Module 3

Data is a collection of facts, figures, objects, symbols, and events gathered from different
sources. Organizations collect data with various data collection methods to make better decisions.
Without data, it would be difficult for organizations to make appropriate decisions, so data is collected
from different audiences at various points in time.

For instance, an organization must collect data on product demand, customer preferences, and
competitors before launching a new product. If data is not collected beforehand, the organization’s
newly launched product may fail for many reasons, such as less demand and inability to meet
customer needs.

Although data is a valuable asset for every organization, it does not serve any purpose until analyzed
or processed to get the desired results.

What are Data Collection Methods?

Data collection methods are techniques and procedures used to gather information for research
purposes. These methods can range from simple self-reported surveys to more complex experiments
and can involve either quantitative or qualitative approaches to data gathering.

Some common data collection methods include surveys, interviews, observations, focus groups,
experiments, and secondary data analysis. The data collected through these methods can then be
analyzed and used to support or refute research hypotheses and draw conclusions about the study’s
subject matter.

Importance of Data Collection Methods

Data collection methods play a crucial role in the research process as they determine the quality and
accuracy of the data collected. Here are some mejor importance of data collection methods.

• Determines the quality and accuracy of collected data.

• Ensures that the data is relevant, valid, and reliable.

• Helps reduce bias and increase the representativeness of the sample.

• Essential for making informed decisions and accurate conclusions.

• Facilitates achievement of research objectives by providing accurate data.

• Supports the validity and reliability of research findings.

The importance of data collection methods cannot be overstated, as it plays a key role in the overall
success and validity of the research study.

Types of Data Collection Methods

The choice of data collection method depends on the research question being addressed, the type of
data needed, and the resources and time available. You can categorize data collection methods into
primary methods of data collection and secondary methods of data collection.
Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data is collected from first-hand experience and is not used in the past. The data gathered by
primary data collection methods are specific to the research’s motive and highly accurate.

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two categories: quantitative
methods and qualitative methods.

• Quantitative Methods:
Quantitative techniques for market research and demand forecasting usually use statistical
tools. In these techniques, demand is forecasted based on historical data. These methods of
primary data collection are generally used to make long-term forecasts. Statistical methods
are highly reliable as subjectivity is minimal in these methods.

• Time Series Analysis: The term time series refers to a sequential order of values of a variable,
known as a trend, at equal time intervals. Using patterns, an organization can predict the
demand for its products and services for the projected time.

• Smoothing Techniques: In cases where the time series lacks significant trends, smoothing
techniques can be used. They eliminate a random variation from the historical demand. It
helps in identifying patterns and demand levels to estimate future demand. The most
common methods used in smoothing demand forecasting techniques are the simple moving
average method and the weighted moving average method.

• Barometric Method: Also known as the leading indicators approach, researchers use this
method to speculate future trends based on current developments. When the past events are
considered to predict future events, they act as leading indicators.

Qualitative Methods:

Qualitative data collection methods are especially useful in situations when historical data is not
available. Or there is no need of numbers or mathematical calculations.
Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feeling, emotions, colors, and other
elements that are non-quantifiable. These techniques are based on experience, judgment, intuition,
conjecture, emotion, etc.

Quantitative methods do not provide the motive behind participants’ responses, often don’t reach
underrepresented populations, and span long periods to collect the data. Hence, it is best to
combine quantitative methods with qualitative methods.

• Surveys: Surveys are used to collect data from the target audience and gather insights into
their preferences, opinions, choices, and feedback related to their products and services. Most
survey software often has a wide range of question types to select.

You can also use a ready-made survey template to save time and effort. Online surveys can
be customized as per the business’s brand by changing the theme, logo, etc. They can be
distributed through several distribution channels such as email, website, offline app, QR code,
social media, etc. Depending on the type and source of your audience, you can select the
channel.
 Once the data is collected, survey software can generate various reports and run analytics
algorithms to discover hidden insights. A survey dashboard can give you statistics related to
response rate, completion rate, filters based on demographics, export and sharing options,
etc. Integrating survey builder with third-party apps can maximize the effort spent on
online real-time data collection.

• Polls: Polls comprise one single or multiple-choice question. You can go for polls when it is
required to have a quick pulse of the audience’s sentiments. Because they are short in length,
it is easier to get responses from people.

