing multiple copies
3. They are mechanical and tend to be slow, very noisy, and do not support transparencies.
Non-impact printers are much quieter than impact printers as their printing heads do not strike the
paper. Non-impact printers include laser printers, inkjet printers, and thermal printers.
Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers
1. Non-impact printers are faster than impact printers because they have fewer moving parts.
2. Have the ability to change typefaces automatically but cannot print multipart forms.
3. These printers usually support the transparencies and can produce high-quality graphics
Line Printer: Line printers are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at a time. A line
printer can print 150 lines to 3000 lines per minute. The limitations of line printer are they can print
only one font, they cannot print graphics, the print quality is low and they are noisy to operate. But
it can print a large volume of text data very fast compared to the other printers. It is also used to print
on multipart stationaries to prepare copies of a document.

Fig. 5.19a) Line Printer b) Dot Matrix c) Thermal Printer d) Laser Printer e) Inkjet Printer
Dot Matrix Printer: The most popular serial printer is the dot matrix printer. It prints one line of 8
or 14 points at a time, with the print head moving across a line. Dot-matrix printers work like a
typewriter transferring ink from a ribbon to paper with a sequence or 'matrix' of tiny pins. They are
normally slow. The printing speed is around 300 characters per second. It uses multipart stationaries
to prepare copies of a document.
Thermal Printer: Thermal printers are printers that produce images by pushing electrically heated
pins against special heat-sensitive paper. They are inexpensive and used widely in fax machines and
calculators. Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due to exposure to sunlight and heat.
So, the printed matters on the paper fade after a week or two. It also produces a poor-quality print.
Laser Printers: Laser printers use a laser beam and dry powdered ink to produce a fine dot matrix
pattern. It can produce a very good quality of graphic images. One of the chief characteristics of laser
printers is their resolution – how many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down. The available resolutions
range from 300 dpi at the low end to around 1200 dpi at the high end.
Inkjet Printers: Inkjet printers use colour cartridges that combine magenta, yellow and cyan inks
to create colour tones. A black cartridge is also used for crisp monochrome output. Inkjet printers
work by spraying ionizing ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the ink’s path direct the ink
onto the paper in the described shape.
Speakers: The computer is an electromechanical device that produces voice output(audio data).
Speaker serves as a voice output device. Using speakers along with speech synthesizer software, the
computer can provide voice output. Voice output has become very common in many places like
airlines, banks, automatic telephone inquiry system, etc. Users can also hear music/songs using the
voice output system.

Fig. 5.20: Speakers

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Plotters: Apart from the output devices like printers, plotters are also used to produce graphical
output. Although printer output is very convenient for many purposes, the user needs to present the
information graphically to understand its significance.
Projector: A projector is an optical output device that takes (projects) images or slides generated by
a computer onto a projection screen. This surface or a projection screen, may be white screen or
sometimes a wall. The advantages of are; Projectors may be used as a cheaper alternative to a
television or monitor in large gatherings e.g. in schools, and at home to see the movies etc. The
applications of Projectors include:- (a) could be used to demonstrate a presentation on a big screen
in a classroom or a conference room for describing a topic, (b) in Companies for meeting and
conference purposes etc.

Fig. 5.21: Projector

Storage Devices
The computer may need to store data, programs, etc. in a computer-readable medium. This is called
secondary storage. Secondary storage is a type of memory that can hold data for long periods, even
when there is no power to the computer. Programs are normally stored in secondary memory and
loaded into main memory as needed. Important data, such as word processing documents, payroll
data, and inventory records, is saved to secondary storage as well. Secondary Memory is also termed
as ‘auxiliary’ or ‘backup’ storage, it is typically used as a supplement to main storage. It is much
cheaper than the main storage and stores a large amount of data and instructions permanently.
Hardware devices like magnetic tapes, Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Optical disks, Compact Disk (CD),
Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), and Blu-ray Disc (BD) fall under this category.
The average time required to reach a storage location and obtain its contents is called its access time.
In electromechanical devices with moving parts such as disks and tapes, the access time consists of
a seek time required to position the read-write head to a location and transfer time required to transfer
the data to or from the device.
Hard Disk: Hard disk is a magnetic disk with high speed rotating surfaces coated with a magnetic
recording medium, on which you can store computer data. The hard disk is a direct-access storage
medium to store and retrieve data randomly. When writing data, a write head magnetizes the particles
on the disk surface as either north or south poles. When reading data, a read head converts the
magnetic polarisations on the disk surface to a sequence of pulses. The read and write heads are
generally combined into a single head unit. There may be more than one read/write head. Data is
arranged as a series of concentric rings. Each ring (called a track) is subdivided into several sectors,
each sector holding a specific number of data elements (bytes or characters).

Fig. 5.22: A track subdivided into sectors

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The smallest unit that can be written to or read from the disk is a sector. Once a read or write request
has been received by the disk unit, there is a delay involved until the required sector reaches the
read/write head. This is known as rotational latency, and on average is one half of the period of
revolution.
The storage capacity of the disk is determined as (number of tracks * number of sectors * bytes
per sector * number of reading/write heads) Thus, the data is stored as magnetized spots arranged
in concentric circles (tracks) on the disk. Each track is divided into sectors. The arrangement of tracks
and sectors on a disk is known as its ‘format’.
High data rates demand that the disk rotates at a high speed (about 3,600 rpm). As the disk rotates
read/write heads move to the correct track and fetch the desired data.

Fig. 5.23: Hard Disk Drive

The storage capacity of a hard disk can be Gigabytes (GB), i.e. thousands of Megabytes of
information.
Magnetic Tape: A recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic
strip, used for recording digital data. The tape itself is a strip of plastic coated with a magnetic
recording medium.

Fig. 5.24: Magnetic Tape Reader

Data is stored in frames across the width of the tape. The frames are grouped into blocks or records
which are separated from other blocks by gaps. Magnetic tape is a serial access medium, similar to
an audio cassette, and so data cannot be randomly located. This characteristic has prompted its use
in the regular backing up of hard disks.
Floppy Disk: The floppy drive uses a thin circular disk for data storage. It is a thin, soft magnetic-
coated disk contained in a flexible or semi-rigid protective jacket. The disk rotates at 360rpm. A
read/write head makes physical contact with the disk surface. Data is recorded as a series of tracks
subdivided into sectors.
The floppy disks are usually 3.5" in size and can hold 1.44 MB of data. Once data is stored on a
floppy disk it can be ‘write protected’ by clicking a tab on the disk. This prevents any new data from
being stored or any old data is erased. Disk drives for floppy disks are called floppy drives. Floppy
disks are slower to access than hard disks, have less storage capacity, less expensive, and are portable
and accessed randomly.

