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 Chapter 7 Arrays

Section 7.1 Creating and Using Arrays

1. After the following Dim statement is executed, how many elements will the array myVar
have?
Dim myVar(7) As Double
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 8
(D) 9
C

2. In the line of code

Dim scores() As Integer = {55, 33, 12}

the upper bound of the array scores is which of the following?

(A) 2
(B) 1
(C) 11
(D) 0
A

3. Each individual variable in the list

student(0), student(1), student(2)
is known as a(n)
(A) subscript.
(B) dimension.
(C) element.
(D) type.
C

4. In the statement
Dim scores(30) As Double

the number 30 designates which of the following?

(A) the highest value of the subscripts of the elements for the array scores
(B) the maximum value that can be assigned to any element in the array scores
(C) the data type for the array scores
(D) the value initially assigned to each element in the array scores
A

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

5. Which statement is true regarding the following Dim statement?
Dim states(49) As String, populations(49) As Double
(A) It is invalid since more than one array is dimensioned by a single Dim statement.
(B) It is invalid since the two arrays must have the same data type.
(C) The subscripts of states range from 1 to 49.
(D) The subscripts of populations range from 0 to 49.
D

6. The Count method returns what information about an array?

(A) the highest number that can be used as a subscript for the array
(B) the largest value that can be assigned to an array element
(C) the number of elements in the array
(D) The highest dimension of the array
C

7. In the line of code (where score is an array)

For index As Integer = 0 to (score.Count - 1)

the Count method is used to carry out which of the following tasks?
(A) determine the largest value for each of the elements
(B) determine the largest subscript in the array
(C) determine the smallest value for each of the elements
(D) declare a new array with the name Count
B

8. The ReDim statement causes an array to lose its current contents unless the word ReDim is
followed by the keyword
(A) CInt
(B) MyBase
(C) Preserve
(D) Add
C

9. Like other variables, array variables can be declared and assigned initial values at the same
time. (T/F)
T

10. After an array has been declared, its type (but not its size) can be changed with a ReDim
statement. (T/F)
F

11. If you use the ReDim statement to make an array smaller than it was, data in the eliminated
elements can be retrieved by using the Preserve keyword. (T/F)
F

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

12. The statement Dim nums(2) As Integer = {5, 6, 7} declares an array of three
elements. (T/F)
F

13. What will be the size of the array stones after the following two lines of code are executed?
Dim stones() As String = {"Watts", "Jagger", "Wood", "Richards"}
ReDim Preserve stones(10)
11

14. The statement

Dim newlist(10) As String

is used to declare an array where each element has the value 10. (T/F)
F

15. In the line of code

Function Sum(scores() As Integer) As Integer

the pair of parentheses that follows scores can be removed. (T/F)

F

16. In the line of code

Dim scores() As Integer = {55, 33, 12}

the upper bound of the array scores is 12. (T/F)

F

17. What two names are displayed in the list box when the button is clicked on?
Dim krispies(2) as String

Private Sub frmCereal_Load(...) Handles MyBase.Load

krispies(0) = "snap"
krispies(1) = "crackle"
krispies(2) = "pop"
End Sub
Private Sub btnDisplay_Click(...) Handles btnDisplay.Click
lstBox.Items.Add(krispies.Max)
lstBox.Items.Add(krispies.Last)
End Sub
(A) crackle and pop
(B) crackle and snap
(C) snap and crackle
(D) snap and pop
D

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

18. What two numbers are displayed in the list box when the button is clicked on?
Dim nums(2) as Integer

Private Sub frmNumbers_Load(...) Handles MyBase.Load

nums(0) = 5
nums(1) = 3
nums(2) = 4
End Sub
Private Sub btnDisplay_Click(...) Handles btnDisplay.Click
lstBox.Items.Add(nums.Average)
lstBox.Items.Add(nums.Max)
End Sub
(A) 4 and 5
(B) 4 and 4
(C) 3 and 5
(D) 3 and 4
A

19. Either a For...Next loop or a For Each loop can be used to display every other value from an
array in a list box. (T/F)
F

20. An array can contain both numeric and string values. (T/F)
F

21. A Function procedure can return a number, but cannot return an array of numbers. (T/F)
F

22. What names are displayed in the list box when the button is clicked on?
Private Sub btnDisplay_Click(...) Handles btnDisplay.Click
Dim names() As String = IO.File.ReadAllLines("Data.txt")
lstBox.Items.Clear()
For i As Integer = (names.Count - 1) To 0 Step -2
lstBox.Items.Add(names(i))
Next
End Sub
Assume the five lines of the file Data.txt contain the following entries: Bach, Borodin,
Brahms, Beethoven, Britain.
(A) Bach, Brahms, and Britain
(B) Britain, Beethoven, Brahms, Borodin, and Bach
(C) Bach, Borodin, Brahms, Beethoven, and Britain
(D) Britain, Brahms, and Bach
D

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

23. What names are displayed in the list box when the button is clicked on?
Private Sub btnDisplay_Click(...) Handles btnDisplay.Click
Dim file As String = "Ships.txt"
Dim ships() As String = FillArray(file)
lstBox.Items.Add(ships(2))
lstBox.Items.Add(ships.Min)
End Sub

Function FillArray(file As String) As String()

Dim names() As String = IO.File.ReadAllLines(file)
Return names
End Function
Assume the three lines of the file Ships.txt contain the following entries: Pinta, Nina, Santa
Maria.
(A) Pinta and Nina
(B) Santa Maria and Pinta
(C) Nina and Santa Maria
(D) Santa Maria and Nina
D

24. What numbers are displayed in the list box when the button is clicked on?
Private Sub btnDisplay_Click(...) Handles btnDisplay.Click
Dim file As String = "Beatles.txt"
Dim fabFour() As String = FillArray(file)
lstBox.Items.Add(Array.IndexOf(fabFour, "Ringo")
lstBox.Items.Add(fabFour.Count - 1)
End Sub

Function FillArray(file As String) As String()

Dim names() As String = IO.File.ReadAllLines(file)
Return names
End Function

Assume the four lines of the file Beatles.txt contain the following entries: John, Paul, Ringo,
George.
(A) 3 and 3
(B) 3 and 4
(C) 2 and 3
(D) 2 and 4
C

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

25. What names are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim newYork As String = "Manhatten,Bronx,Brooklyn,Queens,Staten Island"
Dim boroughs() As String = newYork.Split(","c)
lstBox.Items.Add(boroughs(0))
lstBox.Items.Add(boroughs.Min)

(A) Brooklyn and Queens

(B) Manhatten and Staten Island
(C) Bronx and Manhatten
(D) Manhatten and Bronx
D

