Neetu BanslaDBMS21CSC205P

Unit-3
Topics Covered: Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL , Structure Creation, alternation , Defining
Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique, not null, check, IN operator ,
Functions-aggregation functions , Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string functions, string
functions, Set operations, Sub Queries, correlated sub queries , Nested Queries, View ,
Transaction Control Commands , Commit, Rollback, Save point , PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors ,
Stored Procedure, Functions Triggers and Exception Handling .

​ SQL | DDL, DQL, DML, DCL and TCL Commands

The SQL commands are mainly categorized into four categories as:
1.​ DDL – Data Definition Language
2.​ DQL - Data Query Language
3.​ DML – Data Manipulation Language
4.​ DCL – Data Control Language

​ DDL (Data Definition Language):

DDL or Data Definition Language actually consists of the SQL commands that can be used to
define the database schema. It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and is
used to create and modify the structure of database objects in the database.DDL is a set of
SQL commands used to create, modify, and delete database structures but not data. These
commands are normally not used by a general user, who should be accessing the database
via an application.
List of DDL commands:
●​ CREATE: This command is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index,
function, views, store procedure, and triggers).
Syntax:
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
database_name: name of the database.
Example Query:​
This query will create a new database in SQL and name the database as my_database.
CREATE DATABASE my_database;

●​ DROP: This command is used to delete objects from the database.

Syntax:
DROP object object_name

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Examples:
DROP TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be deleted.

DROP DATABASE database_name;

database_name: Name of the database to be deleted.

●​ ALTER: This is used to alter the structure of the database. ALTER TABLE – ADD
ADD is used to add columns into the existing table. Sometimes we may require to add
additional information, in that case we do not require to create the whole database
again, ADD comes to our rescue.

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD (Columnname_1 datatype,
Columnname_2 datatype,
…
Columnname_n datatype);

●​ TRUNCATE: This is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces
allocated for the records are removed. TRUNCATE statement is a Data Definition
Language (DDL) operation that is used to mark the extents of a table for deallocation
(empty for reuse). The result of this operation quickly removes all data from a table,
typically bypassing a number of integrity enforcing mechanisms. It was officially
introduced in the SQL:2008 standard.​
The TRUNCATE TABLE mytable statement is logically (though not physically)
equivalent to the DELETE FROM mytable statement (without a WHERE clause).
​
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be truncated.
DATABASE name - student_data

●​ RENAME: This is used to rename an object existing in the database.

Syntax (Oracle, MySQL, MariaDB):​

ALTER TABLE table_name

RENAME TO new_table_name;

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​ DQL (Data Query Language):

DQL statements are used for performing queries on the data within schema objects. The
purpose of the DQL Command is to get some schema relation based on the query passed to
it. We can define DQL as follows it is a component of SQL statement that allows getting data
from the database and imposing order upon it. It includes the SELECT statement. This
command allows getting the data out of the database to perform operations with it. When a
SELECT is fired against a table or tables the result is compiled into a further temporary
table, which is displayed or perhaps received by the program i.e. a front-end.
List of DQL Commands:

●​ SELECT: It is used to retrieve data from the database. Select is the most commonly used
statement in SQL. The SELECT Statement in SQL is used to retrieve or fetch data from a
database. We can fetch either the entire table or according to some specified rules. The
data returned is stored in a result table. This result table is also called result-set.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name
column1, column2: names of the fields of the table
table_name: from where we want to fetch

​ DML (Data Manipulation Language):

The SQL commands that deals with the manipulation of data present in the database belong
to DML or Data Manipulation Language and this includes most of the SQL statements. It is
the component of the SQL statement that controls access to data and to the database.
Basically, DCL statements are grouped with DML statements.
List of DML commands:
●​ INSERT : It is used to insert data into a table.
The INSERT INTO statement of SQL is used to insert a new row in a table. There are two
ways of using INSERT INTO statement for inserting rows:
1.​ Only values: First method is to specify only the value of data to be inserted without the
column names.​

INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3,…);​

table_name: name of the table.​
value1, value2,.. : value of first column, second column,… for the new record
2.​ Column names and values both: In the second method we will specify both the
columns which we want to fill and their corresponding values as shown below:

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INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,..) VALUES ( value1, value2,

value3,..);​
table_name: name of the table.​
column1: name of first column, second column …​
value1, value2, value3 : value of first column, second column,… for the new record

●​ UPDATE: It is used to update existing data within a table.

The UPDATE statement in SQL is used to update the data of an existing table in
database. We can update single columns as well as multiple columns using UPDATE
statement as per our requirement.
Basic Syntax
UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2,...
WHERE condition;

table_name: name of the table

column1: name of first , second, third column....
value1: new value for first, second, third column....
condition: condition to select the rows for which the
values of columns needs to be updated.
Example Queries
Updating single column: Update the column NAME and set the value to ‘PRATIK’ in
all the rows where Age is 20.
UPDATE Student SET NAME = 'PRATIK' WHERE Age = 20;

●​ DELETE : It is used to delete records from a database table.