Fig. 5.25: Floppy Disk

Optical Disk: Optical disks are a storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written
by lasers. The optical disk is a random-access storage medium; information can be easily read from
any point on the disk. CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read-Only Memory.
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Fig. 5.26: Compact Disk
It is now possible to have CD-ROMs where tracks of information can be written onto them by the
user. These are called read/write CD-ROMs and these are becoming a popular and cheap method for
storage.
Removable Storage and/or Disk Drives - All disks need the drive to get information read - and put
information on the disk - or write. Each drive is designed for a specific type of disk whether it is a
CD, DVD, hard disk, or floppy.

Fig 6.27: Storage devices

Hard disks store the majority of information on today's modern computer. Information can be stored
and deleted as necessary. As files get larger the speed that hard disks can read and write becomes
more important.
Digital flash drives work slightly differently as they use memory cards to store information so there
are no moving parts. Digital cameras also use Flash memory cards to store information, in this case,
photographs. Handheld devices use digital drives and many also use removable or built-in memory
cards.
6. COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software refers to various kinds of programs used to operate computers and related devices to causes
the Hardware to function in the desired way. The software needs to be accessed before it can be used.
There are many terms used for the process of accessing software including running, executing,
starting up, opening, and others. The basic difference between the Hardware and Software is just the
same as that exists between TV and TV studio. Without a TV studio (software) from where the
programs are telecast, the TV (Hardware) is a dead machine.
Software Categories: Software can be classified into two categories:

Fig. 6.1: Software Categories

System Software: System software is the collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer. These programs provide the environment to run
the application programs and are a necessity for proper functioning. Users do not interact with the
system software as it works in the background. The three major classes of system software are;
1. Operating System
2. Translators
3. Utility programs

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 Fig. 6.2: System Software
Utility Software: Utility software, designed to manage the operating system, support the computer
hardware, and directly performing services that benefit ordinary users. Utility software helps to
manage, maintain, and control computer resources. Some have been integrated into Operating
systems such as file manager, disk cleaner, backup, disk petitioner, launcher applications, network
managers, etc.
Antivirus software, as the name suggests, helps to protect a computer system from viruses and other
harmful programs.
Backup software helps in the creation of a backup of the files on your hard disk drive of a computer.
Backup software helps you copy the most important files on a disk and use it to restore the entire
disk in the event of data failure of the selected file in the event of accidental deletion.
Translators: Computers can understand instructions only when they are written in their language,
the machine language. Translator a program designed to translate instructions written in any other
language into machine language so that computers can execute them. Their translators are;
compilers, assemblers, and Interpreters.
7. OPERATING SYSTEM (OS):
The most important type of system software is the operating system. An operating system is an
integrated set of specialized programs that are used to manage the overall operations of a computer.
It serves as the interface between the computer hardware, the software, and the end-user, and allows
a user to run other applications on a computing device. The primary goals of the O. S. are mainly to
optimize resources and providing a user-friendly environment. It acts as manager of resources such
as CPU time, memory space, file storage, I/O devices and allocates resources among the various
programs optimally competing for them. Every computer must have an operating system to run other
programs and ensure that available resources are equally shared. Examples of Operating Systems are
Mac-OS, MS-DOS, UNIX, Windows O.S. LINUX, Apple Macintosh, and Android O.S.
Windows O.S. is an operating system with a graphical user interface (icons, pictures, and menus)
instead of text; uses a mouse as well as a keyboard as an input device)
The Versions are Windows 98, Windows Me, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows
XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, Windows 7, etc.
O. S. programs: O. S. consists of several programs. They are categorized into control programs for
managing resources and service programs for providing services.
Scheduling strategies
While executing a job, the OS reads the next job from memory into a storage area on the disk and
outputs a printout of a previous job from disk to the printer. Spooling allowed the CPU to choose a
particular job for execution leading to the concept called Job Scheduling. Scheduling is the method
by which processes are given access to system resources. The strategies used are:
1. Multiprogramming system: In multiprogramming, memory is divided into many partitions.
The O. S. keeps two or more processes that are runnable in memory simultaneously by sharing
a single processor. It selects a job from the ready state and starts executing it. When that job
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 needs to wait for some external event the CPU is switched to another job to maximize CPU
usage(eliminate idle time). Multiprogramming allows many programmers to load their programs
in different partitions.
2. Time-sharing: Multiprogramming was followed by the time-sharing concept. In Time-sharing,
the running task is required to relinquish the CPU, either voluntarily or by an external event to
another task. This is to allow several programs to execute simultaneously. This is known as a
multitasking system. It is a method by which multiple processes share common processing
resources by switching between them with a fixed time for each program. In the next cycle, the
program that had been considered earlier was taken once again. This process continued until all
the programs were executed. A computer with a single CPU uses multitasking to solve problems
by scheduling which task may run at any given time and when another waiting task gets a turn.
The act of reassigning a CPU from one process to another is called a context switch. Context
switch involves two processes one leaves the running state and another enters the running state.
A computer with more than one CPU is called a multiprocessing system it is where multiple
processors run multiple processes at the same time, which creates physical parallelism.
3. Major Features of the Operating System: based on the number of users, and O. S. can
be Single user: only one user can operate the system at a time e.g. MS-DOS. Multi-user
O.S.: More than one user can operate the same system simultaneously and is based on the
concept of time-sharing e.g. Unix O.S.
Functions of Operating System:
Today, most operating systems perform the following important characteristics:
1. Process management: It controls the jobs submitted to the CPU. Several algorithms are used to
allocate the job to the processor e.g. First In First Out; based on queuing, Shortest Job First: select
the process that has the shortest expected processing time. Round Robin: Jobs are assigned
processor time in a circular method; Based On Priority: In this method, each job is assigned a
Priority
2. Memory management: It Keeps track of the primary memory, to check what part is in use, by
whom, what part is not in use, etc. It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage
areas to the system programs as well as user programs and data when a process or program
requests it.
3. Device (I/O) management: It manages the coordination and assignment of different Input and
Output devices while one or more programs are executed. Only the O. S. is empowered to instruct
the hardware to make an allocation or de-allocation, which process gets the device, when, and
for how much time.
4. File management: It allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use of text
editors or some other file manipulation routines.
5. Job scheduling: It determines and maintains the order in which jobs are to be executed in the
computer system.
6. Interpretation of commands and instructions.
7. Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator
8. Monitor performance: it supervises records delays between the request for a service and from the
system.
9. Security Management: The O. S. provides some levels of securities to the user like the File
access, System-level, and Network level to safeguard against unauthorized access. To access the
files created by other people, you should have the permission, password in a multi-user
environment.