26. What numbers are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim numbers As String = "1492,1776,1945"
Dim temp() As String = numbers.Split(","c)
Dim nums(2) As Integer
For i As Integer = 0 to 2
nums(i) = CInt(temp(i))
Next
lstBox.Items.Add(nums(1))
lstBox.Items.Add(nums.First)

(A) 1776 and 1492

(B) 1776 and 1776
(C) 1492 and 1492
(D) 1945 and 1492
A

27. What is the output of the following program segment?

Dim nums(8) As Integer
Dim total As Double = 0
For i As Integer = 0 To 8
nums(i) = i
Next
For k As Integer = 1 To 4
total += 10 ^ nums(k)
Next
txtBox.Text = CStr(total)

(A) 10000
(B) 11110
(C) 1110
(D) 0
B

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

28. What will be displayed when the following program segment is executed?
Dim temp() As String = IO.File.ReadAllLines("Data.txt")
Dim n As Integer = temp.Count - 1
Dim a(n) As Double
For k As Integer = 0 To n
a(k) = CDbl(temp(i))
Next
txtBox.Text = CStr(a(3))
Assume the five rows of the file Data.txt contain the following entries: 3, 2, 5, 1, 4.
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
A

29. What is the output of the following program segment?

Dim temp() As String = IO.File.ReadAllLines("Data.txt")
Dim n As Integer = temp.Count - 1
Dim numbers(n) As Double, h As Double = 0
For i As Integer = 0 To n
numbers(i) = CDbl(temp(i))
Next
For k As Integer = 0 to n
h += numbers(k)
Next
txtBox.Text = CStr(h)
Assume the four rows of the file Data.txt contain the following entries: 2, 4, 2, 3
(A) 11
(B) 2
(C) 7
(D) 4
A

30. Given the Dim statement below, which set of statements will initialize all elements of
myArray to 100?
Dim myArray(100) As Double

(A) myArray = 100

(B) For i As Integer = 0 To 100
(i) = 100
Next
(C) For j As Integer = 0 to 100
myArray(j) = 100
Next
(D) myArray() is already initialized to 100 by the Dim statement.
C

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

31. What is the output of the following program segment?
Dim c As Double
Dim temp() As String = IO.File.ReadAllLines("Data1.txt")
Dim n As Integer = temp.Count - 1
Dim a(n) As Double
For i As Integer = 0 To n
a(i) = CDbl(temp(i))
Next
temp() = IO.File.ReadAllLines("Data2.txt")
Dim b(n) As Double
For i As Integer = 0 To n
b(i) = CDbl(temp(i))
Next
For k As Integer = 0 To n
If a(k) = b(k) Then
c += 1
End If
Next
lstBox.Items.Add(c)
Assume the twenty rows of the file Data1.txt contain the following entries: 3, 2, 5, 1, 7, 8, 3,
5, 6, 2, 3, 6, 1, 6, 5, 5, 7, 2, 5, 3.
Assume the twenty rows of the file Data2.txt contain the following entries: 5, 3, 3, 4, 8, 2, 3,
5, 9, 5, 3, 7, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 3, 4.
(A) 2
(B) 3
(C) 4
(D) 5
(E) 6
B

32. What is displayed in the message box by the following code?

Dim message As String
Dim teamNames() As String = {"Packers", "Jets", "Seahawks"}
ReDim Preserve teamNames(1)
message = teamNames(1)
MessageBox.Show(message)
(A) Packers
(B) Jets
(C) Seahawks
(D) 2
B

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

33. If the following statement appears in a program, the array scores must have been declared
using the String data type. (T/F)
scores(1) = 87
F

34. Consider the following Dim and assignment statements for myArray(). The assignment
statement will cause a "Subscript out of range" error. (T/F)
Dim myArray(50) As Double
myArray(34) = 51
F

35. Unless otherwise specified, Visual Basic assigns the value 0 to each element of a numeric
array when it is declared with a Dim statement. (T/F)
T

36. The following pair of statement is valid. (T/F)

Dim x = CInt(InputBox("Enter number of items (must be a positive integer)"))
ReDim myArray(x - 1)
T

37. A fractional number such as 4.6 is not allowed as a subscript. (T/F)

T

38. Consider the following Visual Basic statements:

Dim nums(4) As Double
For index As Integer = 0 To 4
nums(index) = 1 + (index * 2)
Next
What values are placed in the array by the above statements? (Show each element of the
array and the value for that element.)
nums(0)=1, nums(1)=3, nums(2)=5, nums(3)=7, nums(4)=9

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

38. What is the output of the following program when the button is clicked on?
Private Sub btnDisplay_Click(...) Handles btnDisplay.Click
Dim result As Double
Dim number(4) As Double
FillArray(number)
result = SumArray(number)
txtBox.Text = CStr(result)
End Sub
Sub FillArray(ByRef anyArray() As Double)
Dim temp() As String = IO.File.ReadAllLines("Data.txt")
For i As Integer = 0 To 4
anyArray(i) = CDbl(temp(i))
Next
End Sub
Function SumArray(anyArray() As Double) As Double
Dim total As Double
total = 0
For i As Integer = 0 To 4 Step 2
total += anyArray(i)
Next
Return total
End Function
Assume the five rows of the file Data.txt contain the following entries: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(A) 0
(B) 25
(C) 15
(D) None of the above
C

39. Which of the tasks is the Join function used to carry out in the following statement?
Dim line As String
line = Join(strArrData, ",")
(A) Join concatenates the values of all elements of the array strArrData, and adds a comma
delimiter between successive values.
(B) Join concatenates the values of all elements of line, and adds a comma to the end of the
line.
(C) Join parses or separates out all items of text that are delimited by a comma in
strArrData.
(D) Join parses or separates out all items of text that are delimited by a comma in line.
A

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Section 7.2 Using LINQ with Arrays
1. What names are displayed in the list box by the following lines of code?