The DELETE Statement in SQL is used to delete existing records from a table. We can
delete a single record or multiple records depending on the condition we specify in the
WHERE clause.
Basic Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;
table_name: name of the table
some_condition: condition to choose particular record.

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DCL (Data Control Language):

DCL includes commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which mainly deal with the rights,
permissions, and other controls of the database system.
List of DCL commands:
●​ GRANT: This command gives users access privileges to the database.
Syntax:
GRANT privileges_names ON object TO user;
Parameters Used:
privileges_name: These are the access rights or privileges granted to the user.
Object: It is the name of the database object to which permissions are being granted. In the
case of granting privileges on a table, this would be the table name.
User: It is the name of the user to whom the privileges would be granted.
Privileges:​
The privileges that can be granted to the users are listed below along with description:​

1.​ Granting SELECT Privilege to a User in a Table: To grant Select Privilege to a table
named “users” where User Name is Amit, the following GRANT statement should be
executed.
GRANT SELECT ON Users TO'Amit'@'localhost;
2.​ Granting more than one Privilege to a User in a Table: To grant multiple Privileges to
a user named “Amit” in a table “users”, the following GRANT statement should be
executed.
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE ON Users TO 'Amit'@'localhost
1.​ Granting All the Privilege to a User in a Table: To Grant all the privileges to a user
named “Amit” in a table “users”, the following Grant statement should be executed.

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GRANT ALL ON Users TO 'Amit'@'localhost;

2.​ Granting a Privilege to all Users in a Table: To Grant a specific privilege to all the
users in a table “users”, the following Grant statement should be executed.
GRANT SELECT ON Users TO '*'@'localhost;
In the above example the “*” symbol is used to grant select permission to all the users of
the table “users”.

●​ REVOKE: This command withdraws the user’s access privileges given by using the
GRANT command.
Revoke command withdraw user privileges on database objects if any granted. It does
operations opposite to the Grant command. When a privilege is revoked from a
particular user U, then the privileges granted to all other users by user U will be
revoked.
Syntax:
revoke privilege_name on object_name
from {user_name | public | role_name}
Example:
grant insert,
select on accounts to Ram
By the above command user ram has granted permissions on accounts database object like
he can query or insert into accounts.
revoke insert,
select on accounts from Ram
By the above command user ram’s permissions like query or insert on accounts database
object has been removed.

List of TCL commands:

●​ COMMIT: Commits a Transaction.

If everything is in order with all statements within a single transaction, all changes are
recorded together in the database is called committed. The COMMIT command saves all
the transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command. ​

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Syntax: ​
COMMIT;

●​ ROLLBACK: Rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs

ROLLBACK: If any error occurs with any of the SQL grouped statements, all changes
need to be aborted. The process of reversing changes is called rollback. This command
can only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command
was issued. ​
Syntax: ​

ROLLBACK;

●​ SAVEPOINT: Sets a save point within a transaction. It creates points within the
groups of transactions in which to ROLLBACK. A SAVEPOINT is a point in a
transaction in which you can roll the transaction back to a certain point without
rolling back the entire transaction. ​

Syntax for Savepoint command: ​

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
This command is used only in the creation of SAVEPOINT among all the transactions.
Sample:
SAVEPOINT SP1;
//Savepoint created.
DELETE FROM Student WHERE AGE = 20;
//deleted
SAVEPOINT SP2;
//Savepoint created.

​ SQL Constraints

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table. Constraints are used to limit
the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data

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in the table. If there is any violation between the constraint and the data action, the action
is aborted.

Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a column,
and table level constraints apply to the whole table.

The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

●​ NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

Example
CREATE TABLE Persons (​
ID int NOT NULL,​
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,​
FirstName varchar (255) NOT NULL,​
Age int​
);

●​ UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons (​

ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,​
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,​
FirstName varchar (255),​
Age int​
);

●​ PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each
row in a table

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons (​

ID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,​
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,​
FirstName varchar (255),​

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Age int​
);

●​ FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables

Example

CREATE TABLE Orders (​

OrderID int NOT NULL,​
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,​
PersonID int,​
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),​
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)​
);

●​ CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons (​

ID int NOT NULL,​
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,​
FirstName varchar (255),​
Age int,​
CHECK (Age>=18)​
);

●​ DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons (​

ID int NOT NULL,​
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,​
FirstName varchar (255),​
Age int,​
City varchar (255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'​
);

The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using functions
like GETDATE ():

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CREATE TABLE Orders (​

ID int NOT NULL,​
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,​
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE ()​
);

●​ CREATE INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

Example

CREATE INDEX idx_lastname​

ON Persons (LastName);

​ Aggregate functions in SQL

In database management an aggregate function is a function where the values of multiple
rows are grouped together as input on certain criteria to form a single value of more
significant meaning.
Various Aggregate Functions
1) Count ()
2) Sum ()
3) Avg ()
4) Min ()
5) Max ()

Example: Table Employee

Id Name Salary
-----------------------
1 A 80
2 B 40
3 C 60
4 D 70
5 E 60

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6 F Null

Count ():
Count (*): Returns total number of records .i.e. 6.​
Count (salary): Return number of Non Null values over the column salary. i.e.5.​
Count (Distinct Salary): Return number of distinct Non Null values over the column salary
.i.e. 4
Sum ():
Sum (salary): Sum all Non Null values of Column salary i.e., 310​
sum (Distinct salary): Sum of all distinct Non-Null values i.e., 250.