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8. APPLICATION SOFTWARE:
An Application Software consists of programs designed to solve a user problem in a particular area.
Users interact with the application software while doing their different activities. It is used to
accomplish specific tasks rather than just managing a computer system. Such as a program to list
stock items for a particular shop, or a program designed to give a forecast of the weather; the list is
endless. These programs are written in different languages such as BASIC or C or by using database
packages like dBase, Oracle. Example: Payroll, Billing, Railway Reservation, etc. Application
software is in turn, controlled by system software that manages hardware devices. Application
software is classified into customized applications and general-purpose application programs.
The General-Purpose Application Programs: These packages are developed to suit the needs of
research workers /scientists in different fields. These packages are categorized as Word
processor (typing letters), Spreadsheet (financial info), Database (inventory control and address
book), Data Analysis, Graphics program, Internet Browser, Email, and many others, etc. The
commonly used Application Software packages are a word processor, spreadsheet, database
management system, and graphics.
Word processing software. This software enables you to create, edit, format, store and print text
and graphics. Word processors are used in offices (to prepare letters, memos, project reports,
minutes), in publishing (books), by journalism (media houses to produce newspapers and
magazines), and in education (to prepare test and study materials). Some of the commonly used word
processors are Microsoft Word, WordStar, WordPerfect, word pad, etc.
Some Basic Features of word processors
Word processors provide the following basic features:
Insert text: Allows you to insert text anywhere in the document.
Delete text: Allows you to erase characters, words, lines, or pages unlike crossing out on paper.
Cut and paste: Allows you to remove a part of the text from one place in a document and insert it
somewhere else.
Copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.
Page size and margins: Allows you to define various page sizes and margins, and the processor will
automatically readjust the text so that it fits.
Search and replace: Allows you to search for a particular word or phrase and replace it with another.
Word wrap: The word processor automatically moves to the next line once the current line is full
Print: Allows you to send a document to a printer to get a hardcopy.
Spreadsheet software is the computer equivalent of a paper worksheet to organize numeric data in
a tabular form. It provides many Mathematical, Financial & Statistical functions, used in many
businesses, scientific and engineering environments for analyzing data, calculations, organizes data
in tabular form, and creation of graphics and charts. A spreadsheet consists of a grid made from
columns and rows. Examples of spreadsheet programs are: Lotus 1-2-3, Corel's QuattroPro, MS
Excel
Database Applications: A Database is a collection of related information about a particular subject
(person, place, or thing) stored in a way that can easily be accessed, managed, and updated. Such as
Computerized banking system, Automated Teller Machine, Airlines, and Railway reservation
system, etc., are some of the database applications. The common Characteristics of Database
include: Self-describing, Data exists permanently, multiple users can access the same data, and Data

20
security protects the data from unauthorized access with the help of the passwords. Many software
is used as Database Management Systems. Example: MS-Access, ORACLE, MySQL, etc.
Relationship between Hardware and software
1. Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other.
2. Both of them must work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
3. The software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
4. Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
9. TYPES OF COMPUTER.
Classification of the electronic computers may be based on either their principles of operation or
their configuration. By configuration, we mean the size, speed of doing computation, and storage
capacity of a computer. Computers can be broadly classified by their size, speed, and computing
power (performance) into; i) microcomputers ii) Minicomputers iii) mainframe computers and iv)
supercomputers.
1. Micro Computers
These are the smallest range of computers having less storing space and processing speed. They are
also called “computer of a chip” because its entire circuitry is contained in one tiny chip also called
a microprocessor or CPU. These computers are also known as “Personal Computers”. Businesses
use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use of personal
computers is playing games and surfing the Internet. A microcomputer is further categorized into the
following types: -
a) Workstations b) Desktop c) Tablet PC d) Laptops e) PDAs

a) Workstation: Workstation is desktop computers used for engineering or graphic applications;

Computer-Aided Design (CAD), desktop publishing, software development, and other high-
quality graphics capabilities. They have more processor speed than that of personal computers,
high-resolution graphics screen, a large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, a graphical
user interface, and have mass storage device such as a disk drive.

Fig. 9.1: Workstation

b) Desktops (Personal Computer): PCs are single-user portable machines easier to use and more
affordable than workstations. Desktop computers are small enough to fit on top of a desk, yet
they are too big to carry around. These machines are used for word processing, spreadsheets
(excel), and small database applications. At home, the most popular use of personal computers
is playing games and surfing the Internet. Examples: Dell, Hewlett-Packard, Compaq Presario,
etc.

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Fig.9.2: Personal Computer
c) Tablet PC is a kind of microcomputer that offers the newest development in portable computers.
It is designed to function more like a portable writing tablet including handwriting recognition,
voice, and fingerprint authentication.

Fig.9.3: Tablet computers

d) Laptops: also called notebook computers are similar in operation to desktops, laptop
computers are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an
external adapter that charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard,
touch-pad acting as a mouse, and a liquid crystal display (LCD) as a screen. Its portability and
capacity to operate on battery power have served as a boon for mobile users. Laptop computers
can be fit into a bag or briefcase but it more expensive than desktop computers. Examples: HP,
Dell Inspirons, Apple, etc.

Fig. 9.4: Laptop Computer

c) Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer known as a palmtop or
smartphones. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data, used as portable audio
players, and smartphones. Most of them can access the Internet using Bluetooth or Wi-Fi
communication and it has communication capabilities. Examples: RIM’s Blackberry.