Dim oceans() As String = {"Atlantic", "Pacific", "Indian", "Arctic",

"Antartic"}
Dim query = From ocean in oceans
Where ocean.Length = 6
Select ocean
For Each ocean As String In query
lstBox.Items.Add(ocean)
Next
(A) Pacific and Indian
(B) Indian and Arctic
(C) Indian
(D) Atlantic and Pacific
B

2. What numbers are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim numbers() As Integer = {4, 7, 9, 3, 1}
Dim query = From number in numbers
Where number > 6
Select number
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Count)
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Average)
(A) 5 and 12
(B) 2 and 12
(C) 2 and 8
(D) 5 and 8
C

3. What numbers are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim numbers() As Integer = {4, 7, 9, 3, 1, 9, 7}
Dim query = From number in numbers
Where number > 6
Select number
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Count)
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Average)

(A) 7 and 12
(B) 4 and 8
(C) 2 and 12
(D) 7 and 8
B

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

4. What numbers are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim numbers() As Integer = {4, 7, 9, 3, 1, 7, 7}
Dim query = From number in numbers
Where number > 6
Select number
Distinct
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Count)
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Average)
(A) 5 and 12
(B) 2 and 12
(C) 2 and 8
(D) 5 and 8
C

5. What states are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim states() As String = {"Colorado", "New Mexico", "Arizona", "Utah"}
Dim query = From state in states
Where ContainsE(state)
Select state
For Each state in query
lstBox.Items.Add(state)
Next

Function ContainsE(word As String) As Boolean

If word.IndexOf("E") <> -1 Or word.IndexOf("e") <> -1 Then
Return True
Else
Return False
End If
End Function
(A) Colorado
(B) New Mexico
(C) Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah
(D) No states
B

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

6. What states are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim states() As String = {"Colorado", "New Mexico", "Arizona", "Utah"}
Dim query = From state in states
Where state.length < 5
Select state.ToUpper
For Each state in query
lstBox.Items.Add(state)
Next

(A) Utah
(B) COLORADO, NEW MEXICO, ARIZONA, UTAH
(C) UTAH
(D) No states
C

7. What numbers are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim states() As String = {"Colorado", "New Mexico", "Arizona", "Utah"}
Dim query = From state in states
Where state.EndsWith("o")
Select state.Length
For Each number in query
lstBox.Items.Add(number)
Next

(A) 8 and 10
(B) 8, 10, 7, 4
(C) 8
(D) 29
A

8. What names are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim tonightShow() As String = {"Allen", "Parr", "Carson", "Leno",
"O'Brien", "Leno"}
Dim query = From host in tonightShow
Where host.Length = 4
Select host
Distinct
For Each host in query
lstBox.Items.Add(host)
Next

(A) Parr, Leno, Leno

(B) Parr, Leno
(C) Leno
(D) No names
B

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

9. What numbers are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim numbers() As Double = {.5, 1, 2, 2.5}
Dim query = From number in numbers
Where number < 2
Let FormattedPer = number.ToString("P")
Select FormattedPer
For Each percent In query
lstBox.Items.Add(percent)
Next
(A) .5 and 1
(B) 50% and 100%
(C) 50.00%, 100.00%, 200.00%, 250.00%
(D) 50.00% and 100.00%
D

10. What years are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim years() As Integer = {1492, 1776, 1840, 1929, 1945, 2005}
Dim query = From year in years
Where Is20thCentury(year)
Select year
For Each yr in query
lstBox.Items.Add(yr)
Next

Function Is20thCentury(num As Integer) As Boolean

If (num >= 1900) and (num < 2000) Then
Return True
Else
Return False
End IF
End Function
(A) 1929 and 1945
(B) 1929
(C) 1492, 1776, 1840, 1929, 1945, 2005
(D) No years
A

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

11. What states are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim states() As String = {"Colorado", "New Mexico", "Arizona", "Utah"}
Dim query = From state in states
Order By state Ascending
Select state
lstBox.Items.Add(query.First)
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Min)

(A) Arizona and Colorado

(B) Arizona and Utah
(C) Colorado and Arizona
(D) Arizona and Arizona
D

12. What words are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim deadlySins() As String = {"pride", "greed", "anger", "envy",
"lust", "gluttony", "sloth"}
Dim query = From sin in deadlySins
Order By sin Ascending
Where sin.StartsWith("g")
Select sin
lstBox.Items.Add(query.First)
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Max)

(A) gluttony and greed

(B) gluttony and gluttony
(C) pride and gluttony
(D) greed and greed
A

13. What words are displayed in the list box by the following program segment?
Dim deadlySins() As String = {"pride", "greed", "anger", "envy",
"lust", "gluttony", "sloth"}
Dim query = From sin in deadlySins
Order By sin.Length Descending
Select sin.ToUpper
lstBox.Items.Add(query.First)
lstBox.Items.Add(query.Min)

(A) GLUTTONY and GLUTTONY

(B) GLUTTONY and SLOTH
(C) GLUTTONY and ANGER
(D) PRIDE and ENVY
C

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

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represent the once common ‘Robert le Potager,’ or ‘Walter le Potager,’
the soup-maker. Potage was the ordinary term for soup, thickened
well with vegetables and meat.[195] Thus in the ‘Boke of Curtasye’ the
guest is bid—
Suppe not with grete sowndynge,
Neither potage ne other thynge—

a rule which still holds good in society. We are well aware of the
ingredients of the dish which our Bible translators have still
bequeathed to us as ‘a mess of potage.’ In its present corrupted
form of ‘porridge’ this notion of a mess rather than of a soup is still
preserved. Another interesting servitorship of this class has well-nigh
escaped our notice—that of the hastiler: he who turned the haste or
spit. In the Close Rolls we find a ‘Thurstan le Hastler’ recorded, and
in the Parliamentary Writs such names as ‘Henry Hastiler’ and
‘William Hastiler.’ In the will of Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Essex,
among other household servants, such as potager, ferour, barber,
ewer, is mentioned ‘William de Barton, hastiler.’ I need not remind
Lancashire people that a haister, or haster, is still the term used for
the tin screen employed for roasting purposes. The memorials of this
interesting servitorship still linger on in our ‘Hastlers,’ ‘Haslers,’ and
‘Haselers.’ If, however, the supervision of the roasting and basting
required an attendant, none the less was it so with the washing-up
department. How familiarly does such a term as ‘scullery’ fall from
our lips, and how little do many of us know of its history. An
escuelle[196] was a porringer or dish, and a scullery was a place
where such vessels were stored after being washed.[197] Hence a
‘squiller’ or ‘squyler’ was he who looked to this; our modern
‘scullion,’ in fact, which is but a corrupted form of the same word. In
one of Robert of Brunne’s poems, we find him saying—
And the squyler of the kechyn,
Piers, that hath woned (dwelt) here yn.[198]
In a book of ‘Ordinances and Regulations’ we find mention made
even of a ‘sergeant-squylloure.’ Doubtless his duty was to look after
the carriage of utensils at such times as his lord made any extended
journey, or to superintend the washing of cup and platter after the
open-board festivities which were the custom of early baronial
establishments. To provide for every retainer who chanced to come
in would be, indeed, a care. The occurrence of a ‘Roger de
Norhamtone, Squyler,’ however, in the London City rolls, seems to
imply that occasionally the sale of such vessels gave the title. I
cannot say the name is obsolete, as I have met with one ‘Squiller;’
and ‘Skiller,’ which would seem to be a natural corruption, is not
uncommon. Our ‘Spencers,’ abbreviated from ‘despencer,’ had an
important charge—that of the ‘buttery,’ or ‘spence,’ the place where
the household store was kept. The term is still in use, I believe, in
our country farm-houses. In the ‘Sumner’s Tale’ the glutton is well
described as—
All vinolent as botel in the spence;

and Mr. Halliwell, I see, with his wonted research, has lighted on the
following lines:—
Yet I had lever she and I
Were both togyther secretly
In some corner in the spence.[199]