Avg ():
Avg (salary) = Sum (salary) / count (salary) = 310/5​
Avg (Distinct salary) = Sum (Distinct salary) / Count (Distinct Salary) = 250/4

Min ():
Min (salary): Minimum value in the salary column except NULL i.e., 40.
Max (salary): Maximum value in the salary i.e., 80.

​ SQL Built In String Functions

Function Description

ASCII Returns the ASCII value for the specific character

CHAR Returns the character based on the ASCII code

CHARINDEX Returns the position of a substring in a string

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CONCAT Adds two or more strings together

Concat with + Adds two or more strings together

CONCAT_WS Adds two or more strings together with a separator

DATALENGTH Returns the number of bytes used to represent an expression

DIFFERENCE Compares two SOUNDEX values, and returns an integer value

FORMAT Formats a value with the specified format

LEFT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from left)

LEN Returns the length of a string

LOWER Converts a string to lower-case

LTRIM Removes leading spaces from a string

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NCHAR Returns the Unicode character based on the number code

PATINDEX Returns the position of a pattern in a string

QUOTENAME Returns a Unicode string with delimiters added to make the string
a valid SQL Server delimited identifier

REPLACE Replaces all occurrences of a substring within a string, with a new

substring

REPLICATE Repeats a string a specified number of times

REVERSE Reverses a string and returns the result

RIGHT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from right)

RTRIM Removes trailing spaces from a string

SOUNDEX Returns a four-character code to evaluate the similarity of two

strings

SPACE Returns a string of the specified number of space characters

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STR Returns a number as string

STUFF Deletes a part of a string and then inserts another part into the
string, starting at a specified position

SUBSTRING Extracts some characters from a string

TRANSLATE Returns the string from the first argument after the characters
specified in the second argument are translated into the
characters specified in the third argument.

TRIM Removes leading and trailing spaces (or other specified

characters) from a string

UNICODE Returns the Unicode value for the first character of the input
expression

UPPER Converts a string to upper-case

SQL Maths/Numeric Functions

Function Description

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ABS Returns the absolute value of a number

ACOS Returns the arc cosine of a number

ASIN Returns the arc sine of a number

ATAN Returns the arc tangent of a number

ATN2 Returns the arc tangent of two numbers

AVG Returns the average value of an expression

CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is >= a number

COUNT Returns the number of records returned by a select query

COS Returns the cosine of a number

COT Returns the cotangent of a number

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DEGREES Converts a value in radians to degrees

EXP Returns e raised to the power of a specified number

FLOOR Returns the largest integer value that is <= to a number

LOG Returns the natural logarithm of a number, or the logarithm of a number to a

specified base

LOG10 Returns the natural logarithm of a number to base 10

MAX Returns the maximum value in a set of values

MIN Returns the minimum value in a set of values

PI Returns the value of PI

POWER Returns the value of a number raised to the power of another number

RADIANS Converts a degree value into radians

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RAND Returns a random number

ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places

SIGN Returns the sign of a number

SIN Returns the sine of a number

SQRT Returns the square root of a number

SQUARE Returns the square of a number

SUM Calculates the sum of a set of values

TAN Returns the tangent of a number

SQL Date Functions

Function Description

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time

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DATEADD Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the date

DATEDIFF Returns the difference between two dates

DATEFROMPARTS Returns a date from the specified parts (year, month, and day
values)

DATENAME Returns a specified part of a date (as string)

DATEPART Returns a specified part of a date (as integer)

DAY Returns the day of the month for a specified date

GETDATE Returns the current database system date and time

GETUTCDATE Returns the current database system UTC date and time

ISDATE Checks an expression and returns 1 if it is a valid date, otherwise 0

MONTH Returns the month part for a specified date (a number from 1 to
12)

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SYSDATETIME Returns the date and time of the SQL Server

YEAR Returns the year part for a specified date

SQL Server Advanced Functions

Function Description

CAST Converts a value (of any type) into a specified datatype

COALESCE Returns the first non-null value in a list

CONVERT Converts a value (of any type) into a specified datatype

CURRENT_USER Returns the name of the current user in the SQL Server database

IIF Returns a value if a condition is TRUE, or another value if a condition is

FALSE

ISNULL Return a specified value if the expression is NULL, otherwise return the
expression

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ISNUMERIC Tests whether an expression is numeric

NULLIF Returns NULL if two expressions are equal

SESSION_USER Returns the name of the current user in the SQL Server database

SESSIONPROPERTY Returns the session settings for a specified option

SYSTEM_USER Returns the login name for the current user

USER_NAME Returns the database user name based on the specified id

​ SQL Set Operation

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT statements.