Like surveys, online polls can also be embedded into various platforms. Once the respondents
answer the question, they can also be shown how they stand compared to others’ responses.

• Interviews: In this method, the interviewer asks the respondents face-to-face or by

telephone. In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer asks a series of questions to the
interviewee in person and notes down responses. If it is not feasible to meet the person, the
interviewer can go for a telephone interview. This form of data collection is suitable for only
a few respondents. It is too time-consuming and tedious to repeat the same process if there
are many participants.

• Delphi Technique: In delphi method, market experts are provided with the estimates and
assumptions of forecasts made by other experts in the industry. Experts may reconsider and
revise their estimates and assumptions based on the information provided by other experts.
The consensus of all experts on demand forecasts constitutes the final demand forecast.

• Focus Groups: In a focus group, a small group of people, around 8-10 members, discuss the
common areas of the research problem. Each individual provides his insights on the issue
concerned. A moderator regulates the discussion among the group members. At the end of
the discussion, the group reaches a consensus.

• Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a printed set of questions, either open-ended or closed-

ended. The respondents must answer based on their knowledge and experience with the
issue. The questionnaire is a part of the survey, whereas the questionnaire’s end goal may or
may not be a survey.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is the data that has been used in the past. The researcher can obtain data from
the data sources, both internal and external, to the organization.

Internal sources of secondary data:

• Organization’s health and safety records

• Mission and vision statements

• Financial Statements
 • Magazines

• Sales Report

• CRM Software

• Executive summaries

External sources of secondary data:

• Government reports

• Press releases

• Business journals

• Libraries

• Internet

The secondary data collection methods can also involve quantitative and qualitative techniques.
Secondary data is easily available and hence, less time-consuming and expensive than primary data.
However, with the secondary data collection methods, the authenticity of the data gathered cannot
be verified.

The secondary data collection methods can also involve quantitative and qualitative techniques.
Secondary data is easily available, less time-consuming, and more expensive than primary data.
However, with the secondary data collection methods, the authenticity of the data gathered cannot
be verified.

Regardless of the data collection method of your choice, there must be direct communication with
decision-makers so that they understand and commit to acting according to the results.

For this reason, we must pay special attention to the analysis and presentation of the information
obtained. Remember that these data must be useful and functional to us, so the data collection
method used has much to do with it.

Questionnaires: The ultimate guide, advantages & examples

What is a Questionnaire?

A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of prompts
that aims to collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is typically a mix of close-
ended questions and open-ended questions.

Open-ended, long-form questions offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts.
Research questionnaires were developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London.

The data collected from a data collection questionnaire can be both qualitative as well as quantitative
in nature. A questionnaire may or may not be delivered in the form of a survey, but a survey always
consists of a questionnaire.

Advantages of a good questionnaire design

 • With a survey questionnaire, you can gather a lot of data in less time.
• There is less chance of any bias creeping if you have a standard set of questions to be used for
your target audience. You can apply logic to questions based on the respondents’ answers,
but the questionnaire will remain standard for a group of respondents that fall in the same
segment.
• Surveying online survey software is quick and cost-effective. It offers you a rich set of features
to design, distribute, and analyze the response data.
• It can be customized to reflect your brand voice. Thus, it can be used to reinforce your brand
image.
• The responses can be compared with the historical data and understand the shift in
respondents’ choices and experiences.
• Respondents can answer the questionnaire without revealing their identity. Also, many survey
software complies with significant data security and privacy regulations.

Characteristics of a good questionnaire

Your survey design depends on the type of information you need to collect from respondents.
Qualitative questionnaires are used when there is a need to collect exploratory information to help
prove or disprove a hypothesis. Quantitative questionnaires are used to validate or test a previously
generated hypothesis. However, most questionnaires follow some essential characteristics:

• Uniformity: Questionnaires are very useful to collect demographic information, personal

opinions, facts, or attitudes from respondents. One of the most significant attributes of a
research form is uniform design and standardization. Every respondent sees the same
questions. This helps in data collection and statistical analysis of this data. For example,
the retail store evaluation questionnaire template contains questions for evaluating retail
store experiences. Questions relate to purchase value, range of options for product selections,
and quality of merchandise. These questions are uniform for all customers.