‘De la Spence,’ as well as ‘le Spencer,’ has impressed itself upon our
living nomenclature. Our ‘Panters,’ ‘Pantlers,’ and ferocious-seeming
‘Panthers,’ descendants of such folk as ‘Richard le Panter,’ or ‘Robert
le Paneter,’ or ‘Henry de le Paneterie,’ are but relics of a similar
office. They had the superintendence of the ‘paneterie,’ or pantry;
literally, of course, the bread closet. It seems, however, early to have
become used in a wider and more general sense. In the Household
Ordinances of Edward IV. one of the sergeants is styled ‘the chief
Pantrer of the King’s mouth.’ John Russel in his ‘Boke of Nurture’
thus directs his student—
 The furst yere, my son, thou shalt be pantere or buttilare,
Thou must have three knyffes kene in pantry, I sey thee, evermare,
One knyfe the loaves to choppe, another them for to pare,
The third, sharp and kene, to smothe the trenchers and square.[200]

Of the old ‘Achatour’ (found as ‘Henry le Catour’ or ‘Bernard le

Acatour’), the purveyor for the establishment, we have many
memorials, those of ‘Cater,’ ‘Cator,’ and ‘Caterer’ being the
commonest. Chaucer quaintly remarks of the ‘Manciple,’[201] who was
so
Wise in buying of victuals,

that of him
Achatours mighten take ensample.

The provisions thus purchased were called ‘cates,’ a favourite word

with some of our later poets. Equivalent to the more monastic ‘le
Cellarer,’[202] which is now obsolete, are our numberless ‘Butlers,’ the
most accepted form of the endless ‘Teobald le Botilers,’ ‘Richer le
Botillers,’ ‘Ralph le Botelers,’ ‘William le Botellers,’ ‘Walter le Butillers,’
or ‘Hugh le Buteilliers,’ of this time. As we shall observe by-and-by,
however, this was also an occupative name.[203]
With so many officers to look after the preparations, we should
expect the dinner itself to be somewhat ceremonious. And so it was
—far more ceremonious, however, than elegant in the light of the
nineteenth century. Our ‘Senechals’ and ‘Senecals’ (‘Alexander le
Seneschal,’ B., ‘Ivo Seneschallus,’ T.), relics of the ancient ‘seneschal,’
Latinized in our records as ‘Dapifer’ (‘Henry Dapifer,’ A.), arranged
the table. The root of this word is the Saxon ‘schalk,’ a servant
which, though now wholly obsolete, seems to have been in familiar
use in early times.[204] An old poem tells us—
 Then the schalkes sharply shift their horses,
To show them seemly in their sheen weeds.

In ‘Sir Gawayne,’ too, the attendant is thus described—

Clene spurs under
Of bright golde, upon silk bordes, barred full rich,
And scholes (depending) under shanks, there the schalk rides.

We are not without traces of its existence in other compounds. Thus

our ‘Marshalls’ were originally ‘marechals;’ that is, ‘mare-schalks,’ the
early name for a horse-groom or blacksmith. The Marshall, however,
was early turned into an indoor office, and seems to have been
busied enough in ordering the position of guests in the hall, a very
punctilious affair in those days. The ‘Boke of Curtasye’ says:—
In halle marshalle alle men schalle sett,
After their degre, withouten lett.

Our ‘Gateschales,’ a name now altogether obsolete, were the more

simple porter, while our ‘Gottschalks,’ a surname more frequently
hailing from Germany, but once common with ourselves as a
Christian name, denote simply ‘God’s servant.’ But we are
wandering. Let us come back to the dinner-table. Such sobriquets as
‘Ralph le Suur’[205] or ‘John le Sewer’ remind us of the sewer—he
who brought in the viands.[206] A sewe, from the old French sevre, to
follow, was any cooked dish, and thus is simply equivalent to our
course. Chaucer, in describing the rich feasts of Cambuscan, King of
Tartary, says the time would fail him to tell—
Of their strange sewes.

I believe the Queen’s household still boasts its four gentlemen

sewers. As a surname, too, the word is still common. A curious
custom presents itself to our remembrance in our ‘Says,’ who, when
not of the ‘de Says’ (‘Hugh de Say,’ A.), are but descendants of the
‘le Says’ (‘John le Say,’ M.) of the Hundred Rolls. An ‘assay’ or ‘say’
was he who assayed or tasted the messes as they were set one by
one before the baron, to guard against his being accidentally or
purposely poisoned. An old poem uses the fuller form, where it says
—
Thine assayer schalle be an hownde,
To assaye thy mete before thee.

In the ‘Boke of Curtasye,’ too, we are told to what ranks this

privilege belonged—
No mete for man schalle sayed be,
But for kynge, or prynce, or duke so fre.[207]

Another term for the same made its mark upon our nomenclature as
‘Gustur’ (‘Robert le Gustur,’ T.) To gust was thus used till
Shakespeare’s day, and we still speak of ‘gusto’ as equivalent to
relish.
We are reminded by the fact of the existence of ‘Knifesmith’ and
‘Spooner’ only among our early occupative surnames that there were
no forks in those days.[208] There is no ‘Forker’ to be found. Even the
‘Carver’ (‘Adam le Kerver,’ A., ‘Richard le Karver,’ A.) had to use his
fingers. In the ‘Boke of Kervynge,’ a manual of the then strictest
etiquette in such matters, we find the following direction:—‘Set
never on fyshe, flesche, beest, ne fowle, more than two fyngers and
a thombe.’ Seldom, too, did they use plates as we now understand
them. Before each guest was set a round slice of bread called a
trencher, and the meat being placed upon this, he consumed the
whole, or as much as he pleased. Under these circumstances we can
easily understand how necessary would be the office of ‘Ewer,’ a
name found in every early roll as ‘Brian le Ewer,’ or ‘Richard le
Ewere,’ or ‘Adam de la Euerie.’ As he supplied water for each to
cleanse his hands he was close followed by the ‘napper’ or ‘napier,’
who proffered the towel or napkin. The word, I need scarcely say, is
but a diminutive of the old nape, which was applied in general to the
tablecloths and other linen used in setting forth the dinner. An old
book, which I have already quoted, in directing the attendant how to
lay the cloth, says—
The over nape schall double be layde.