Fig. 9.5: Personal Digital Assistants

2. Minicomputer: It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously. They are lower to mainframe computers, in terms of speed and storage capacity, and
cost.

Fig. 9.6: Minicomputer

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3. Mainframe: The mainframe is are expensive, very large, and capable of supporting even
thousands of users simultaneously. They are used to process a large amount of data quickly at very
high speeds (million instructions per second). Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous executions of programs at banks, airlines, and railway reservation
systems, aerospace companies doing complex aircraft design, etc.

Fig. 9.7: Mainframe

4. Supercomputer: Supercomputers are the mightiest, the fastest yet, the most expensive computers
currently available. Supercomputers process billions of instructions per second and are employed for
specialized applications that require an immense amount of mathematical calculations. For example,
weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear
energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (petrochemical prospecting), stock
analysis, special effects for movies, and even sophisticated artworks.

Fig. 9.8: Supercomputer

Classification based on Principles of Operation
Based on the principles of operation, computers are classified into three types; analog computers,
digital computers, and hybrid computers.
Analog Computers: Analog Computer is a computing device that works on a continuous range of
values. The analog computers give approximate results since they deal with physical quantities that
vary continuously. It generally deals with physical variables such as voltage, pressure, temperature,
speed, etc. the analog devices include a barometer, speedometer, fuel dispenser, mustimeter, etc.
Digital Computers: On the other hand, a digital computer operates on digital data such as numbers.
It uses a binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1. Each one is called a bit.
The digital computer is designed using digital circuits in which there are two levels for an input or
output signal. These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1. Digital Computers can give results
with more accuracy and at a faster rate. Hence digital computers have increasing use in the field of
design, research, and data processing.
Digital computers are made for both general purpose and special purpose. A special-purpose
computer is one that is built for a specific application. General-purpose computers are used for any
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type of application. It can store different programs and do the jobs as per the instructions specified
in those programs. Most of the computers that we see fall into this category.
Hybrid Computers: A hybrid computing system is a combination of desirable features of analog
and digital computers. It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes
and machines. Nowadays analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are used for
transforming the data into a suitable form for either type of computation.
For example, in the hospital’s automated intensive care unit, analog devices might measure the
patient’s temperature, blood pressure, and other vital signs. These measurements which are in analog
might then be converted into numbers and supplied to digital components in the system. These
components are used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and send signals if any abnormal readings
are detected. Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized tasks.
10. AN OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Computers are often compared to human beings since both can accept data, store, work with it,
retrieve and provide information. The main difference is that human beings can perform all of these
actions independently. While a computer requires a program to perform an assigned task.
A Computer system is a set of physical equipment (hardware) and appropriate programs (software)
logically connected and working together to meet the desired need. The hardware components
include input devices, processors, storage devices, and output devices. The software items are
programs and operating aids (systems) so that the computer can process data.

Fig. 10.1: Components of a computer system

In a nutshell, if you use a desktop computer as an example you might already know that there is no
single part called the “computer.” A computer is a system of many parts working together. The
physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. Software, on the other
hand, refers to the instructions, or programs.
Functional Units of a Computer System
A computer system consists of five major categories of hardware components (devices):
1. Processing devices ii) Primary memory iii) Secondary storage devices iv) Input devices
2. Output devices
Input devices: A computer uses input devices to accept the data and program. Input devices allow
communication between the user and the computer e.g. keyboard, mouse, light pen, touch screen,
etc.,
Output devices: These devices take machine coded output results from the processor and convert
them into a form that can be used by human beings e.g. monitors and printers.
Processing devices: CPU is the brain of any computer system that takes all major decisions, and all
sorts of calculations. It consists of arithmetic and logic units, control unit, and internal memory

24
(registers). The control unit of the CPU coordinates the action of the entire system. The Control Unit
controls all the hardware operations. The arithmetic and logic units performing addition, subtraction,
division, and multiplication as well as some logical operations. The instructions and data are stored
in the main memory (RAM) so that the processor can directly fetch and execute them. While between
any two components of the computer system, there is a pathway called a bus which allows for the
data transfer between them.
Memory devices: The computer stores the program and data that are currently being used in the
main memory (RAM). The main memory holds data and programs only temporarily. Secondary
storage devices can hold more storage than the main memory and are much less expensive.
11. ROLES OF COMPUTERS IN A SOCIETY:
In this digital age of information technology, it has become a necessity for everyone to know about
computers. This is based on the fact that the problems that we must solve are no longer solvable
without the aid of computers. The application of computers in the society has led to many changes
in education, government, health, homes, industry, law, medicine, scientific research, social service,
and even arts like music, movies, and paintings
Computers at home: Many homes have multiple computers used for Internet communication,
shopping, business, entertainment, schoolwork, and finances.
Business: A computer has a high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility
which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations for; payroll calculations, budgeting,
sales analysis, financial forecasting, managing employee database, maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking: Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers. Online accounting facilities,
including checking current balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges,
shares, and trustee records are computer-based. ATMs that are completely automated are making it
even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance: Insurance companies, finance houses, and stockbroking firms are widely using
computers for maintaining a database of all clients with information showing: procedure to continue
with policies, starting date of the policies, next due instalment of a policy, maturity date, interests
due, survival benefits and bonus
Education: Computer literacy is required at all levels in providing a lot of facilities in the education
system. The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education) which involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning. It is used to prepare a
database about the performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.
Marketing: Computers are used in marketing for advertising and selling more products.
Healthcare: Computers have become an important part of hospitals, labs, and dispensaries, to keep
the record of patients and medicines and to diagnose different diseases. Such as:
• Diagnostic System to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
• Patient Monitoring System to check the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest,
• Pharma Information System to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
• Surgery is used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design: Computers are widely used for engineering purposes. Such as:
• Structural Engineering for the design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.