• Exploratory: It should be exploratory to collect qualitative data. There is no restriction on

questions that can be in your questionnaire. For example, you use a data collection
questionnaire and send it to the female of the household to understand her spending and
saving habits relative to the household income. Open-ended questions give you more insight
and allow the respondents to explain their practices. A very structured question list could limit
the data collection.

• Question Sequence: It typically follows a structured flow of questions to increase the number
of responses. This sequence of questions is screening questions, warm-up questions,
transition questions, skip questions, challenging questions, and classification questions. For
example, our motivation and buying experience questionnaire template covers initial
demographic questions and then asks for time spent in sections of the store and the rationale
behind purchases.

Types & Definitions

As we explored before, questionnaires can be either structured or free-flowing. Let’s take a closer look
at what that entails for your surveys.

• Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The

questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise information. It also initiates a formal
 inquiry, supplements data, checks previously accumulated data, and helps validate any prior
hypothesis.

• Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data. They use

a basic structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the responses of a
respondent. The questions are more open-ended to collect specific data from participants.

Types of questions in a questionnaire

You can use multiple question types in a questionnaire. Using various question types can help increase
responses to your research questionnaire as they tend to keep participants more engaged. The best
customer satisfaction survey templates are the most commonly used for better insights and decision-
making.

Some of the widely used types of questions are:

• Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a

questionnaire where the respondent can answer in a free form with little to no restrictions.

• Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a “yes/no” close-ended

question. This question is usually used in case of the need for necessary validation. It is the
most natural form of a questionnaire.

• Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended question type in

which a respondent has to select one (single-select multiple-choice question) or many (multi-
select multiple choice question) responses from a given list of options. The multiple-choice
question consists of an incomplete stem (question), right answer or answers, incorrect
answers, close alternatives, and distractors. Of course, not all multiple-choice questions have
all of the answer types. For example, you probably won’t have the wrong or right answers if
you’re looking for customer opinion.

• Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of the four measurement
scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the question types that utilize these
scales’ fundamental properties are rank order questions, Likert scale questions, semantic
differential scale questions, and Stapel scale questions.

• Pictorial Questions: This question type is easy to use and encourages respondents to answer.
It works similarly to a multiple-choice question. Respondents are asked a question, and the
answer choices are images. This helps respondents choose an answer quickly without over-
thinking their answers, giving you more accurate data.

Types of Questionnaires

Questionnaires can be administered or distributed in the following forms:

• Online Questionnaire: In this type, respondents are sent the questionnaire via email or other
online mediums. This method is generally cost-effective and time-efficient. Respondents can
also answer at leisure. Without the pressure to respond immediately, responses may be more
accurate. The disadvantage, however, is that respondents can easily ignore these
questionnaires. Read more about online surveys.
 • Telephone Questionnaire: A researcher makes a phone call to a respondent to collect
responses directly. Responses are quick once you have a respondent on the phone. However,
a lot of times, the respondents hesitate to give out much information over the phone. It is also
an expensive way of conducting research. You’re usually not able to collect as many responses
as other types of questionnaires, so your sample may not represent the broader population.

• In-House Questionnaire: This type is used by a researcher who visits the respondent’s home
or workplace. The advantage of this method is that the respondent is in a comfortable and
natural environment, and in-depth data can be collected. The disadvantage, though, is that it
is expensive and slow to conduct.

• Mail Questionnaire: These are starting to be obsolete but are still being used in some market
research studies. This method involves a researcher sending a physical data collection
questionnaire request to a respondent that can be filled in and sent back. The advantage of
this method is that respondents can complete this on their own time to answer truthfully and
entirely. The disadvantage is that this method is expensive and time-consuming. There is also
a high risk of not collecting enough responses to make actionable insights from the data.

How to design a Questionnaire

Researchers are always hoping that the responses received for a survey questionnaire yield useable
data. If the questionnaire is too complicated, there is a fair chance that the respondent might get
confused and will drop out or answer inaccurately.

As a survey creator, you may want to pre-test the survey by administering it to a focus group during
development. You can try out a few different questionnaire designs to determine which resonates
best with your target audience. Pre-testing is a good practice as the survey creator can comprehend
the initial stages if there are any changes required in the survey.