The Hundred Rolls and other records furnish us with such names as
‘Jordan le Nappere,’ or ‘John le Napere,’ or ‘Walter de la Naperye.’
Behind the lord of the board, nigh to his elbow, stood the ‘page,’
holding his cup. This seems to have been an office much sought
after by the sons of the lower nobility, and it is to the honourable
place in which it was held we no doubt owe the fact that not merely
are our ‘Pages’ decidedly numerous in the present day, but that we
also find such further particular compounds as ‘Small-page,’[209]
‘Little-page,’ or ‘Cup-page’ holding anything but a precarious
existence in our midst. There seems to have been but little
difference between this office and that of the ‘henchman,’ only that
the latter, as his name, more strictly written ‘haunchman,’ shows,
attended his master’s behests out of doors. He, too, lives on hale
and hearty in our ‘Henchmans,’ ‘Hinxmans,’ ‘Hincksmans,’ and
‘Hensmans.’[210]
In several of our early records of names we find ‘Peter le Folle,’
‘Alexander le Fol,’ and ‘Johannes Stultus’ appearing in apparently
honest and decent company. The old fool or jester was an important
entity in the retinue of the mediæval noble. He could at least say, if
he might not do, what he liked, and I am afraid the more ribald his
buffoonery the greater claim he possessed to be an adept in his
profession in the eyes of those who heard him. His dress was always
in character with his duties, being as uncouth as fashion reversed
could make it. In his hand he bore a mock rod of state, his head was
surmounted by a huge cap peaked at the summit and surrounded
with little jingling bells, his dress was in colour as conflicting as
possible, and the tout ensemble I need not dwell upon. We still talk
of a ‘foolscap,’ and even our paper has preserved the term from the
fact that one of the earliest watermarks we have was that of a fool’s
cap with bells. ‘Fools,’ I need not say, wherever else to be met with,
are now obsolete so far as our directories are concerned.
I have just mentioned the henchman. This at once carries us
without the baronial walls, and in whatever scene we are wont to
regard the early suzeraine as engaging, it is remarkable how fully
marked is our nomenclature with its surroundings. Several useful
servitorships, however, claim our first attention. In such days as
these, when the telegraph wire was an undreamt-of mystery, and
highways traversed by steam-engines would have been looked upon
as something supernatural indeed, we can readily understand the
importance of the official ‘Roger le Messager,’ or ‘John le Messager,’
nor need we be surprised by the frequency with which he is met. In
the ‘Man of Lawes Tale’ it is said—
This messager to don his avantage
Unto the Kinges mother rideth swift.

Though generally found as ‘Messinger’ or ‘Massinger,’ the truer and

more ancient form is not wholly obsolete.[211] But if there were no
telegraphs, neither was there any regular system of postage. The
name of ‘Ely le Breviter’ or ‘Peter le Brevitour’ seems to remind us of
this. I do not doubt myself the ‘breviter’ was kept by his lord for the
writing or conveyance of letters or brevets.[212] Piers Plowman uses
the word where, of the Pardoner’s preaching, it is said—
Lewed men loved it wel,
And liked his wordes,
Comen up knelynge
To kissen his bulles.
He bouched them with his brevet
And blered their eighen.[213]

The signet of his lord was in the hands of the ‘Spigurnell’ or

‘Spigurell,’ both of which forms still exist, I believe, in our general
nomenclature. As the sealer of all the royal writs, the king’s spigurell
would have an office at once important and careful. The term itself
is Saxon, its root implying that which is shut up or sealed. Our
‘Coffers,’ relics of the old ‘Ralph le Cofferer,’ or ‘John le Cofferer,’
though something occupative, were nevertheless official also, and
are to be found as such in the thirteenth century. They remind us of
the day when there were no such things as cheque-books, nor
banks, nor a paper-money currency. Then on every expedition, be it
warlike or peaceful, solid gold or silver had to be borne for the
baron’s expenditure and that of his retinue; therefore none would be
more important than he who superintended the transit from place to
place of the chest of solid coinage set under his immediate care. Our
early ‘Passavants,’ or ‘Pursevaunts,’ or more literally pursuivants,
were under the direction of the ‘Herald,’or ‘Heraud,’ as Chaucer styles
him, and usually preceded the royal or baronial retinue to announce
its approach, and attend to such other duties of lesser importance as
his superior delegated to him. In this respect he occupied a position
much akin to that of the ‘Harbinger’ or ‘Herberger,’ who prepared the
harborage or lodging, and all other entertainment required ere the
cavalcade arrived. When we reflect upon the large number of
retainers, the ceremonious list of attendants, the greater
impediments to early travel, and the difficulties of forwarding
information, we shall see that these officerships were by no means
so formal as we might be apt to imagine. To give illustrations of all
the above-mentioned surnames were easy, were it not that the
number is so large that it becomes a difficulty which to select. Such
entries, however, as ‘Jacob le Messager,’ ‘Godfrey le Coffrer,’ ‘Roger
Passavant,’ ‘Main le Heralt,’ ‘Herbert le Herberjur,’ ‘Nicholas le
Spigurnell,’ ‘Peter le Folle,’ or the Latinized ‘Johannes Stultus,’ may be
recorded as among the more familiar. A reference to the Index will
furnish examples of the rest, as well as additional ones of the above.
In a day when horses were of more consequence than now, we
need not be surprised to find the baronial manger under special
supervision. This officer figures in our mediæval archives in such
entries as ‘Walter le Avenur’ or ‘William le Avenare.’[214] As his very
name suggests, it was the avenar’s care to provide for the regular
and sufficient feeding of the animals placed under his charge.[215]
The ‘Boke of Curtayse’ tells us his duties—
The aveyner shall ordeyn provande good won
For the lordys horsis everychon,
They schyn have two cast of hay,
A peck of provande on a day.

Elsewhere, too, the same writer says—

A maystur of horsys a squyer ther is,
Aveyner and ferour under him i-wys.