25
 • Industrial Engineering for design, implementation, and improvement of integrated systems
of people, materials, and equipment.
• Architectural Engineering for planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military: The military employs computerized control systems in defines. Modern tanks, Missile
Control, Military Communication, Military Operation and Planning, and Smart Weapons are
computer-based.
Communication: Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech by the
sender to the person for whom it is meant. A computer helps in transmitting the message via E-mail,
Chatting, Usenet, FTP, Telnet teleconferencing (conference call) and Video-conferencing
Government: Governments are the first computer users as they play an important role in
government services. Such as Budget planning, Sales tax calculation, Income tax department, track
data for population, Computerization of voters lists, and Weather forecasting, Police officers,
dissemination of policies, etc.
12. COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS
When two or more PCs are connected using communication devices, messages can be sent and
received. A stand-alone computer communicates very efficiently by connecting it with other
computers. Data in a computer is transmitted to another computer located across continents almost
instantaneously using a telephone, microwave, or radio links. The long-distance communication link
between a computer and a remote terminal was set up around 1965. Now networking has become a
very important part of computing activity.
Computer Network: A system consisting of connected nodes made to share data, hardware, and
software is called a computer network. Networks are interconnected by copper wire, fibre optic cable,
microwave, and infrared or through satellite. Some important reasons for networking are: to share
resources, share information, and communicate.
Intranet and Extranet
Many organizations have a Local Area Network that allows their computers to share files, data,
printers, and other resources. An intranet is a computer network within an organization that is
accessed by the employees and others with authorization. All the Internet services such as web pages,
email, chat; UseNet and FTP are provided on the intranet to serve the organization. The sensitive
company data available on the intranet is protected from the outside world. The intranet connecting
selected customers, suppliers, and offices in addition to the internal personnel, is called an extranet.
By using extranet business organizations can save telephone charges. For example, a manufacturing
company can extend its intranet to its dealers and customers for support and service.
Applications of Network: The areas where computer networks are employed are; Electronic data
interchange, Tele-conferencing, Cellular telephone, Cable Television, Financial services, marketing
and sales, Reservation of Airlines, trains, Theatres and buses, Telemedicine, ATM, and Internet
banking.
Types of Networks: Depending on the geographical location, networks can be classified as
1. Local Area Network (LAN): a network confined to a single location like office, home, café, etc.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). a network that links more than one LAN. e.g. within a city.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN): a network that covers wide areas such as cities, states, countries,
or continents e.g. Computers in different branches of a Globalised company, Internet, etc.

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Common Network Services: The following common network services are available, file services,
print services, massage services, and application services
Co-ordinating Data Communication: The device that coordinates the data transfer is called a
Network interface card (NIC). NIC is fixed on the computer and the communication channel is
connected to it. Ethernet, Arcnet, and token ring are the examples for the NIC. The protocol specifies
the procedures for establishing maintaining and terminating data transfer. In 1978, the International
Standards organization (OSI) provided a network architecture with seven layers, that helps to
communicate between Network of dissimilar nodes and channels.
Forms of Data Transmission: Data is transmitted in two forms: Analog data transmission which
transmits data in a continuous waveform. While Digital data transmission is the widely used
communication system in the world which is faster and more efficient than analog.
13. INTERNET, ONLINE RESOURCES, BROWSERS, AND SEARCH ENGINES
1) INTERNET
A network is a group of two or more computer systems linked together. The Internet is the largest
computer network in the world, connecting millions of computers. The Internet is a global system of
interconnected computer networks that carries a vast range of resources and services. It is a network
of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by networking technologies. Anyone connected to
the Internet can reach, communicate, and access information from any other computer (host sites)
connected to it.
Unlike online services, which are centrally controlled, the Internet is decentralized by design. Each
Internet computer, called a host, is independent. A Host a computer that allows websites to be located
on the Internet. The description of a host's location on the Internet is called a domain name. Internet
operators can choose which Internet services to use and which local services to make available to the
global Internet community. Remarkably, this anarchy by design works exceedingly well. There are
a variety of ways to access the Internet. Most online services offer access to some Internet services.
It is also possible to gain access through a commercial Internet Service Provider (ISP) that provides
new ways of accessing, interacting, and connecting with people and content. As a result, new terms
are constantly appearing as new technologies are introduced.
Who Governs The Internet?
No one owns the Internet, and no single person or organization controls the Internet in its entirety.
The Internet is more of a concept than an actual tangible entity, and it relies on a physical
infrastructure that connects networks to other networks. However, there are voluntary organizations
like Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) that promote global
information exchange and administers the domain name registration to avoid a name that is already
registered.
Connecting a computer to the Internet: Before loading a web site, you first need to connect to the
internet.
Requirements for connecting to the Internet:
a) Hardware: i) Modem: A modem is a communications device that allows a computer to connect
and communicate with other computers through telephone lines. Modem stands for Modulator
Demodulator. Once you have your computer, the primary hardware you need to connect to the
internet is a modem. The type of internet access you choose will determine what type of modem
you need. Dial-up access uses a telephone modem, DSL service uses a DSL modem, cable access

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 uses a cable modem, and satellite service uses a satellite adapter. Your ISP may give you a
modem (often for a fee) when you sign a contract with them, which helps to ensure that you have
the right kind of modem.

Fig. 13.1: a) A DSL modem b)A wireless rout

ii) Router: A router is a hardware device that allows you to connect several computers and other
devices to a single internet connection, which is known as a home network. Many routers
are wireless, that forward data between nodes on a wireless network. Many modems now include
a built-in router. Most routers also act as a hardware firewall, which helps prevent people from
gaining access to your computer through the internet.
iii)A network card is a hardware that allows computers to communicate over a computer network.
Modern computers have a network card built into the motherboard, so it, not something you will
need to purchase. The network card will either have an Ethernet port, a wireless connection,
or both. You can access the internet at any place that offers a Wi-Fi connection with any computer
with a wireless connection.

Fig. 13.2 Network Card

iv. Computers
b) Web Browser: A browser is a software program that is used to view web pages on the web. E.g.
Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, etc.
c) Telephone line: A telephone line is required to transfer data from one computer to another. The
computer is connected to a modem, which, in turn, is connected to a telephone line. such as
ISDN, 56K leased lines, and T-1 connections
d) Subscription with an Internet service provider (ISP): ISP‘s are companies that provide access
to the internet at different levels of speed based on your needs. We need a subscription with any
ISP to get an Internet connection. If you are mainly using the internet for e-mail and social networking,
a slower connection might be all you need, but if you want to download a lot of music or watch streaming
movies, you'll want a faster connection. Some of the ISPs are AT&T WorldNet: Microsoft Network:
America Online: In India: VSNL (Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited, MTNL (Mahanagar Telecom Nigam
Limited), BSNL (Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited), Satyam Online, etc.
e) Communication Software: Communication software is of two types: software that helps establish
basic internet connectivity and software that helps to browse, access e-mail, etc.
f) Protocols: These are set of formal rules describing how to transmit or exchange data across a network.
The factors to consider, to connect to the Internet are how much speed (bandwidth) you need, where
you live and internet service, wireless internet (Wi-Fi), home networking, or mobile phone internet
access.

