P1:

Solve the recurrence relation = for = , , , … and with initial

condition = by using generating function.

Solution:
∞
Let be the generating function for the sequence ,
∞

. ., = ∑a
k =0
k xk .

Multiplying the recurrence relation by

−3 =0

∞ ∞
k +1
⟹ ∑a
k =1
k x −3 ∑a k =1
k −1 x k = 0.

⟹ − −3 =0⟹ 1−3 =

∞ ∞

. ., 1−3 =2⟹ =
!"
=2 ∑3
k =0
k
x k
∵
$"
= ∑a
k =0
k
xk

Thus, = 2. 3
P2:

Using generating functions, solve the recurrence relation

= − , = and = .

Solution: The given recurrence relation is

=6 −9 , = 2, =3

Let ( ) be the generating function the sequence ∞

"

. ., ( )=!

⟹ =6 −9
" " "

⟹! =6 ! −9 !

⟹ ( )− + =6 ( ( )− )−9 ( )

⟹ ( ) − 3 − 2 = 6 ( ( ) − 2) − 9 ( )

⟹ ( )(1 − 6 − 9 ) = 3 + 2 − 12 = 2 − 9
2−9
∴ ( )=
1−6 −9
Now,
2−9 2−9 ' (
= = +
1−6 −9 (1 − 3 ) 1−3 (1 − 3 )

Therefore, 2 − 9 = '(1 − 3 ) + (

⟹ ' + ( = 2, −3' = −9 ⟹ ' = 3, ( = −1

Thus,
 3 1
( )= −
1−3 (1 − 3 )

. .,
∞ ∞ ∞

! = 3!3 − !() + 1)3

Equating the coefficients of on both sides

=3 *
− () + 1)3 = 3 (2 − ))

∴ = 3 (2 − )), ) = 0,1,2, …
P3:

Solve the recurrence relation = + , = using generating

function.

Solution: We have the recurrence relation

=2 + 1, =1

The initial condition = 1, yields = 0. ( = 1 ⟹ =2 +1⟹ = 0)

Let ( ) be the generating function for the sequence ∞

. .,

( )=

=2 +1⟹ =2 +

⟹ =2 +

⟹ ( )− =2 + −1

⟹ ( )=2 + −1=2 ( )+ −1

1
⟹ (1 − 2 ) ( ) = −1=
1− 1−

⟹ ( )=( ⟹ ( )= − ( by the method of partial fractions)

! )( ) !

= 2 − = (2 − 1)

Thus,

= 2 − 1, = 0,1,2, …
P4:

Solve the recurrence relation

− + = , = , , ,…, = , =

using generating function.

Solution: We have the recurrence relation

−5 +6 = 2, = 0,1,2, … , = 3, =7

Let ( ) be the generating function for the sequence ! "$# , %. '.,

$

( )=(
#

Multiply the recurrence relation by we get

−5 +6 =2
$ $ $ $

⟹( −5( +6( = 2(
# # # #
$ $ $ $

⟹( −5 ( +6 ( =2 (
# # # #

1
⟹ ( )− − −5 ( ( )− )+6 ( )=2
1−
2
⟹ ( )(1 − 5 + 6 ) − 7 − 3 + 15 =
1−
2
⟹ ( )(1 − 5 + 6 )= +3−8
1−
2 3−8
⟹ ( )= +
(1 − )(1 − 5 + 6 ) 1−5 +6
 2 + (3 − 8 )(1 − )
=
(1 − )(1 − 5 + 6 )
$
10 − 11 + 3 (5 − 3)(2 − 1)
⟹( = =
(1 − )(1 − 2 )(1 − 3 ) (1 − )(1 − 2 )(1 − 3 )
#

3−5 2 1
= = + ( ,- %.!)
(1 − )(1 − 3 ) 1 − 3 1−
$ $

= 2(3 +(
# #

Equating the coefficients of on both sides we get

= 2. 3 + 1, = 0,1,2, …
4.6
Generating Functions:

, . ., , , , … , , … of real
Generating function for a sequence: The generating function (or ordinary
generating function) for the sequence
number is the infinite series

= + + +⋯+ … … 1

. ., =

Example 1: The generating functions for the sequences with

i. = 3, ii. = ! + 1 and iii. = 2 are

Solution:
∞ ∞ ∞
i. ∑ 3 x n
, ii. ∑ ( n + 1) x n
and iii. ∑ 2n x n
n =0 n =0 n =0

respectively.