Types of Set Operation

1.​ Union
2.​ UnionAll
3.​ Intersect
4.​ Minus

1. Union
o​ The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL SELECT
queries.
o​ In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in
both the tables on which UNION operation is being applied.

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o​ The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its result set.

Syntax

1.​ SELECT column_name FROM table1

2.​ UNION
3.​ SELECT column_name FROM table2;

2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing
duplication and sorting the data.

Syntax:

1.​ SELECT column_name FROM table1

2.​ UNION ALL
3.​ SELECT column_name FROM table2;

3. Intersect
o​ It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the
common rows from both the SELECT statements.
o​ In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
o​ It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax

1.​ SELECT column_name FROM table1

2.​ INTERSECT
3.​ SELECT column_name FROM table2;

4. Minus
o​ It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display
the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the second query.
o​ It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:

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1.​ SELECT column_name FROM table1

2.​ MINUS
3.​ SELECT column_name FROM table2;

​
​ Sub Queries, correlated sub queries

Correlated subqueries are used for row-by-row processing. Each subquery is executed once
for every row of the outer query.

A correlated subquery is evaluated once for each row processed by the parent statement.
The parent statement can be a SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
SELECT column1, column2….
FROM table1 outer
WHERE column1 operator
(SELECT column1, column2
FROM table2
WHERE expr1 =
outer.expr2);
A correlated subquery is one way of reading every row in a table and comparing values in
each row against related data. It is used whenever a subquery must return a different result
or set of results for each candidate row considered by the main query. In other words, you
can use a correlated subquery to answer a multipart question whose answer depends on
the value in each row processed by the parent statement.
Nested Subqueries versus Correlated Subqueries:
With a normal nested subquery, the inner SELECT query runs first and executes once,
returning values to be used by the main query. A correlated subquery, however, executes
once for each candidate row considered by the outer query. In other words, the inner query
is driven by the outer query.​

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EXAMPLE of Correlated Subqueries: Find all the employees who earn more than the
average salary in their department.

SELECT last_name, salary, department_id

FROM employees , outer
WHERE salary >
(SELECT AVG (salary)
FROM employees
WHERE department_id =
outer. department_id);
Other uses of correlation are in UPDATE and DELETE

CORRELATED UPDATE:
UPDATE table1 alias1
SET column = (SELECT expression
FROM table2 alias2
WHERE alias1.column =
alias2.column);
Use a correlated subquery to update rows in one table based on rows from another table.

CORRELATED DELETE:
DELETE FROM table1 alias1
WHERE column1 operator
(SELECT expression
FROM table2 alias2
WHERE alias1.column = alias2.column);
Use a correlated subquery to delete rows in one table based on the rows from another
table.

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QUERIES:

1.​ Find the product_no and description of non- moving products.

2.​ Find the customer name, address, city and pin code for the client who has
placed order no “019001”
3.​ Find the client names who have placed order before the month of may 96.
4.​ Find out if product “1.44 Drive” is ordered by only client and print the
client_no name to whom it was sold.
5.​ Find the names of client who have placed orders worth Rs.10000 or more.
6.​ Select the orders placed by ‘Rahul Desai”
7.​ Select the names of persons who are in Mr. Pradeep’s department and who
have also worked on an inventory control system.
8.​ Select all the clients and the salesman in the city of Bombay.
9.​ Select salesman name in “Bombay” who has at least one client located at
“Bombay”
10.​Select the product_no, description, qty_on-hand, cost_price of non_moving
items in the product_master table.

​ View
o​ Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows and
columns.
o​ To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in the
database.
o​ A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of a
table.

Sample table:

Student_Detail

STU_ID NAME ADDRESS

1 Stephan Delhi

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2 Kathrin Noida

3 David Ghaziabad

4 Alina Gurugram

Student_Marks

STU_ID NAME MARKS AGE

1 Stephan 97 19

2 Kathrin 86 21

3 David 74 18

4 Alina 90 20

5 John 96 18

1. Creating view

A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We can create a view from a
single table or multiple tables.

Syntax:

1.​ CREATE VIEW view_name AS

2.​ SELECT column1, column2.....
3.​ FROM table_name
4.​ WHERE condition;

2. Creating View from a single table

In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the table Student_Detail.

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Query:

1.​ CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS

2.​ SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
3.​ FROM Student_Details
4.​ WHERE STU_ID < 4;

Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.

SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output:

NAME ADDRESS

Stephan Delhi

Kathrin Noida

David Ghaziabad

3. Creating View from multiple tables

View from multiple tables can be created by simply include multiple tables in the SELECT
statement. In the given example, a view is created named MarksView from two tables
Student_Detail and Student_Marks.

Query:

1.​ CREATE VIEW MarksView AS

2.​ SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS
3.​ FROM Student_Detail, Student_Marks
4.​ WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;

To display data of View MarksView:

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SELECT * FROM MarksView;

NAME ADDRESS MARKS

Stephan Delhi 97

Kathrin Noida 86

David Ghaziabad 74

Alina Gurugram 90

4. Deleting View

A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.

