Chapter two: understanding the political systems:

2.1 The meaning of political system

Political systems are the structures and processes through which a society governs itself.

They encompass the rules, institutions, and practices that determine how political power is
distributed and exercised. Understanding the political system of a country involves examining its
constitution, legal framework, political parties, electoral processes, and the distribution of power
among different branches of government. It also requires an understanding of the historical,
cultural, and social factors that shape the political landscape.

2.2 elements of the political system?

The political system of a country is composed of various elements that interact to shape the
governance and functioning of the state. Some key elements of a political system include:

1. Constitution: The fundamental law of a country that establishes the framework for
government, outlines the rights and responsibilities of citizens, and sets the limits of
governmental authority.
2. Government Institutions: These include the executive, legislative, and judicial branches
of government, as well as administrative agencies and other bodies responsible for
implementing and enforcing laws.
3. Political Parties: Organizations that represent different political ideologies and compete
for power through elections. They play a crucial role in shaping public policy and
governance.

4. Electoral Processes: The methods by which leaders are chosen, including voting systems,
campaign regulations, and the conduct of elections.

5. Political Culture: The shared values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the behavior of
citizens and leaders within the political system.

6. Civil Society: Non-governmental organizations, advocacy groups, and other voluntary

associations that influence public policy and provide a check on government power.
 7. Rule of Law: The principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government,
are subject to and accountable under the law.

8. Political Economy: The interaction between politics and economics, including government
policies related to taxation, trade, regulation, and social welfare.

9. Public Policy: The decisions and actions taken by government to address societal issues
and allocate resources. 10. International Relations: The interactions between a country's
political system and the global community, including foreign policy, diplomacy, and
international agreements. These elements interact in complex ways to shape the political
landscape of a country and determine how power is distributed, exercised, and contested.
Understanding these elements is essential for analyzing and evaluating the functioning of a
political system.

2.2.1 Governmental institutions

Governmental institutions are the formal structures and organizations that make up the
machinery of government. These institutions are responsible for the administration,
implementation, and enforcement of laws and policies. Some key governmental institutions
typically found in a political system include:

1. Executive Branch: This includes the head of state (such as a president or monarch) and the
head of government (such as a prime minister or chancellor), along with their cabinet and
administrative agencies. The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing
laws, managing the day-to-day operations of government, and conducting foreign relations. 2.
Legislative Branch: This consists of the parliament, congress, or other legislative bodies that are
responsible for making laws, approving budgets, and overseeing the actions of the executive
branch. The legislative branch plays a critical role in representing the interests of the public and
providing a check on executive power.

3. Judicial Branch: This comprises the courts and legal system responsible for interpreting and
applying the law, resolving disputes, and upholding justice. The judiciary ensures that laws are
consistent with the constitution and safeguards individual rights and freedoms.
4. Administrative Agencies: These are specialized bodies tasked with implementing and
regulating specific areas of public policy, such as healthcare, education, environmental
protection, and law enforcement. They often have the authority to make rules and decisions
within their areas of responsibility.

5. Local Government: This includes municipalities, counties, and other local governing bodies
that have authority over specific geographic areas. They are responsible for providing public
services, managing local infrastructure, and representing the interests of their communities.
These governmental institutions operate within a framework established by the constitution and
are designed to balance power, ensure accountability, and serve the needs of the public. The
specific structure and functions of these institutions can vary widely depending on the form of
government (e.g., presidential, parliamentary, federal, unitary) and the legal system of a country.

2.2.2 Political culture and identity

Political culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, and attitudes that shape the behaviour and
expectations of individuals within a particular society or political system. It encompasses the
way people view their political environment, their roles within it, and their attitudes towards
political institutions and processes. Political culture can be influenced by historical, social,
economic, and cultural factors, and it often plays a significant role in shaping the political
behaviour of individuals and groups.

Identity, on the other hand, refers to the way individuals perceive themselves in relation to
various social, cultural, and political categories. Political identity specifically refers to the ways
in which individuals align themselves with particular political ideologies, parties, or movements
based on their personal beliefs and values.

The relationship between political culture and identity is complex and interconnected. Political
culture can influence the formation of political identities by shaping individuals' beliefs about
their role within the political system and the values they prioritize in their political engagement.
Similarly, individuals' political identities can also contribute to the shaping of political culture by
influencing the collective attitudes and behaviours of groups within a society.

Furthermore, political culture and identity are often intertwined with other aspects of identity,
such as race, ethnicity, religion, gender, and socioeconomic status. These intersecting identities
can further shape individuals' political beliefs and behaviours within a particular cultural and
social context. Overall, political culture and identity are crucial factors in understanding how
individuals perceive and engage with the political world around them, as well as how these
perceptions and engagements contribute to shaping broader political dynamics within a society.