Our ‘Palfreymans’ (‘John le Palfreyman,’ M.), though not always

official, I do not doubt had duties also of a similar character in
looking after the well-being of their mistress’s palfrey, and attending
the lady herself when she rode to the cover, or took an airing on the
more open and breezy hillside.
The two great amusements of the period we are considering were
the hunt and the tournament. Of the former we have many relics,
nor is the latter barren or unfruitful of terms connected therewith
that still linger on in the surnames of to-day. The exciting encounters
which took place in these chivalric meetings or jousts had a charm
alike for the Saxon and the Norman; alike, too, for spectator as well
as for him who engaged in the fierce mêlée. Training for this was by
no means left to the discretion of amateur intelligence. In three
several records of the thirteenth century I find such names as ‘Peter
le Eskurmesur,’ ‘Henry le Eskyrmessur,’ and ‘Roger le Skirmisour.’ The
root of these terms is, of course, the old French verb ‘eskirmir,’ to
fence. It is thence we get our skirmish and scrimmage, the latter
form, though looked upon now as of a somewhat slang character,
being found in the best of society in our earlier writers. Originally it
denoted a hand-to-hand encounter between two horsemen. We still
imply by a skirmish a short and sharp conflict between the advanced
posts of two contending armies. As a teacher of ‘the noble art of
self-defence,’[216] we can easily understand how important was the
skirmisher. The name has become much corrupted by lapse of time,
scarcely recognisable, in fact, in such a garb as ‘Scrimmenger,’
‘Skrymsher,’ ‘Skrimshire,’ and perchance ‘Scrimshaw,’ forms which I
find in our present London and provincial directories. Of those who
were wont to engage we have already mentioned the majority. All
the different grades of nobility were present, and with them were
their esquires, with shield and buckler, ready to supply a fresh
unsplintered lance, or a new shield, with its proudly emblazoned
crest. I need scarce remind the reader of what consequence in such
a day as this would be the costume of him who thus engaged in
such deadly conflict. The invention of gunpowder has changed the
early tactics of fight. Battles are lost and won now long ere the real
mêlée has taken place. Then everything, whether in war or
tournament, was settled face to face. To pierce his opponent where
an inlet could admit his spear, or to unhorse him by the shock of
meeting, was the knight’s one aim. The bloodiness of such an affray
can be better imagined than described. We still hear of distorted
features in the after inspection of the scene of battle, but we can
have no conception of the mangling that the bodies of horse and
rider underwent, the inevitable result of the earlier manner of
warfare. Death is mercifully quick now upon the battle-field. We
have still three or four professional surnames that remind us of this.
We have still our ‘Jackmans,’ or ‘Jakemans,’ as representatives of the
former cavalry; so called from the ‘jack’ or coat of mail they wore. It
is this latter article which has bequeathed to our youngsters of the
nineteenth century their more peaceful and diminutive jacket. Thus
mailed and horsed, they had to encounter the cruel onslaught of our
‘Spearmans,’ and ‘Pikemans,’ and ‘Billmans,’ names that themselves
suggest how bloody would be the strife when hatchet blade, and
sharp pike, and keen sword clashed together. To cover and shield
the body, then, was the one thought of these early days of military
tactics, and at the same time to give the fullest play to every limb
and sinew. This was a work of a most careful nature, and no wonder
it demanded the combined skill of several craftsmen. Such
occupative sobriquets as ‘Adam le Armerer’ or ‘Simon le Armurer’ are
now represented by the curter ‘Armer’ or ‘Armour.’ In the ‘Knight’s
Tale’ it is said—
There were also of Martes division
Th’ armerer, and the bowyer, and the smith,
That forgeth sharpe swerdes on his stith.

Our ‘Frobishers,’ ‘Furbishers,’ and ‘Furbers,’ once found as ‘Richard le

Fourbishour’ or ‘Alan le Fourbour,’ scoured and prepared the
habergeon, or jack just referred to, while ‘Gilbert le Hauberger’ or
‘John le Haubergeour’ was more immediately engaged in
constructing it. Our present Authorized Version, I need hardly say,
still retains the word. In ‘Sire Thopas,’ too, it is used where it is said
—
And next his schert an aketoun,
And over that an habergoun.

Our classical-looking ‘Homers’ are the naturally corrupted form of the

once familiar ‘le Heaumer,’ he who fashioned the warrior’s helmet.
[217]
Our ‘Sworders,’ I imagine, forged him his trusty blade,[218] while
our ‘Sheathers’ furnished forth its slip. Our ‘Platers’ I would suggest
as makers of his cuirass, while our ‘Kissers’—far less demonstrative
than they look—are but relics of such a name as ‘Richard le Kissere,’
he who manufactured his cuishes or thigh armour, one of the most
careful parts of the entire dress.[219] Lastly, our ‘Spurriers’ were there
ready to supply him with his rowel, and thus in warlike guise he was
prepared either for adventurous combat in behalf of the distressed
damsel, or to seek favour in the eyes of her he loved in the more
deadly lists.[220]
I must not forget to mention our ‘Kemps’ while upon military
affairs, a general term as it was for a soldier in the days of which we
are speaking. I believe the phrase ‘to go a kemping’ is still in use in
the north. In the old rhyme of ‘Guy and Colbrand’ the minstrel says
—
 When meat and drink is great plentye,
Then lords and ladys still will be,
And sit and solace lythe:
Then it is time for mee to speake,
Of kern knightes and kempes greate,
Such carping for to kythe.

How familiar a term it must have been in the common mouth the
frequency with which the name is met fully shows.
Our ‘Slingers’ represent an all but forgotten profession, but they
seem to have been useful enough in their day and generation. The
sling was always attached to a stick, whence the old term ‘staffsling.’
Lydgate describes David as armed
With a staffe slynge, voyde of plate and mayle;

while in ‘Richard Cœur de Lion’ we are told—

Foremost he sette hys arweblasteres,
And aftyr that hys good archeres,
And aftyr hys staff-slyngeres,
And other with scheeldes and speres.

But we must not forget old England’s one boast, her archers, and
our last quotation fitly brings them to our notice. They, too, in the
battle-field and in the rural list, maintained alike their supremacy. If
we would be proud of our early victories, we must ever look with
veneration on the bow. ‘Bowman’ and ‘Archer’ still represent the
more military professional, but not alone. Even more interesting, as
speaking for the more specific crossbow or ‘arbalist,’ are our
‘Alabasters,’ ‘Arblasters,’ ‘Arblasts,’ and ‘Balsters.’ In Robert of
Gloucester’s description of the reign of the Conqueror, it is said—
So great power of this land and of France he nom (took)
With him into England, of knights and squires,
Spearmen anote, and bowemen, and also arblasters.
Chaucer, too, describing a battlement, says—
And eke within the castle were
Springoldes, gonnes, bowes, and archers,
And eke about at corners
Men seine over the wall stand
Grete engines, who were nere hand,
And in the kernels, here and there,
Of arblasters great plentie were.