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Choosing an Internet Service Provider: You can determine which ISPs are available in your area
that offer the type of internet access you want to purchase. Such as Talk to friends, family members,
and neighbours to see what ISP they use.
You have to consider the Speed, Price, Ease of Installation, Service Record, Technical Support,
Contract Terms. When you register with an ISP the following are given: Username (a unique name
that identifies you), Password-secret code that prevents other people from using your account, and
E-mail address- A unique address that you can send or receive E-mails.
Access telephone number - Internet users can use this number to connect to the service provider.
Fig.13.3b shows dialog boxes on the computer screen wherein the user name (Govt. Higher
Secondary School, Chennai -600 003 abbreviated as a ghssch3), a password (alphanumeric of word
length 8 characters appearing as ‘x’) and access telephone number are entered. By clicking on the
dial button, the modem establishes a connection with the ISP

Fig.13.3: Dialogue Box a and b for Connecting to the Internet

There are two ways to look for information on the Web. If the URL of the website is known, enter it
on the address bar (Fig.13.4).
If the URL is not known, then ‘Search Engines’ will help us to get the information. Search Engines
are tools that allow the user to find a specific document through keywords or menu choices. Some
of the popular Search engines are Yahoo, Lycos, AltaVista, Hotbot, Google, and Askjeeves.

Fig.13.4: Entering the URL

Internet Explorer helps to use the net with the navigation buttons (Fig.6.12) on the toolbar

Fig. 13.5: Navigation Buttons

1. Back button: This button helps to go back to the previous link. The small triangle adjacent to it
displays a dropdown list of several recently used pages. Instead of pressing the back button several
times, select a page from the list.
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2. Forward button: This is similar to the back button. One can jump forward by one page or several
pages.
Popular uses of the web
Research: The web provides research materials from libraries, research institutions, encyclopaedia,
magazines, and newspapers.
Some sample sites www.encarta.com the Internet Public Library site www.ipl.com and the Library
of Congress www.loc.gov.
Chatting: Some websites proved chat rooms to interact with an individual or a group.
Free-wares: Some sites provide a free download of software, tutorials, and benchmarks.
Education online: Educational institutions offer courses via the web. Students can attend and
interact in a class from home using a computer.
Online services: Online shopping, online booking for travel, and entertainment managing
investments are the upcoming areas of the Internet that reach every home.
Job searches: The digital revolution is changing everything it touches and the job market is no
exception. Several web sites are assisting people in finding internships, jobs, and helps companies
to fill job vacancies. There are sites relating to specific jobs and professions also.
Some of these sites charge a fee for the services while others are free.
14. MAJOR FEATURES/ TERMINOLOGIES ON THE INTERNET:
1. The World Wide Web: It refers to the interconnection of sites all over the world that store
information in multimedia form, accessible on the internet. The web is similar to a library, and it
consists of billions of pages of hypertext documents (text, pictures, sounds, and animation) on
various topics stored on different computers on the internet. Each page is called a web page.
The WWW is a virtual network of web sites connected by hyperlinks (links). Web sites a
series of interconnected servers on the internet also called a subset of the Internet.
2. Hypertext: is the text displayed on a computer with references (hyperlinks) to other text, tables,
images, and other presentational devices, that the reader can immediately access, usually by a
mouse click.
3. Hyperlinks: These are words or pictures that help to move from one page to another on the Web.
They indicate the link to other sites.
4. Web Site: A group of related web pages linked together is known as a web site. The first page
of the website is called a Home page. The Home page usually contains information about the
site and links to other pages on that site.
5. Uniform Resource Locator( URL): is a unique address that specifies the exact location of the
web page on the internet. An example of a URL is https:// www.country-watch.com/India
where http – identifies the protocol necessary to retrieve file
www – indicates that the site is on the world wide web
country-watch - indicates the name of the web site
.com – indicates the domain type of the web site
/India – specifies the path of the file stored on the web server’s hard disk.
6. HTTP: The WWW support a protocol called HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP). This
protocol is meant for transferring the web files over the text-based internet. The www portion of
the address stands for “world wide web” and the next part country watch. com is the domain
name. Generally, the domain name will be followed by a directory path, and the specific
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 document address separated by slashes. Searching for information on the Internet is called surfing
or browsing. To browse the Internet, a software called a web browser is used.
7. HyperText Mark-up Language(HTML): is the special language used to design a web page.
HTML transmits a graphically designed web page with pictures, embedded sound, and
animation.
8. File Transfer Protocol(FTP): is an Internet utility software used to uploaded and download
files from one computer to another. It gives access to directories or folders on remote computers
and allows software, data, and text files to be transferred between different kinds of computers.
FTP works based on the same principle as that of Client/ Server. FTP “Client” is a program
running on your computer that enables you to communicate with remote computers. The FTP
client takes the FTP command and sends these as requests for information from the remote
computer known as FTP servers.
9. A web browser: is software used for retrieving resources on the World Wide Web. The
browser's main job is to access web sites and display web pages. It also lets you
create Bookmarks (Favourites) for sites you like so that you can easily find them again later.
Computer use to come with a browser preinstalled. A browser can exist without search engines.
Examples of web browsers are Safari, Firefox, Google Chrome, or Opera, Internet Explorer and
Netscape Navigator.
10. Search engines are specialized programs that help you find exactly what you're looking for on
the Web. It provides a user interface were to enter one or more keywords, and the search engine
will look for matching web sites from all over the Web and returns the results. A search engine
needs a web browser to display its results. Some commonly used search engines are Google,
Yahoo! MSN, Alta Vista, search, Infoseek, etc. A browser is programmed to browse webpages,
while a search is to search and filter websites.