Generating functions for a finite sequence:

Define the generating function of a finite sequence , , , … , of real

numbers by extending it by setting # = 0 for % = ! + 1, ! + 2, … .
The generating function of this infinite sequence is a polynomial of
degree !, since no terms of the form # & with % > ! ocuurs, . .,
#

( & = + &+ & + ⋯+ &

, , , , , .
Example 2: Write down the generating function for the finite sequence

Solution: The generating function for 1,1,1,1,1,1 is

 ( & = 1 + & + & + &) + &* + &+

= 1 + & + & + & ) + & * + & + , when & ≠ 1. Therefore,

, -.
,.
Note that

( & = is the generating function for the sequence 1,1,1,1,1,1.

, .
-

,.

Note: The RHS of the equation 1 is a formal power series in &. The letter & does
not represent any thing. The various powers & of & are simply used to keep track
of the corresponding terms of the sequence. The convergence/divergence of
the series is of no interest to us (at present).

Example 3: Let 0 be a positive integer and let = Ck , 1 = , , , … , 0.

m
1

What is the generating function for the sequence , ,… 0 ?

Solution: The generating function for the finite sequence , , ,…, is

( & = + &+ & +⋯+ 2&

2

= mC + mC & + mC & +, . . + mC m & 2

0 1 2

= 1+& 2

Example 4:

i. 3 & = 1 + 2& + 3& + ⋯ + ! + 1 & + ⋯ is the generating function for

the sequence ! of positive integers.

ii. The function 4 & = is the generating function for the sequence 1,1,1, …
.,

= 1 + & + & + ⋯ for |&| < 1.

.,
since

iii. The function ℎ & =

.8,
is the generating function for the sequence

1, , , )
, … ,since =1+ &+ & + & + ⋯ when | &| < 1 or
) )
.8,
|&| < , ≠ 0.
|8|
Equality of generating functions:

Two generating functions 3 & = and 4 & =

∞ ∞
n
∑ an x ∑ bn x n are equal if

= 9 ∀! = 0,1,2, …
n =0 n =0

Addition and Multiplication of generating functions:

Let 3 & = ∑ an x and 4 & =

∞ ∞
n
∑ bn x n be two generating functions. Then
n =0 n =0

; +< = +=

; < = > ? = .? @
?

Example 5: Let ; = , , , … in the expansion

.
. Find the coefficients

of ; =
∞
∑ an x n .
n =0

Solution: We have 4 & = =1+&+& +⋯=

∞
.,
∑ an x n
n =0

Now:

1 1 1
3 & = = . =B & CB &2C
1−& 1−& 1−&
2

= > D 9 .D @ & = > 1.1@ &

D D
 = > 1@ & = !+1 & ∵ 1=!+1
D D

Therefore, the coefficients of 3 & are = ! + 1, ! = 0,1,2, …

Extended binomial coefficients:

Let F be a real number and % be a nonnegative integer. Then the extended

H
binomial coefficients G I is defined by
1
H H− H− … H−1+
H ;1>0
G I=J 1! M
1
;1≤

Example 6:
−2
(i). G I= = = −4
. . . . . . .) .*
3 )! )!

Q Q Q Q Q Q S T
G IG . IG . IG .)I G IG. IG. IG. I
(ii). O P = = =−
R R R R R R R R +

4 *! *! U

parameter is a negative integer. If the top parameter F is a negative integer then

The following is a useful formula for extended binomial coefficients when the top

the extended binomial coefficient can be expressed in terms of an ordinary

binomial coefficient.
Theorem 1: If is a positive integer then

−
G I= − V n + r −1
V
Cr

Proof:

−! −! −! − 1 −! − 2 … −! − W + 1
G I=
W W!
! !+1 !+2 … !+W−1
= −1 X
W!
!+W−1 !+W−2 … !+1 !
= −1 X
W!
!+W−1
= −1 X
G I
W

= −1 X n + r −1
Cr

The extended binomial Theorem

Let be a real number with | | < 1 and let H be a real number. Then

H
+ = G I
∞
H 1
1
1

Remark: If F is a positive integer, the extended Binomial Theorem reduces to

F
Binomial Theorem, (since G I = 0 if % > F).
%
Example 7: Find the generating functions for + . and − .
where
is a positive integer, using the extended Binomial theorem.