In the Hundred Rolls he is Latinized as ‘John Alblastarius,’ and in the

York Records as ‘Thomas Balistarius.’ The Inquisitiones style him
‘Richard le Alblaster,’ while the Parliamentary Writs register him as
‘Reginald le Arblaster.’ It was to this class of armour our word
‘artillery’ was first applied, a fact which our Bible translators have
preserved, where, in describing the meeting between David and
Jonathan, they speak of the latter as giving his ‘artillery to the lad.’
Cotgrave, too, in his dictionary, printed at the beginning of the
seventeenth century, has the following:—‘Artellier, a bowyer or bow-
maker, also a fletcher, or one that makes both bows and arrows.’ The
mention of the fletcher brings us to the more general weapon. Such
an entry as the following would seem strange to the eyes of the
nineteenth century:—‘To Nicolas Frost, bowman, Stephen Sedar,
fletcher,[221] Ralph, the stringer, and divers others of the said
mysteries, in money, paid to them, viz.:—to the aforesaid Nicholas,
for 500 bows, 31l. 8s.; to the aforesaid Stephen, for 1,700 sheaves
of arrows, 148l. 15s.; and to the aforesaid Ralph, for forty gross of
bowstrings, 12l.’ (Exchequer Issues, 14 Henry IV.) This short extract
in itself shows us the origin of at least three distinct surnames, viz.:
—‘Bowyer,’ ‘Fletcher,’ and ‘Stringer.’ We should hardly recognise the
first, however, in such entries as ‘Adam le Boghiere,’ or ‘William le
Boghyere.’ ‘John le Bower’ reminds us that some of our ‘Bowers’ are
similarly sprung, while ‘George le Boyer’ answers for our ‘Boyers.’
Besides these, we have ‘Robert Bowmaker’ or ‘John Bowmaykere’ to
represent the fuller sobriquet. So much for the bow. Next comes the
arrow. This was a very careful piece of workmanship. Four distinct
classes of artizans were engaged in its structure, and, as we might
expect, all are familiar names of to-day. ‘John le Arowsmyth’ we may
set first. He confined himself to the manufacture of the arrow-head.
Thus we find the following statement made in an Act passed in
1405:—‘Item, because the Arrowsmyths do make many faulty heads
for arrows and quarels, it is ordained and established that all heads
for arrows and quarels, after this time to be made, shall be well
boiled or braised, and hardened at the points with steel.’ (Stat.
Realm.)[222] ‘Clement le Settere’ or ‘Alexander le Settere’[223] was
busied in affixing these to the shaft, and ‘John le Tippere’ or ‘William
le Tippere’ in pointing them off. Nor is this all—there is yet the
feather. Of the origin of such mediæval folk as ‘Robert le Fleccher’ or
‘Ada le Fletcher,’ we are reminded by Milton, where, in describing an
angel, he says—
His locks behind,
Illustrious on his shoulders, fledge with wings,
Lay waving round.

The fletcher, or fledger as I had well-nigh called him, spent his time,
in fact, in feathering arrows.
Skelton in ‘The Maner of the World’ says:—
So proude and so gaye,
So riche in arraye,
And so skant of mon-ey
Saw I never:
So many bowyers,
So many fletchers,
And so few good archers
Saw I never.

While all these names, however, speak for specific workmanship, our
‘Flowers’ represent a more general term. We are told of Phœbus in
the ‘Manciples Tale,’ that
 His bowe he bent, and set therein a flo.

‘Flo,’ was a once familiar term for an arrow. ‘John le Floer,’ or

‘Nicholas le Flouer,’ therefore, would seem to be but synonymous
with ‘Arrowsmith’ or ‘Fletcher.’ ‘Stringer’ and ‘Stringfellow’ are self-
explanatory, and are common surnames still. What a list of
sobriquets is here! What a change in English social life do they
declare. Time was when to be a sure marksman was the object of
every English boy’s ambition. The bow was his chosen companion.
Evening saw him on the village green, beneath the shade of the old
yew tree, and as he practised his accustomed sport, his breath
would come thick and fast, as he bethought him of the coming
wake, and his chance of bringing down the popinjay, and presenting
the ribbon to his chosen queen of the May. Yes, times are altered.
Teeming cities cover the once rustic sward, broadcloth has eclipsed
the Lincoln green, the clothyard, the arrow; but still amid the crowd
that rushes to and fro in our streets the name of an ‘Archer,’ or a
‘Bowman,’ or a ‘Butts,’ or a ‘Popgay’ spoken in our ears will hush the
hubbub of the city, and, forgotten for a brief moment the greed for
money, will carry us, like a pleasant dream recalled, into the fresher
and purer atmosphere of England’s past.
In the poem from which I have but recently quoted we have the
record of ‘gonnes,’ or ‘guns,’ as we should now term them. It would
be quite possible for our nomenclature to be represented by
memorials of the powder magazine, and I should be far from
asserting that such is not the case.[224] In the household of Edward
III. there are enumerated, among others, ‘Ingyners lvij; Artellers vj;
Gonners vj.’ Here there is a clear distinction between the ‘gun’ and
the ‘engine;’ between missiles hurled by powder and those by the
catapult. Fifty years even earlier than this Chaucer had used the
following sentence:—‘They dradde no assaut of gynne, gonne, nor
skaffaut.’ In his ‘Romance,’ too, as I have just shown, he places in
juxtaposition ‘grete engines’ and ‘gonnes.’ Of one, if not both of
these, we have undoubted memorials in our nomenclature. The
Hundred Rolls furnish us with a ‘William le Engynur’ and a ‘Walter le
Ginnur;’ the Inquisitiones with a ‘Richard le Enginer,’ and the Writs
with a ‘William le Genour.’ The descendants of such as these are, of
course, our ‘Gunners,’ ‘Ginners,’ ‘Jenour,’ and ‘Jenners,’[225] the last of
which are now represented by one who is as renowned for
recovering as his ancestor in days gone by would be for destroying
life. Our ‘Gunns’ and ‘Ginns’ also must be referred to the same
source. In one of the records just alluded to a ‘Warin Engaine’ is to
be met with. If we elide the first syllable, as in the previous
instances, the modern form at once appears.
But if in the deadly tournament the baron and his retainers found
an ample pastime, nevertheless the chase was of all diversions the
most popular. In this the prince and the peasant alike found
recreation, while with regard to the latter, as we shall see, it was
also combined with service. The woody wastelands, so extended in
these earlier days of a sparse population, afforded sport enough for
the most ardent huntsman. According to the extent of privilege or
the divisions into which they were separated, these tracts were
styled by the various terms of ‘forest,’ ‘chase,’ ‘park,’ and ‘warren.’ To
any one at all conversant with old English law these several words
will be familiar enough. To keep the wilder beasts within their
prescribed limits, to prevent them injuring the tilled lands, and in
general to guard the common interests of lord and tenant, keepers
were appointed. The names of these officers, the chief of whom are
entitled by appellations whose root is of a local character, are well-
nigh all found to this day in our directories. Indeed there is no class
of names more firmly imbedded there. In the order of division I have
just alluded to, we have ‘Forester,’ with its corrupted ‘Forster’ and
‘Foster,’ relics of such registered folk as ‘Ivo le Forester,’ ‘Henry le
Forster,’ or ‘Walter le Foster;’ ‘Chaser,’ now obsolete, I believe, but
lingering on for a considerable period as the offspring of ‘William’ or
‘Simon le Chasur;’ ‘Parker,’ or ‘Parkman,’ or ‘Park,’ descended from
‘Adam le Parkere,’ or ‘Hamo le Parkere,’ or ‘Roger atte Parke,’ or
‘John del Parc,’ and ‘Warener’ or ‘Warner,’ or ‘Warren,’ lineally sprung
from men of the stamp of ‘Thomas le Warrener,’ ‘Jacke le Warner,’ or
‘Richard de Waren.’ The curtailed forms of these several terms seem
to have been all but consequent with the rise of the officership itself.
‘Love’ in the ‘Romance’ says:—
Now am I knight, now chastelaine,
Now prelate, and now chaplaine,
Now priest, now clerke, now forstere.