11. Web server: This is a program that responds to requests from web browsers to retrieve
resources.
Comparison of browsers and search engines
Web Browser Search Engine
Can exist without a search engine It needs a web browser
Browse web pages and web sites Searches and filters websites
Application locally installed Software system running on the Internet Source
Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Safari, etc. Google, Yahoo, Bing, NATE, DuckDuckGo, etc.

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15. BROWSING THE WEB/INTERNET
Reading information contained in the Web Pages on the Internet using browsers is called
web browsing. To browse, enter the address of the website or address of any search engine in the
address bar of the browser. If the address entered is a website then the corresponding webpage will
get displayed. If the address is of a search engine then the webpage of the corresponding search
engine will get displayed in Fig. 15.1.

Fig. 15.1: Web browser home page

In the ‘search tab’ enter the phrase you want to search tab. Then click the Search tab. A set of pages
with the links to the webpages which contain information about your phrase in fig. 15.2

Fig. 15.2: A page with the links to other webpages

 Clicking any links desired will take you to those webpages.
 To return to the last page you visited, click the Back button on the browser toolbar.
 Click the Forward button to retrace your steps
 To see one of the last nine pages you visited in this session, click the tiny black arrow to the right
of the Back or Forward button, and then click the page you want from the list.
16. APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET (ONLINE RESOURCES)
Some of the important services provided by the Internet are:
Electronic mail: E-mail is the most popular reason people use the Internet. Email is the fastest and
one of the first means of communication for sending or receiving messages electronically on the
Internet. With email, one can transmit text, data, software, and graphics as an attachment. There are
several web sites on the internet that provide free email services. Such as Gmail, Hotmail, and yahoo.
Discussion Groups: This is an email service that provides functions such as voting, and file
uploading. Newsgroups are discussion groups that facilitate Internet users to discuss, debate, or
share any topic as they are connected to the internet.
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FTP: File transfer service allows Internet users to access remote machines and retrieve software,
games, photos, maps, music, and such other relevant materials. The process of receiving a file from
the webserver to your computer is called downloading while sending files from your computer to a
web server is called uploading.
Telnet: Telnet is a special service that lets you use one computer to access the contents of another
computer a telnet host. A telnet program creates a “Window” into the host so you can access files,
issue commands, and exchange data. Telnet is widely used by libraries to allow visitors to look up
information, find articles, and so on.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC): IRC is a service that allows users to communicate in real-time by typing
text in a special window. Like news, there are hundreds of IRC “channels” each devoted to a subject,
user group, or chat room discussions using MSN, yahoo websites, etc.
Video conferencing/teleconferencing: These are technologies that allow two or more locations to
interact via 2-way video or audio transmission simultaneously.
Today, there are many other ways to communicate online, including social networking, chat, VoIP,
and blogging.
Uses of Internet
The internet is not just about finding information but it also help to connect with friends, family, and
people for personal and professional lives developments. The internet helps us achieve these in
several different ways, including social networking, chat, VoIP, Intelligent Personal Assistants, and
blogging.
1. E-commerce (Business & Commerce): On the Internet, services like internet banking, mobile
banking, instant money transfer, online shops, online markets. Some many online stores and
sites can be used to look for products as well as buy them using your credit card. You do not
need to leave your house and can do all your shopping from the convenience of your home. It
has got a real amazing and wide range of products from household needs, electronics to
entertainment.
2. Entertainment: The Internet provides the facility to access a wide range of Audio/Video songs,
plays films. Many of which can be downloaded. One such popular website is YouTube.
3. Software Downloads: You can freely download innumerable, software like utilities, games,
music, videos, movies, etc. from the Internet
4. Blogs: You can create your blog and share your thoughts, knowledge, or interests that you’re
passionate about with the world on the Internet. There are many sites like blogger.com and
wordpress.com that let you create a blog for free. You don’t need any web design experience
5. Career and Employment: Students and graduates use social networks to network with
professionals for internship and job opportunities. Even the professionals like doctors, access
the internet to filter the necessary information for their use.
6. Education and educator support services: For online lecture delivery, certificate
programmes, testing, virtual libraries, educational collaborations, etc. For the students and
educational purposes, the internet is the largest encyclopedia widely used to gather information
to do the research or add to the knowledge of various subjects.
7. News and broadcasting: For distribution of audio and video content to a dispersed audience
via radio, television, or digital transmission media. As internet technology is always changing,
the ways in which we access it also continue to change. TV, radio media, and the internet used
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 to be completely separate things, with today's technology you can now connect to the internet
and watch TV shows or listen to online radio from all over the world.
8. Online Social Network: Social networking has become one of the main ways people keep in
touch to share interests and activities. Below are a few of the most popular social networking
sites:
 Facebook, Instagram, Myspace: used by about one billion people for media sharing. If you
have family or friends that live far away, you can use them to keep up with their lives. You can
also share things you've found online that interest you. The internet has been useful in
maintaining contacts with friends and relatives who live abroad permanently.
 Twitter lets you share brief messages (tweets) and discussion with the entire world, or with
just your circle of friends. By following people with similar interests, you can discover new
things that you wouldn't have found otherwise.
 YouTube: video sharing
 LinkedIn is a site that you can use for business networking. It allows you to connect with
other people in your field and find out about new job opportunities.
 Chat and Instant Messaging: These programs allow you to have conversations with your
friends or just write them a quick note. Examples are Yahoo! Messenger and Microsoft
Messenger. Some sites, such as Gmail and Facebook, allow you to chat within your
browser.
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): allows you to have telephone service through your
internet connection.
 Some services also let you do video conferencing, such as Skype and Facebook Video
Calling, WhatsApp & Viber tec. For instant messaging: Many of these services are free or
very inexpensive, and some people use them as a replacement for a landline, or just to save
minutes on their mobile phones.
 On Internet, you can simply talk to your device's intelligent personal assistant program such
as setting up reminders.
17. ELECTRONIC MAIL:
E-mail is a paperless method of sending messages, notes, or letters from one person to another at the
same time via the Internet. An E-mail has all features of standard mail delivery implemented in it
and is very fast compared to the normal post. E-mail messages usually take only a few seconds to
arrive at their destination. One can send messages at any time of the day or night, and, it will get
delivered immediately. You need not wait for the post office to open and you don’t have to get
worried about the holidays. It works 24 hours a day and seven days a week. What’s more, the copy
of the message you have sent will be available whenever you want to look at it even in the middle of
the night. You have the privilege of sending something extra such as a file, graphics, images, etc.
along with your e-mail. The biggest advantage of using email is that it is cheap, especially when
sending messages to other states or countries and at the same time it can be delivered to several
people around the world.
It allows you to compose a note, get the address of the recipient, and send it. Once the mail is received
and read, it can be forwarded or replied. One can even store it for later use or delete it. In e-mail,
even the sender can request for delivery receipt and read the receipt from the recipient. The message
sent to anyone resides in the mailbox till it is opened.
Features of E-mail:
• One-to-one or one-to-many communications
• Instant communications
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 • The physical presence of the recipient is not required
• Most inexpensive mail services, 24-hours a day and seven days a week
• Encourages informal communications
Components of an E-mail Address
To receive emails, you will need an email account and an email address. Also, if you want to send
emails to other people, you will need to obtain their email addresses. It's important to learn how to
write email addresses correctly because if you do not enter them exactly right, your emails will not
be delivered or they might be delivered to the wrong person. The email address provides all of the
information required to get a message to the recipient from anywhere in the world. An E-Mail address
consists of three parts.
a. The person‘s Login name - the user name of a mail domain that will translate to the recipient's
host
b. @ sign - '’at' symbol
c. something .com, .net, or .org - Domain name of organization, network, and country name
Creating Email: To create, send, and receive e-mail messages you need an e-mail program and an
account on an Internet mail server with a domain name. The users can have an email account in any
of the email services such as Gmail, yahoo mail, rediffmail, etc.
To create an email account in any one of these email services the user needs to enter the address of
the service in the browser first. The service will prompt the user to know whether a new user or not.
If you are a new user then the service will guide step by step to create your own email id. Most e-
mail addresses are set up like this:

or
In the above example, joshuajoy is the username of the person who will be sending/receiving the
email. Yahoo is the mail server where the username joshuajoy has been registered and com is the
type of organization on the internet which is hosting the mail server.
Using Email: Once you have an account set up, select the option that says something like "new e-
mail message" or "create a new message".

Fig. 16.1: Login

The service will prompt with three boxes (called fields):
• To: - field type the complete e-mail address of the person who will receive the email. E.g.
• Subject: - topic
• Body: - message
• Attachments: - Click the Attachment link to add files to the message.
Once filling all the required fields and attaching files to the message click the Send button to send
the message. You can forward (make a copy of ) a message you receive from someone (if you have
their permission if necessary) and mail it to someone else with the forward option.
CC and BCC: CC stands for carbon copy. If you want to send a message to multiple people, add
the extra people in the CC: field (usually you separate their e-mail addresses by commas).

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BCC stands for blind carbon copy. BCC works just like a carbon copy; except the e-mail addresses
you type in BCC do not show up to the other recipients. (Example: You send a message To Mary
and BCC: Joe. Joe will see Mary's e-mail address, but Mary won't see Joe's e-mail address because
you "blinded" it by putting it in the BCC field.)

Fig. 16:2: Sending the message

Advantages of Email
Productivity Tools: Email is usually packaged with a calendar, address book, instant messaging,
and more for convenience and productivity.
Communicate with Multiple People: You can send an email to multiple people at once allowing
you the option of having a conversation with several people or sending out a message to a hundred.
Easy Mail Management: Email service providers have tools that allow you to file, label, prioritize,
find, group, and filter your emails for easy management.
Access to Web Services: If you want to sign up for accounts like Facebook, or order products from
services like Amazon, you will need an email address, so you can be safely contacted.
Private: Your email is delivered to your own personal and private account with a password required
for accessing and viewing emails.
Access Anywhere at any time: You don't have to be at home to get your email. You can access
it from any computer or mobile device that gets an internet connection.
Some Advantages (benefits) of the Internet
1) Online Banking: It offers chances to make bank transactions quick and safe.
i. Online shopping: it is a powerful source of online shopping.
ii.E-commerce: It is now an essential communication tool in business for the buying and selling
of products and services.
2) Electronic communication: It promotes effective and efficient communication.
3) Information exchange: Information is the biggest advantage internet is offering. Information
about every subject, ranging from government law and services, trade fairs, conferences,
markets, etc. are available. News, of all kinds, is available almost instantaneously.

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4) Powerful search engines: You can almost find any type of data on almost any kind of subject
that you are looking for by using search engines like google, yahoo, MSN, etc.
5) Video conference: Platform for products like SKYPE, which allows for holding a video
conference with anyone in the world who also has access.
6) Emails: The internet provides free mail service to anyone with an email account on the Internet.
7) Virtual library: Ability to do research from your home versus research libraries (online).
8) Message boards: where people can find others that have a similar interest in whatever they are
interested in and discuss their interest to get a wide range of opinions. Friendships and love
connections have been made over the internet by people with similar interests.
Disadvantages/ Limitations of the Internet:
1. Theft of Personal information: Hackers can use the internet for identity steal. Electronic
messages sent over the Internet can be easily tracked, revealing who is talking to whom and what
they are talking about. Personal information such as name, address, credit card, bank details, and
other information can be accessed by unauthorized persons.
2. Virus threat: Today, not only humans getting viruses, but computers get viruses from the
Internet. Hackers can create viruses that can get into your personal computer and ruin valuable
data. A virus is a program that disrupts the normal functioning of your computer systems.
Computers attached to the internet are more prone to virus attacks and they can end up crashing
your whole hard disk.
3. Spamming: This is an act of sending unsolicited emails. Most spam is commercial advertising,
often for dubious products or get-rich-quick schemes.
4. Fake information: There is a lot of wrong information on the internet. Anyone can post
anything, and much of it is garbage.
5. Internet addiction: Some people are getting addicted to the internet and thus causing problems
with their interactions with friends and loved ones.
6. Pornography: Pornography is also a very serious issue concerning the Internet, especially when
it comes to young children.
7. Easy to waste a lot of time on the internet. You can start surfing, and then realize far more time
has passed than you realized.
8. The Internet has a lot of "cheater" sites.
9. There are a lot of dishonest businesses that have sprung up on the internet to take advantage of
people.

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