Syntax

1.​ DROP VIEW view_name;

​ PL/SQL Concepts
●​ PL/SQL is a block structured language that can have multiple blocks in it.
●​ The programs of PL/SQL are logical blocks that can contain any number of
nested sub-blocks.
●​ Pl/SQL stands for "Procedural Language extension of SQL" that is used in
Oracle. PL/SQL is integrated with Oracle database (since version 7).
●​ The functionalities of PL/SQL usually extended after each release of Oracle
database. Although PL/SQL is closely integrated with SQL language, yet it
adds some programming constraints that are not available in SQL. With
PL/SQL, you can use SQL statements to manipulate Oracle data and flow of
control statements to process the data.
●​ The PL/SQL is known for its combination of data manipulating power of SQL
with data processing power of procedural languages. It inherits the
robustness, security, and portability of the Oracle Database.
●​ PL/SQL is not case sensitive so you are free to use lower case letters or upper
case letters except within string and character literals.

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●​ A line of PL/SQL text contains groups of characters known as lexical units. It

can be classified as follows:
o​ Delimiters
o​ Identifiers
o​ Literals
o​ Comments

​ PL/SQL Concepts- Stored Procedure

The PL/SQL stored procedure or simply a procedure is a PL/SQL block which performs one
or more specific tasks. It is just like procedures in other programming languages.

The procedure contains a header and a body.

o​ Header: The header contains the name of the procedure and the parameters or
variables passed to the procedure.
o​ Body: The body contains a declaration section, execution section and exception
section similar to a general PL/SQL block.

How to pass parameters in procedure:

When you want to create a procedure or function, you have to define parameters .There is
three ways to pass parameters in procedure:

1.​ IN parameters: The IN parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function.

The value of the parameter cannot be overwritten by the procedure or the function.
2.​ OUT parameters: The OUT parameter cannot be referenced by the procedure or
function, but the value of the parameter can be overwritten by the procedure or
function.
3.​ INOUT parameters: The INOUT parameter can be referenced by the procedure or
function and the value of the parameter can be overwritten by the procedure or
function.

NOTE: A procedure may or may not return any value.

Syntax for creating procedure:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
[(parameter [,parameter]) ]
IS

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[declaration_section]
BEGIN
executable_section
[EXCEPTION exception_section]
END [procedure_name];

Create procedure example

In this example, we are going to insert record in user table. So you need to create user table
first.

Table creation:

Create table user

(Id number (10) primary key,
Name varchar2 (100));

Now write the procedure code to insert record in user table.

Procedure Code:

Create or replace procedure Insertuser (Id IN NUMBER, Name IN VARCHAR2)

Is/As
Begin
Insert into user values (id, name);
End;
/

Output:

Procedure Created

PL/SQL program to call procedure

Let's see the code to call above created procedure.

EXECUTE Insertuser(101,’Rahul’);

BEGIN
Insertuser (101,'Rahul');
dbms_output.put_line ('record inserted successfully');

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END;
/

Now, see the "USER" table, you will see one record is inserted.

ID Name

101 Rahul

PL/SQL Drop Procedure

Syntax for drop procedure

DROP PROCEDURE procedure_name;

Sample Procedures

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE Greetings

AS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line ('Hello World!');
END;
/

Executing a Standalone Procedure

A standalone procedure can be called in two ways:
●​ Using the EXECUTE keyword
●​ Calling the name of the procedure from a PL/SQL block
The above procedure named 'Greetings' can be called with the EXECUTE keyword as:
EXECUTE greetings;
The above call would display:
Hello World
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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The procedure can also be called from another PL/SQL block:

BEGIN
Greetings;
END;
/
The above call would display:
Hello World
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

​ PL/SQL Concepts- Functions

The PL/SQL Function is very similar to PL/SQL Procedure. The main difference between
procedure and a function is, a function must always return a value, and on the other hand a
procedure may or may not return a value. Except this, all the other things of PL/SQL
procedure are true for PL/SQL function too.

Syntax to create a function:

1.​ CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name [parameters]

2.​ [(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
3.​ RETURN return_datatype
4.​ {IS | AS}
5.​ BEGIN
6.​ < function_body >
7.​ END [function_name];

Here:

o​ Function_name: specifies the name of the function.

o​ [OR REPLACE] option allows modifying an existing function.
o​ The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters.
o​ IN represents that value will be passed from outside and OUT represents that this
parameter will be used to return a value outside of the procedure.

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The function must contain a return statement.

o​ RETURN clause specifies that data type you are going to return from the function.
o​ Function_body contains the executable part.
o​ The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone function.

PL/SQL Function Example

Create or replace function adder (n1 in number, n2 in number)
Return number
Is
n3 number (8);
Begin
n3:=n1+n2;
Return n3;
End;
/

Now write another program to call the function.

DECLARE
n3 number(2);
BEGIN
n3:= adder (11, 22);
dbms_output.put_line ('Addition is: ' || n3);
END;
/

Output:

Addition is: 33
Statement processed.
0.05 seconds

Example
The following example demonstrates Declaring, Defining, and Invoking a Simple PL/SQL
Function that computes and returns the maximum of two values.