Solution: By the extended Binomial Theorem, we have

−!
1+& .
= G I &#
%
#
 = −1 # ( n + k −1)C & #
#
k

Thus, the generating function for 1 + & .

is

−1 # ( n + k −1)C & #
#
k

Replacing & by – &, we get the generating function for 1 − & . It is given by

−1 # ( n + k −1)C −& #
= ( n + k −1)C & #
# #
k k

Summary of some generating functions for certain sequences

1 :Generating for the sequence 1 1

1 & & &)

%! = 1+&+ + +⋯ = ,
%! 2! 3!
#

−1 #Z # & &)
−1 #Z & = & − + − ⋯ = [! 1 + &
%! 2! 3!
% #

1
1 &# = 1 + & + & + ⋯ =
1−&
#

1
# # #
& =1+ &+ & +⋯=
1− &
#
1 if W|%; 0 otherwise 1
& X# = 1 + & X + & X
+⋯=
1 − &X
#
1
%+1 (% + 1)& # = 1 + 2& + 3& + ⋯ =
(1 − &)
#
1
( n + k −1)C & # = 1 + nC & + ( n +1)C & + ⋯ =
( n + k −1)C k 1 2 (1 − & )
k #
 ( n + k −1)C 1
(−1) & # = 1 − nC & + ( n +1)C & −⋯=
(1 + &)
(−1)# ( n + k −1)C #
k 1 2
k
1
( n + k −1)C &# ( n + k −1)C & = 1 + nC ( &) + ( n +1)C
# # ( &) + ⋯ =
k k 1 2 (1 − &)
#
1 , if % ≤ !; 1−& Z
0 , otherwise &# = 1 + & + & + ⋯ + & =
1−&
#

C k & = 1 + nC 1 & + nC 2 & + ⋯ = (1 + &)

#
n
Ck n
#
#
& = 1 + nC & + nC ( &) + ⋯ = (1 + & )
# #
n
Ck n
Ck 1 2
#

Counting problems and Generating Functions

Generating functions can be used to solve a wide variety of counting problems.

Example 8: Find the number of solutions of

+ + ] = ^

where , and ] are nonnegative integers with ≤ ≤ _, ] ≤ ≤ ` and

a ≤ ] ≤ ^.

Solution: The number of solutions with the given constraints is the coefficient of
& b in the expansion of

(& + & ) + & * + & + )(& ) + & * + & + + & c )(& * + & + + & c + & b )

This is so, since we obtain a term equal to & b

in the product by taking a term in
the first sum & dQ , a term in the second sum & dR and a term in the third sum & dS ,
where the exponents , and ) satisfy the equation (1) and the given
constraints.

The coefficient of & b in this product is 1 + 1 + 1 = 3

(The products & * & c & b , & + & + & b , & + & c & c )
Proving Identities using Generating Functions

Example 9: Use generating function to show that

1
( )
n
Ck = 2n
Cn

where is a positive integer?

Solution: Note that by the Binomial Theorem 2n

Cn is the coefficient of & in
(1 + &) , now

(1 + &) = (1 + &) (1 + &)

= ( nC + nC & + nC & + ⋯ nC n & )

0 1 2

Equating the coefficient & on both sides ,we get

2n
Cn = nC . nC n + nC . nC + nC . nC + ⋯ + nC n . nC
0 1 n−1 2 n−2 0

= nC . nC + nC . nC + nC . nC + ⋯ + nC n . nC n
0 0 1 1 2 2

( ∵ nC r = nC )
r−1

=
1
( )
n
Ck

Hence the result.

Solving recurrence relations using generating functions

Example 10: Solve the Fibonacci recurrence relation

e =e . +e . , e =e =

by using generating function.

Solution: We have the recurrence relation

f =f . +f . ,f = f = 1

Put ! = 2 then f = f + f ⟹ f = 0

Let ((&) be the generating function for the sequence f , i.e,

( (& ) = f&

f =f . +f . ⟹f& =f . & +f . &

f& =& f . & .

+& f . & .

⟹ ( (& ) − f & − f = &(( (& ) − f ) + & ( (&)

⟹ ( (& ) − & = &( (& ) + & ( (&)

⟹ ( (& )(1 − & − & ) = &

&
⟹ ( (& ) =
1−&−&
Now, 1 − & − & = (1 − h &)(1 − i&), where h + i = 1, hi = −1.
Z√+ .√+
. ., h = ,i =

& & k l
= = +
1−&−& (1 − h & )(1 − i&) 1 − h & 1 − i&
⟹ & = k(1 − i& ) + l(1 − h& ) = (k + l) − (ik + hl)&

⟹ k + l = 0, ik + hl = −1

Solving we get, k = = −l(do it!)

√+

Thus,
1 1 1
((&) = n − o
√5 1 − h& 1 − i&
. .,

1 1
f& = p h & − i & q= B (h − i )& C
√5 √5

Equating the coefficients of & on both sides we get

1
f = (h − i )
√5
Z√+ .√+
. ., f = nG I −G I o
√+

This is called Binnet Formula for e .

Example 11: Solve the recurrence relation

=r . + .
, =s

by using generating function.