Steps Involved in Questionnaire Design

1. Identify the scope of your research:

Think about what your questionnaire is going to include before you start designing the look of it. The
clarity of the topic is of utmost importance as this is the primary step in creating the questionnaire.
Once you are clear on the purpose of the questionnaire, you can begin the design process.

2. Keep it simple:

The words or phrases you use while writing the questionnaire must be easy to understand. If the
questions are unclear, the respondents may simply choose any answer and skew the data you collect.

3. Ask only one question at a time:

At times, a researcher may be tempted to add two similar questions. This might seem like an excellent
way to consolidate answers to related issues, but it can confuse your respondents or lead to inaccurate
data. If any of your questions contain the word “and,” take another look. This question likely has two
parts, which can affect the quality of your data.

4. Be flexible with your options:

While designing, the survey creator needs to be flexible in terms of “option choice” for the
respondents. Sometimes the respondents may not necessarily want to choose from the answer
options provided by the survey creator. An “other” option often helps keep respondents engaged in
the survey.

5. The open-ended or closed-ended question is a tough choice:

The survey creator might end up in a situation where they need to make distinct choices between
open or close-ended questions. The question type should be carefully chosen as it defines the tone
and importance of asking the question in the first place.

If the questionnaire requires the respondents to elaborate on their thoughts, an open-ended

question is the best choice. If the surveyor wants a specific response, then close-ended questions
should be their primary choice. The key to asking closed-ended questions is to generate data that is
easy to analyze and spot trends.

6. It is essential to know your audience:

A researcher should know their target audience. For example, if the target audience speaks mostly
Spanish, sending the questionnaire in any other language would lower the response rate and accuracy
of data. Something that may seem clear to you may be confusing to your respondents. Use simple
language and terminology that your respondents will understand, and avoid technical jargon and
industry-specific language that might confuse your respondents.

For efficient market research, researchers need a representative sample collected using one of the
many sampling techniques, such as a sample questionnaire. It is imperative to plan and define these
target respondents based on the demographics required.

7. Choosing the right tool is essential:

QuestionPro is a simple yet advanced survey software platform that the surveyors can use to create a
questionnaire or choose from the already existing 300+ questionnaire templates.

Always save personal questions for last. Sensitive questions may cause respondents to drop off before
completing. If these questions are at the end, the respondent has had time to become more
comfortable with the interview and are more likely to answer personal or demographic questions.

Differences between a Questionnaire and a Survey

Questionnaire Survey

A questionnaire can is a research A survey is a research method used for

instrument that consists of a set of collecting data from a pre-defined group of
Meaning
questions to collect information from respondents to gain information and insights on
a respondent. various topics of interest.

What is it? The instrument of data collection Process of collecting and analyzing that data

Consists of questionnaire and survey design,

Characteristic Subset of survey
logic and data collection
Time and
Fast and cost-effective Much slower and expensive
Cost

Use Conducted on the target audience Distributed or conducted on respondents

Close-ended and very rarely open-

Questions Close-ended and open-ended
ended

Answers Objective Subjective or objective

Sampling

What is sampling?

Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make

statistical inferences from them and estimate the characteristics of the whole population. Different
sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to
research the entire population to collect actionable insights.

It is also a time-convenient and cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research
design. Sampling techniques can be used in research survey software for optimum derivation.

For example, suppose a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug
on the country’s population. In that case, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that
involves everyone. In this case, the researcher decides on a sample of people from
each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her indicative feedback on the drug’s
behavior.

Types of sampling: sampling methods

Sampling in market action research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. Let’s take a closer look at these two methods of sampling.

1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher selects

a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal
opportunity to participate in the sample with this selection parameter.

2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher randomly chooses

members for research. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process.
This makes it difficult for all population elements to have equal opportunities to be included
in a sample.

This blog discusses the various probability and non-probability sampling methods you can implement
in any market research study.

Types of probability sampling with examples:

Probability sampling is a technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population
based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the population
and forms samples based on a fixed process.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being
selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates sampling bias in the population and
allows all members to be included in the sample.

There are four types of probability sampling techniques:

• Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving
time and resources is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of
obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely
by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.