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION findMax(x IN number, y IN number)

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RETURN number
IS
z number;
BEGIN
IF x > y THEN
z:= x;
ELSE
Z:= y;
END IF;
RETURN z;
END;
/

//CALLING THE FUNCTION IN AN ANOTHER BLOCK//

DECLARE
x number;
y number;
z number;
BEGIN
x:= 23;
y:= 45;
z := findMax(x, y);
dbms_output.put_line (' Maximum of (23,45): ' || z);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
Maximum of (23, 45): 45

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Recursive Functions

We have seen that a program or subprogram may call another subprogram. When a
subprogram calls itself, it is referred to as a recursive call and the process is known
as recursion.
To illustrate the concept, let us calculate the factorial of a number. Factorial of a number n
is defined as −

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n! = n*(n-1)!
= n*(n-1)*(n-2)!
...
= n*(n-1)*(n-2)*(n-3)... 1
The following program calculates the factorial of a given number by calling itself
recursively −

Create or replace FUNCTION fact (x IN number)

RETURN number
IS
f number;
BEGIN
IF x=0 THEN
f := 1;
ELSE
f := x * fact(x-1);
END IF;
RETURN f;
END;
/

//USING THE FUNCTION fact IN AN ANOTHER BEGIN BLOCK//

DECLARE
num number;
factorial number;
BEGIN
num:= 6;
factorial := fact (num);
dbms_output.put_line (' Factorial '|| num || ' is ' || factorial);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
Factorial 6 is 720

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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​ PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

When an SQL statement is processed, Oracle creates a memory area known as context area.
A cursor is a pointer to this context area. It contains all information needed for processing
the statement. In PL/SQL, the context area is controlled by Cursor. A cursor contains
information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by it.

A cursor is used to refer to a program to fetch and process the rows returned by the SQL
statement, one at a time. There are two types of cursors:

o​ Implicit Cursors
o​ Explicit Cursors

1) PL/SQL Implicit Cursors

The implicit cursors are automatically generated by Oracle while an SQL statement is
executed, if you don't use an explicit cursor for the statement. These are created by default
to process the statements when DML statements like INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE etc. are
executed.

PL/SQL Implicit Cursor Example

Create customers table and have records:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

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4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

Let's execute the following program to update the table and increase salary of each
customer by 5000. Here, SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute is used to determine the number of
rows affected:

Create procedure:

DECLARE
Total_rows number (2);
BEGIN
UPDATE customers
SET salary = salary + 5000;
IF sql%notfound THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('no customers updated');
ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows := sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line (total_rows || ' customers updated ');
END IF;
END;
/

Output:

6 customers updated
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Now, if you check the records in customer table, you will find that the rows are updated.

Select * from customers;

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ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 25000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 27000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 29000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 31000

5 Alex 21 Paris 33000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 35000

2) PL/SQL Explicit Cursors

The Explicit cursors are defined by the programmers to gain more control over the context
area. These cursors should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL block. It is
created on a SELECT statement which returns more than one row.

Following is the syntax to create an explicit cursor:

CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

Steps:

You must follow these steps while working with an explicit cursor.

1.​ Declare the cursor to initialize in the memory.

2.​ Open the cursor to allocate memory.
3.​ Fetch the cursor to retrieve data.
4.​ Close the cursor to release allocated memory.

1) Declare the cursor:

It defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT statement.

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Syntax for explicit cursor decleration

CURSOR name IS
SELECT statement;

2) Open the cursor:

It is used to allocate memory for the cursor and make it easy to fetch the rows returned by
the SQL statements into it.

Syntax for cursor open:

OPEN cursor_name;

3) Fetch the cursor:

It is used to access one row at a time. You can fetch rows from the above-opened cursor as
follows:

Syntax for cursor Fetch:

FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;

4) Close the cursor:

It is used to release the allocated memory. The following syntax is used to close the
above-opened cursors.

Syntax for cursor Close:

Close cursor_name;

PL/SQL Explicit Cursor Example

Explicit cursors are defined by programmers to gain more control over the context area. It
is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL block. It is created on a SELECT
statement which returns more than one row.

In this example, we are using the already created CUSTOMERS table.

Create customers table and have records:

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ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

Create procedure:

Execute the following program to retrieve the customer name and address.

1.​ DECLARE
2.​ c_id customers.id%type;
3.​ c_name customers.name%type;
4.​ c_addr customers.address%type;
5.​ CURSOR c_customers is
6.​ SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
7.​ BEGIN
8.​ OPEN c_customers;
9.​ LOOP
10.​ FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;
11.​ EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;
12.​ dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);
13.​ END LOOP;
14.​ CLOSE c_customers;
15.​END;
16.​/

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Output:

1 Ramesh Allahabad
2 Suresh Kanpur
3 Mahesh Ghaziabad
4 Chandan Noida
5 Alex Paris
6 Sunita Delhi

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

​ PL/SQL Concepts- Exceptional Handling

What is Exception

An error occurs during the program execution is called Exception in PL/SQL.