There are several types of political culture that have been identified by political scientists and
scholars. These types of political culture reflect different patterns of beliefs, values, and attitudes
toward politics and government within a society. Some of the most commonly recognized types
of political culture include:

1. Traditional Political Culture: This type of political culture is characterized by a strong

emphasis on traditional values, authority, and hierarchy. Individuals in societies with a traditional
political culture often place high value on stability, continuity, and respect for established
institutions and customs.

2. Modern Political Culture: Modern political culture is associated with a more progressive and
forward-thinking approach to politics and governance. It emphasizes rationality, individualism,
and a willingness to challenge existing power structures and traditions in pursuit of social and
political change.

3. Civic Political Culture: Civic political culture places a strong emphasis on active citizen
participation in the political process. It is characterized by a sense of civic duty, engagement in
public affairs, and a belief in the importance of democratic values and institutions.

4. Subject Political Culture: In contrast to civic political culture, subject political culture is
characterized by a passive and deferential attitude toward authority and government. Individuals
in societies with a subject political culture may feel disempowered and resigned to the decisions
made by those in power.

5. Parochial Political Culture: Parochial political culture is typically found in small, traditional
societies where people have little awareness or interest in broader political issues beyond their
immediate community. Individuals in parochial political cultures may have limited engagement
with formal political institutions and processes.
It's important to note that these types of political culture are ideal types and that real-world
political cultures often exhibit elements of multiple types. Additionally, political cultures can
evolve and change over time in response to social, economic, and historical developments.
Understanding the dominant political culture within a society can provide valuable insights into
the attitudes and behaviours of its citizens, as well as the functioning of its political institutions.

Political Behaviour and Ideology

Political behaviour refers to the actions and activities of individuals and groups in relation to the
political system, including voting, protesting, and participating in political campaigns. Political
behaviour can be influenced by a variety of factors, including individual beliefs, social and
economic conditions, and ideological perspectives.

Ideology refers to a set of beliefs, values, and ideas that shape an individual's or group's
understanding of politics and society. Ideologies can influence political behaviour by providing a
framework for understanding and interpreting political events, as well as guiding individuals'
choices and actions within the political system. The relationship between political behaviour and
ideology is complex and multifaceted. Individuals' political behaviour is often influenced by
their ideological perspectives, as they may be more likely to support candidates, policies, and
movements that align with their ideological beliefs. At the same time, political behaviour can
also shape and reinforce individuals' ideological perspectives, as they may become more
committed to certain ideologies through their participation in political activities. Overall,
political behaviour and ideology are closely intertwined, with individuals' beliefs and values
playing a significant role in shaping their engagement with the political process.

2.2.3 Political economy

Political economy is a multidisciplinary field of study that examines the interrelationships

between politics and economics. It seeks to understand how political institutions, policies, and
processes influence economic outcomes and vice versa. Political economy analyses the ways in
which power, distribution of resources, and decision-making processes in societies shape
economic systems and outcomes.

Key areas of focus within political economy include:

1. Economic Policies: Political economy examines how government policies, regulations, and
interventions impact economic activities, such as trade, investment, taxation, and welfare
programs. It also explores how economic interests influence the formulation and implementation
of these policies.

2. Distribution of Resources: Political economy investigates the distribution of wealth, income,

and opportunities within societies, as well as the role of political institutions in shaping patterns
of inequality and social mobility.

3. Power and Institutions: It analyses the role of political institutions, interest groups, and power
dynamics in shaping economic decision-making, including the allocation of resources, the
provision of public goods, and the regulation of markets.

4. Global Political Economy: This area focuses on the interactions between states, international
organizations, and transnational corporations in shaping global economic systems, trade
relations, and financial flows.

5. Development and Growth: Political economy studies the factors that contribute to economic
development and growth, including the role of governance, institutions, and policies in fostering
or hindering economic progress.

Political economy draws on insights from economics, political science, sociology, history, and
other social sciences to provide a holistic understanding of the complex relationships between
politics and economics. Scholars and analysts in this field seek to uncover the underlying drivers
of economic phenomena and to inform policy debates with a nuanced understanding of how
political and economic forces interact.

2.3 Classification of the Political System

Political systems can be classified into different categories based on various criteria, including
the structure of government, the distribution of power, and the nature of political participation.
Here are some common classifications of political systems:

1. Democratic vs. Authoritarian: Political systems can be classified as democratic or authoritarian

based on the extent of political freedoms, civil liberties, and the presence of competitive
elections. In a democratic system, power is derived from the consent of the governed, and
citizens have the right to participate in the political process through free and fair elections.
Authoritarian systems, on the other hand, are characterized by limited political freedoms,
restrictions on opposition parties, and centralized control by a ruling elite or single leader.