For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team-
building activities, they would likely prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500
employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.

• Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters representing a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes
it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inferences from the feedback.

For example, suppose the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants
living in the Mainland US. In that case, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California,
Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more
effective as the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.

• Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the
sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of
sampling method has a predefined range; hence, this sampling technique is the least time-
consuming.

For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of
5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th
individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

• Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher
divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then draw a sample from
each group separately.

For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different
annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less
than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the
researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers
can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that
would bear fruitful results.

Uses of probability sampling

There are multiple uses of probability sampling:

 • Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived
from a population is negligible to non-existent. The sample selection mainly depicts the
researcher’s understanding and inference. Probability sampling leads to higher-quality data
collection as the sample appropriately represents the population.

• Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed toward one demographic. For example, suppose
Square would like to understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices. In
that case, a survey conducted from a sample of people across the US from different industries
and socio-economic backgrounds helps.

• Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an
accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Types of non-probability sampling with examples

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a
researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most
situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results,
which may not represent the desired target population. But, there are situations, such as the
preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability
sampling will be much more useful than the other type.

Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better
manner:

• Convenience sampling: This method depends on the ease of access to subjects such as
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed
as convenience sampling because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in
touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements,
and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability
sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In
situations with resource limitations, such as the initial stages of research, convenience
sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute
leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall
entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.

• Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgmental or purposive samples are formed at the

researcher’s discretion. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the
understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the
thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection
criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with
a “No” are excluded from the sample.

• Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. For example, surveying shelterless people or illegal immigrants
will be extremely challenging. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track
a few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling
method when the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys to
gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions.
 Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause
to get in touch with the victims and collect information.

• Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, members in this sampling technique selection happens
based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes,
the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid
method of collecting samples.

Uses of non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling is used for the following:

• Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an

assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the
immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.

• Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting
qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.

• Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time
constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid,
it is easier to pick respondents randomly and have them take the survey or questionnaire.

How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?

For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your
study. The effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert
researchers follow to decide the best sampling method.

• Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or
accuracy.

• Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.

• Test each of these methods and examine whether they help achieve your goal.

• Select the method that works best for the research.

Difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling methods

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate
the whole discussion, though, the significant differences between probability sampling methods and
non-probability sampling methods are as below:

Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling is a sampling

technique in which samples from a technique in which the researcher
Definition larger population are chosen using a selects samples based on the
method based on the theory of researcher’s subjective judgment rather
probability. than random selection.
 Alternatively
Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
Known as

Population
The population is selected randomly. The population is selected arbitrarily.
selection

Nature The research is conclusive. The research is exploratory.

Since there is a method for deciding

Since the sampling method is arbitrary,
the sample, the population
Sample the population demographics
demographics are conclusively
representation is almost always skewed.
represented.

Takes longer to conduct since the This type of sampling method is quick
research design defines the selection since neither the sample nor the
Time Taken
parameters before the market selection criteria of the sample are
research study begins. undefined.

This type of sampling is entirely This type of sampling is entirely biased,

Results unbiased; hence, the results are also and hence the results are biased, too,
conclusive. rendering the research speculative.

In probability sampling, there is an

In non-probability sampling, the
underlying hypothesis before the
Hypothesis hypothesis is derived after conducting
study begins, and this method aims
the research study.
to prove the hypothesis.

What are Sampling Errors?

Sampling errors are statistical errors that arise when a sample does not represent the whole
population. They are the difference between the real values of the population and the values derived
by using samples from the population. Sampling errors occur when numerical parameters of an entire
population are derived from a sample of the entire population. Since the whole population is not
included in the sample, the parameters derived from the sample differ from those of the actual
population.
They may create distortions in the results, leading users to draw incorrect conclusions.
When analysts do not select samples that represent the entire population, the sampling errors are
significant.

Summary

• Sampling errors occur when numerical parameters of an entire population are derived from
samples of the entire population.

• The difference between the values derived from the sample of a population and the true
values of the population parameters is considered a sampling error.

• The errors can be eliminated by increasing the sample size or the number of samples.

Sampling Errors Explained

Sampling errors are deviations in the sampled values from the values of the true population emanating
from the fact that a sample is not an actual representative of a population of data.