PL/SQL facilitates programmers to catch such conditions using exception block in the
program and an appropriate action is taken against the error condition.

There are two type of exceptions:

o​ System-defined Exceptions
o​ User-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL Exception Handling

Syntax for exception handling:

Following is a general syntax for exception handling:

1.​ DECLARE
2.​ <declarations section>
3.​ BEGIN
4.​ <executable command(s)>
5.​ EXCEPTION
6.​ <exception handling goes here >
7.​ WHEN exception1 THEN
8.​ exception1-handling-statements

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9.​ WHEN exception2 THEN

10.​ exception2-handling-statements
11.​ WHEN exception3 THEN
12.​ exception3-handling-statements
13.​ ........
14.​ WHEN others THEN
15.​ exception3-handling-statements
16.​END;

Example of exception handling

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the concept of exception handling. Here we are
using the already created CUSTOMERS table.

SELECT* FROM COUSTOMERS;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

1.​ DECLARE
2.​ c_id customers.id%type := 8;
3.​ c_name customers.name%type;
4.​ c_addr customers.address%type;
5.​ BEGIN
6.​ SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr

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7.​ FROM customers

8.​ WHERE id = c_id;
9.​ DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
10.​ DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
11.​EXCEPTION
12.​ WHEN no_data_found THEN
13.​ dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
14.​ WHEN others THEN
15.​ dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
16.​END;
17.​/

After the execution of above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result:

No such customer!
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The above program should show the name and address of a customer as result whose ID is
given. But there is no customer with ID value 8 in our database, so the program raises the
run-time exception NO_DATA_FOUND, which is captured in EXCEPTION block.

​ PL/SQL Concepts- Triggers

Trigger is invoked by Oracle engine automatically whenever a specified event occurs.

Trigger is stored into database and invoked repeatedly, when specific condition match.
Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired when some event
occurs.

Triggers are written to be executed in response to any of the following events.

o​ A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE).

o​ A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).
o​ A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).

Triggers could be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the event is
associated.

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Advantages of Triggers

These are the following advantages of Triggers:

o​ Trigger generates some derived column values automatically

o​ Enforces referential integrity
o​ Event logging and storing information on table access
o​ Auditing
o​ Synchronous replication of tables
o​ Imposing security authorizations
o​ Preventing invalid transactions

Syntax for creating trigger:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF}
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
DECLARE
Declaration-statements
BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;

Here,

o​ CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name: It creates or replaces an existing

trigger with the trigger_name.

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o​ {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF}: This specifies when the trigger would be
executed. The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.
o​ {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}: This specifies the DML operation.
o​ [OF col_name]: This specifies the column name that would be updated.
o​ [ON table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
o​ [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]: This allows you to refer new and old values
for various DML statements, like INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
o​ [FOR EACH ROW]: This specifies a row level trigger, i.e., the trigger would be
executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just once
when the SQL statement is executed, which is called a table level trigger.
o​ WHEN (condition): This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger would
fire. This clause is valid only for row level triggers.

PL/SQL Trigger Example

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the trigger. In this example, we are using the
following CUSTOMERS table:

Create table and have records:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

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Create trigger:

Following trigger will display the salary difference between the old values and new values:

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes

BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)
DECLARE
sal_diff number;
BEGIN
sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);
END;
/

After the execution of the above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result.

Trigger created.

Check the salary difference by procedure:

Use the following code to get the old salary, new salary and salary difference after the
trigger created.

DECLARE
Total_rows number (2);
BEGIN
UPDATE customers
SET salary = salary + 5000;
IF sql%notfound THEN

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dbms_output.put_line ('no customers updated');

ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows:= sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line (total_rows || ' customers updated ');
END IF;
END;
/

NOTE: sql%notfound is an attribute has a Boolean value that returns TRUE if no rows were
affected by an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, or if a SELECT INTO statement did not
retrieve a row.

Output:

Old salary: 20000

New salary: 25000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 22000
New salary: 27000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 24000
New salary: 29000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 26000
New salary: 31000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 28000
New salary: 33000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 30000
New salary: 35000
Salary difference: 5000
6 customers updated

Note: As many times you executed this code, the old and new salary is incremented by
5000 and hence the salary difference is always 5000.

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The following table specifies the status of the cursor with each of its attribute.

Attribute Description

%FOUND Its return value is TRUE if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect at
least one row or more rows or a SELECT INTO statement returned one or more rows.
Otherwise it returns FALSE.

%NOTFOUND Its return value is TRUE if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect no
row, or a SELECT INTO statement return no rows. Otherwise it returns FALSE. It is a just
opposite of %FOUND.

%ISOPEN It always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, because the SQL cursor is automatically
closed after executing its associated SQL statements.

%ROWCOUNT It returns the number of rows affected by DML statements like INSERT, DELETE, and
UPDATE or returned by a SELECT INTO statement.

​ PL/SQL Exception Handling

What is Exception?

An error occurs during the program execution is called Exception in PL/SQL.