Solution: Let ( (& ) = ∑a n x n be the generating function for the sequence

n=0
∞
. Putting ! = 1, in the given recurrence relation we get

=8 +1⟹9=8 +1⟹ =1

Multiply the given recurrence relation by & , we get

 & =8 . & + 10 .
&

Sum both sides starting from ! = 1

& =8 . & + 10 .
&

⟹ ( (& ) − = 8& . & .

+& 10 .
& .

⟹ ( (& ) − 1 = 8& & +& 10 &

= 8&( (& ) + & 10 &

&
= 8&( (& ) +
1 − 10&
& 1 − 9&
⟹ (1 − 8&)( (& ) = 1 + =
1 − 10& 1 − 10&
1 − 9& 1 1 1
⟹ ( (& ) = = v + w
(1 − 8&)(1 − 10&) 2 1 − 8& 1 − 10&

1
= B 8 & + 10 & C
2

1
= (8 + 10 ) &
2

Therefore, = (8 + 10 )
Example 12: Solve the recurrence relation

−] . = , ∈ y, =

by using generating function.

Solution: We have the generating function

−3 . = !, ! ∈ y, =1

Let ((&) be the generating function for the sequence . .,

( (& ) = &

Now,

−3 . =!⟹ & −3 . & = !&

⟹ & −3 . & = !&

⟹ ( (& ) − − 3& . & .

= !&

⟹ ( (& ) − 1 − 3&((&) = !&

⟹ ( (& )(1 − 3&) − 1 = & + 2& + 3& ) + ⋯ = &(1 + 2& + 3& + ⋯ )

1
= &.
(1 − &)
,
⟹ ( (& ) = + … (1)
( .),)( .,)R .),

& k l z
= + +
(1 − & ) (1 − 3&) 1 − & (1 − &) 1 − 3&
⟹ & = k(1 − & )(1 − 3& ) + l(1 − 3&) + z(1 − &)

Put & = 1, 1 = l(−2) ⟹ l = −

* )
Put & = , = z. ⟹ z =
) ) { *

Put & = 0, 0 = k + l + z ⟹ k = −(l + z ) = −

*

& 1 1 1 1 3 1
∴ =− − +
(1 − &) (1 − 3&) 4 1 − & 2 (1 − &) 4 1 − 3&

From (1)
1 1 1 1 7 1
( (& ) = − +
4 1 − & 2 (1 − &) 4 1 − 3&

1 1 2+!−1 7
& =− & − G I& + 3 &
4 2 ! 4

Equating the coefficients of & on both sides we get

1 1 7 1 (! + 1) 7
= − − ( n + 1)C n + 3 = − − + 3
4 2 4 4 2 4
3 ! 7
=− − + 3
4 2 4
Generating functions can be used to solve a system of recurrence relation.

Example 13: Solve the following system of recurrence relations using the
method of generating functions

Z = −2 − 49 , … (1)

9 Z =4 + 69 , … (2)

! = 0,1,2, … ; = 1, 9 = 0.
Solution: Let f(&) and ((&) be the generating functions for the sequence
and 9 respectively. Form the equations (1) and (2), when
! = 0,1,2, …

Z & Z
= −2 & Z
− 49 & Z

9 Z & Z
=4 & Z
+ 69 & Z

⟹ Z & Z
= −2& & − 4& 9 &

9 Z & Z
= 4& & + 6& 9 &

⟹ f (& ) − = −2&f (& ) − 4&((&)

( (& ) − 9 = 4&f (& ) + 6&((&)

⟹ (1 + 2&)f (& ) + 4&((& ) = 1 …(3)

4& f (& ) − (1 − 6&)((& ) = 0 … (4)

Solving for f (& ), we get

.c,
f (& ) = (
. ,)R
(do it!)

.c, • €
Now,
( . ,)R
= . ,
+( . , )R

. ., 1 − 6& = k(1 − 2&) + l ⟹ k + l = 1, l = −2 ⟹ k = 3, l = −2

Hence f (& ) =
3
1−2&
− 2
(1−2&)2

=3 2 & −2 (! + 1)2 &

= (3.2 − 2(! + 1)2 )&

 ∞ ∞

= 2! (1 − 2!)&! = !&
!

!=0 !=0

*, *,
From (4), we have ( (& ) = f (& ) = (
.c, 1−2&)2

*, 2 2
=− +
(1−2&)2 (1−2&)2
( do it! )
1−2&
Now,

= −2 2 & +2 (! + 1)2 &

= 2 (−2 + 2! + 2)&

= 2 (2!)& = !. 2 Z
& = 9 &

Thus , = 2 (1 − 2!), 9 = ! 2 Z
.