Since there is a fault in the data collection, the results obtained from sampling become invalid.
Furthermore, when a sample is selected randomly, or the selection is based on bias, it fails to denote
the whole population, and sampling errors will certainly occur.

They can be prevented if the analyst’s select subsets or samples of data to represent the whole
population effectively. Sampling errors are affected by factors such as the size and design of the
sample, population variability, and sampling fraction.

Increasing the size of samples can eliminate sampling errors. However, to reduce them by half, the
sample size needs to be increased by four times. If the selected samples are small and do not
adequately represent the whole data, the analysts can select a greater number of samples for
satisfactory representation.

The population variability causes variations in the estimates derived from different samples, leading
to larger errors. The effect of population variability can be reduced by increasing the size of the
samples so that these can more effectively represent the population.

Moreover, sampling errors must be considered when publishing survey results so that the accuracy of
the estimates and the related interpretations can be established.
Practical Example

Suppose the producers of Company XYZ want to determine the viewership of a local program that airs
twice a week. The producers will need to determine the samples that can represent various types of
viewers. They may need to consider factors like age, level of education, and gender.

For example, people between the ages of 14 and 18 usually have fewer commitments, and most of
them can spare time to watch the program twice weekly. On the contrary, people between the age of
18 and 35 usually have tighter schedules and will not have time to watch TV.

Hence, it is important to draw a sample proportionately. Otherwise, the results will not represent the
real population.

Since the exact population parameter is not known, sampling errors for samples are generally
unknown. However, analysts can use analytical methods to measure the amount of variation caused
by sampling errors.

Categories of Sampling Errors

• Population specification error

A population specification error occurs when researchers don’t know precisely who to survey.

For example, imagine a research study about kid’s apparel. Who is the right person to survey?
It can be both parents, only the mother, or the child. The parents make purchase decisions,
but the kids may influence their choice.

• Sample frame error

Sampling frame error occurs when researchers target the sub-population wrongly while
selecting the sample.
 For example, picking a sampling frame from the telephone white pages book may have
erroneous inclusions because people shift their cities. Erroneous exclusions occur when
people prefer to un-list their numbers. Wealthy households may have more than one
connection, thus leading to multiple inclusions.

• Selection error

Selection error occurs when respondents self-select themselves to participate in the study.
You can control selection errors by going the extra step to request responses from the entire
sample. Only interested ones respond.

Pre-survey planning, follow-ups, and a neat and clean survey design will boost respondents’
participation rate. Also, try sampling methods like CATI surveys and in-person interviews to
maximize responses.

• Sampling errors

Sampling errors occur due to a disparity in the representativeness of the respondents. It

majorly happens when the researcher does not plan his sample carefully.

These sampling errors can be controlled and eliminated by creating a careful sample design,
having a large enough sample to reflect the entire population, or using an online sample or
survey audiences to collect responses.

Example of sampling error

Let’s say a political party conducts a survey to find out how well-liked their candidate is before a major
election. Instead of picking a random sample of the whole population to survey, they only ask their
own members. The sample would be skewed since party members may have extremely different
opinions and tastes from the rest of the population. Party members may care more about their
candidate’s ideals or be more loyal to them. This may cause the survey to suggest more support than
the general population has. Suppose the survey results are used to make campaign decisions, such as
where to allocate money or which issues to prioritize. In that case, they may not accurately reflect the
candidate’s support among the people. This could result in a poor campaign plan, affecting their
election chances.

To avoid these kinds of sampling errors, it is essential to use a sampling method that is representative
of the population being studied, such as random sampling or stratified sampling, and to make sure
that the sample size is big enough to give accurate results.

What are the steps to reduce sampling errors?

Sampling errors are easy to identify. Here are a few simple steps to reduce sampling error:

• Increase sample size.

 A larger sample size is more accurate because the study gets closer to the actual population
size.

• Divide the population into groups.

Test groups according to their size in the population instead of a random sample. For example,
if people of a specific demographic make up 20% of the population, make sure that your study
is made up of this variable to reduce sampling bias.

• Know your population.

Study your population and understand its demographic mix. Know what demographics use
your product and service and ensure you only target the sample that matters.