PL/SQL facilitates programmers to catch such conditions using exception block in the
program and an appropriate action is taken against the error condition.

There are two types of exceptions:

o​ System-defined Exceptions
o​ User-defined Exceptions

Syntax for exception handling:

Following is a general syntax for exception handling:

DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>

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EXCEPTION
<exception handling goes here >
WHEN exception1 THEN
exception1-handling-statements
WHEN exception2 THEN
exception2-handling-statements
WHEN exception3 THEN
exception3-handling-statements
........
WHEN others THEN
exception3-handling-statements
END;

Example of exception handling

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the concept of exception handling. Here we are
using the already created CUSTOMERS table.

SELECT* FROM COUSTOMERS;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

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DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type:= 8;
c_name customers.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
BEGIN
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
FROM customers
WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('No such customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('Error!');
END;
/

After the execution of above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result:

No such customer!
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The above program should show the name and address of a customer as result whose ID is
given. But there is no customer with ID value 8 in our database, so the program raises the
run-time exception NO_DATA_FOUND, which is captured in EXCEPTION block.

Following is a general syntax for exception handling:

DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling goes here >

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WHEN exception1 THEN

exception1-handling-statements
WHEN exception2 THEN
exception2-handling-statements
WHEN exception3 THEN
exception3-handling-statements
........
WHEN others THEN
exception3-handling-statements
END;

Example of exception handling

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the concept of exception handling. Here we are
using the already created CUSTOMERS table.

SELECT* FROM CUSTOMERS;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

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DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type:= 8;
c_name customers.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
BEGIN
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
FROM customers
WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('No such customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('Error!');
END;
/

After the execution of above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result:

No such customer!
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The above program should show the name and address of a customer as result whose ID is
given. But there is no customer with ID value 8 in our database, so the program raises the
run-time exception NO_DATA_FOUND, which is captured in EXCEPTION block.

If you use the id defined in the above table (i.e. 1 to 6), you will get a certain result. For a
demo example: here, we are using the id 5.

DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type := 5;
c_name customers.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;

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BEGIN
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
FROM customers
WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;
/

After the execution of above code at SQL prompt, you will get the following result:

Name: alex
Address: paris
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Raising Exceptions

In the case of any internal database error, exceptions are raised by the database server
automatically. But it can also be raised explicitly by programmer by using command RAISE.

Syntax for raising an exception:

DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF condition THEN
RAISE exception_name;
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
statement;
END;

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PL/SQL User-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL facilitates their users to define their own exceptions according to the need of the
program. A user-defined exception can be raised explicitly, using either a RAISE statement
or the procedure DBMS_STANDARD.RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.

Syntax for user define exceptions

1.​ DECLARE
2.​ my-exception EXCEPTION;

PL/SQL Pre-defined Exceptions

There are many pre-defined exception in PL/SQL which are executed when any database
rule is violated by the programs.

For example: NO_DATA_FOUND is a pre-defined exception which is raised when a SELECT

INTO statement returns no rows.

Following is a list of some important pre-defined exceptions:

Exception Oracle SQL Description

Error Code

ACCESS_INTO_NULL 06530 -6530 It is raised when a NULL object is automatically assigned a

value.

CASE_NOT_FOUND 06592 -6592 It is raised when none of the choices in the "WHEN"
clauses of a CASE statement is selected, and there is no else
clause.

COLLECTION_IS_NULL 06531 -6531 It is raised when a program attempts to apply collection

methods other than exists to an uninitialized nested table
or varray, or the program attempts to assign values to the
elements of an uninitialized nested table or varray.

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DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX 00001 -1 It is raised when duplicate values are attempted to be

stored in a column with unique index.

INVALID_CURSOR 01001 -1001 It is raised when attempts are made to make a cursor
operation that is not allowed, such as closing an unopened
cursor.

INVALID_NUMBER 01722 -1722 It is raised when the conversion of a character string into a
number fails because the string does not represent a valid
number.

LOGIN_DENIED 01017 -1017 It is raised when s program attempts to log on to the

database with an invalid username or password.

NO_DATA_FOUND 01403 +100 It is raised when a select into statement returns no rows.

NOT_LOGGED_ON 01012 -1012 It is raised when a database call is issued without being
connected to the database.

PROGRAM_ERROR 06501 -6501 It is raised when PL/SQL has an internal problem.

ROWTYPE_MISMATCH 06504 -6504 It is raised when a cursor fetches value in a variable having
incompatible data type.

SELF_IS_NULL 30625 -30625 It is raised when a member method is invoked, but the
instance of the object type was not initialized.

STORAGE_ERROR 06500 -6500 It is raised when PL/SQL ran out of memory or memory
was corrupted.

TOO_MANY_ROWS 01422 -1422 It is raised when a SELECT INTO statement returns more
than one row.

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VALUE_ERROR 06502 -6502 It is raised when an arithmetic, conversion, truncation, or

size-constraint error occurs.

ZERO_DIVIDE 01476 1476 It is raised when an attempt is made to divide a number by

zero.

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