2. Unitary vs. Federal: This classification refers to the structure of government and the
distribution of power between central and regional authorities. In a unitary system, power is
concentrated at the national level, with subnational entities having limited autonomy. In a federal
system, power is divided between a central government and regional governments, each with its
own set of powers and responsibilities.

3. Parliamentary vs. Presidential: This classification relates to the organization of the executive
branch of government. In a parliamentary system, the executive (prime minister) is drawn from
the legislative branch (parliament) and is accountable to the legislature. In a presidential system,
the president is elected separately from the legislature and serves as both head of state and head
of government, with a separate and independent executive branch.

4. Monarchy vs. Republic: This classification distinguishes between systems with a hereditary
monarch as the head of state and those with an elected or appointed president as the head of
state. Monarchies can be further categorized as constitutional monarchies (where the monarch's
powers are limited by a constitution) or absolute monarchies (where the monarch holds
significant power).

5. Theocracy: A theocratic political system is characterized by the intertwining of religious and

political authority, where religious leaders or religious doctrine play a significant role in
governance and decision-making.

6. Totalitarian vs. Pluralistic: This classification contrasts political systems based on the degree
of political pluralism and civil society participation. Totalitarian systems exercise extensive
control over all aspects of public and private life, while pluralistic systems allow for diverse
political parties, interest groups, and media outlets to operate freely. These classifications provide
a framework for understanding the diversity of political systems around the world and serve as a
basis for comparative analysis of governance structures and political dynamics. It's important to
note that real-world political systems often exhibit elements of multiple classifications, and their
characteristics can evolve over time in response to social, economic, and geopolitical changes.
These types of political systems provide a framework for understanding the diversity of
governance structures worldwide. It's important to note that many real-world political systems
exhibit elements of multiple types and may evolve over time in response to changing social,
economic, and geopolitical conditions.

2.3.1 Democratic and authoritarian systems

Democratic and authoritarian systems are two contrasting forms of government that differ in
their approach to power, governance, and individual freedoms. Democratic systems are
characterized by free and fair elections, protection of individual rights and liberties, rule of law,
separation of powers, and government accountability. In a democratic system, power is derived
from the people, and the government is expected to serve the interests of the citizens. Examples
of democratic systems include the United States, Canada, and many European countries.

On the other hand, authoritarian systems are characterized by a concentration of power in the
hands of a single leader or a small group, limited political freedoms, restricted civil liberties, lack
of independent judiciary, and limited checks and balances on the government. Authoritarian
governments often rely on censorship, propaganda, and repression to maintain control. Examples
of authoritarian systems include North Korea, China, and Saudi Arabia. These two systems
represent fundamentally different approaches to governance, with democracy emphasizing
individual rights and freedoms, while authoritarianism prioritizes centralized control and
stability.

2.3.2. Federal and Unitary System

A federal system of government is one in which the powers of government are divided between
a central authority and several regional authorities. Each level of government has its own sphere
of authority and autonomy. Examples of countries with a federal system include the United
States, Canada, Australia, and Germany. On the other hand, a unitary system of government is
one in which all powers of government are held by a single, central authority. Regional or local
governments exist at the pleasure of the central government and can be created or abolished by
it. Examples of countries with a unitary system include France, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

In a federal system, the central and regional governments have their own areas of jurisdiction,
such as taxation, education, and law enforcement. In a unitary system, the central government
has full authority over these areas and can delegate powers to local governments as it sees fit.
The choice between a federal and unitary system often depends on historical, cultural, and
political factors within a country. Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the
decision to adopt one over the other can have significant implications for governance and
political stability.

2.3.3. Capitalist and socialist systems:

Capitalism and socialism are two contrasting economic systems that have been influential in
shaping the economic and political structures of many countries. Capitalism is an economic
system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit.
In a capitalist system, the economy is driven by market forces and competition, and the
allocation of resources is primarily determined by supply and demand. The role of government in
a capitalist system is often limited to ensuring the rule of law, protecting property rights, and
regulating markets to prevent abuses.

Socialism, on the other hand, is an economic system in which the means of production are
owned or controlled by the state or the community as a whole. The primary goal of socialism is
to achieve social and economic equality by redistributing wealth and resources. In a socialist
system, the government plays a more active role in planning and regulating the economy, often
through central planning and state-owned enterprises. In practice, many countries have mixed
economies that incorporate elements of both capitalism and socialism. These mixed economies
seek to balance the efficiency and innovation of market forces with the social welfare and
equality objectives of socialism.

The choice between capitalist and socialist systems often reflects ideological differences about
the role of government, private property, individual freedom, and equality. Both systems have
strengths and weaknesses, and different societies have adopted varying degrees of each in
response to their unique historical, cultural, and political contexts.