In his description of the Yoman, too, Chaucer adds—

An horne he bere, the baudrick was of grene,
A fostere was he sothely as I guesse.

Thus, again, Langland, in setting forth Glutton’s encounter with the

frequenters of the tavern, speaks familiarly of—
Watte the Warner.

But these are not all. It is with them we must associate our ancestral
‘Woodwards’ or ‘Woodards,’ and still more common ‘Woodreefs,’
‘Woodrows,’ ‘Woodroffs,’ and ‘Woodruffs,’ all more or less perverted
forms of the original wood-reeve.[226] A song representing the
husbandmen as complaining of the burdens in Edward II.’s reign
says—
The hayward heteth us harm to habben of his
The bailif beckneth us bale, and weneth wel do;
The wodeward waiteth us wo.

All these officers were more or less of legal capacity, men whose
duty it was, bill in hand, to guard the vert and venison under their
charge,[227] to act as agents for their lord in regard to the pannage of
hogs, to look carefully to the lawing of dogs, and in case of offences
to present them to the verderer at the forest assize. The ‘Moorward,’
found in our early records as ‘German le Morward’ or ‘Henry le
Morward,’ guarded the wilder and bleaker districts. ‘The Rider,’
commonly found as ‘Roger le Rydere’ or ‘Ralph le Ryder,’ in virtue of
having a larger extent of jurisdiction, was mounted, though his office
was essentially the same. Mr. Lower, remarking upon this word, has
a quotation from the ballad of ‘William of Cloudesley,’ where the
king, rewarding the brave archer, says:—
I give thee eightene pence a day,
And my bowe thou shalt bere,
And over all the north countrè
I make thee chyfe rydere.

With him we must associate our ‘Rangers’ and ‘Keepers,’ who, acting
doubtless under him, assisted also in the work of patrolling the
woodland and recovering strayed beasts, and presenting trespassers
to the swainmote just referred to.
The bailiff, shortened as a surname into ‘Bailey,’ ‘Baillie’ (‘German
le Bailif,’ J., ‘Henry le Baillie,’ M.), like the reve, seems to have been
both of legal and private capacity; in either case acting as deputy.
[228]
This word ‘reve’ did a large amount of duty formerly, but seems
now to be fast getting into its dotage. In composition, however, it is
far from being obsolete. The ‘Reeve’ (‘John le Reve,’ M., ‘Sager le
Reve,’ H.), who figured so conspicuously among the Canterbury
Pilgrims, would be the best representative of the term in his day, I
imagine—
His lordes shepe, his nete, and his deirie,
His swine, his hors, his store, and his pultrie,
Were wholly in this reves governing.

Our ‘Grieves’ (‘Thomas le Greyve,’ A.), who are but the fuller ‘Gerefa,’
fulfilled, and I believe in some parts of Scotland still fulfil, the
capacity here described, being but manorial bailiffs, in fact. ‘The
Boke of Curtasye’ says—
Grayvis, and baylys, and parker
Shall come to accountes every yere
Byfore the auditours of the lorde.
Thus, too, our ‘Portreeves’ (‘William le Portreve,’ A., ‘Augustin le
Portreve,’ A.), who in our coast towns fulfilled the capacity of our
more general mayor, are oftentimes in our earlier records enrolled as
Portgreve.’ ‘Hythereve’ (‘John le Huthereve,’ O.), from hithe, a haven,
would seem to denote the same office, while our obsolete ‘Fenreves’
(‘Adam le Fenreve,’ A.), like the ‘Moorward’ mentioned above, had
charge, I doubt not, of the wilder and more sparsely populated
tracts of land. Many other compounds of this word we have already
recorded; some we shall refer to by-and-by, and with them and
these the reeve, after all, is not likely to be soon forgotten.
But the poorer villeins were not without those who should guard
their interests also. In a day of fewer landmarks and scantier
barriers trespasses would be inevitable. An interesting relic of
primitive precaution against the straying of animals is found in the
officership of the ‘Hayward’ (or ‘Adam le Heyward,’ as the Hundred
Rolls have it), whose duty it was to guard the cattle that grazed on
the village common. He was so styled from the Saxon ‘hay’ or
‘hedge,’ already spoken of in our previous chapter. An old poem has
it—
In tyme of hervest mery it is ynough;
Peres and apples hongeth on bough,
The hayward bloweth mery his horne;
In every felde ripe is corne.

In ‘Piers Plowman,’ too, we have the word—

I have an horne, and be a hayward,
And liggen out a nyghtes
And kepe my corne and my croft
From pykers and theves.

It will be seen from these two references that the officership was of
a somewhat general character. The cattle might be his chief care,
but the common village interests were also under his supervision.
The term has left many surnames to maintain its now decayed and
primitive character; ‘Hayward’ and ‘Haward’ are, however, the most
familiar. ‘Hayman,’ doubtless, is of similar origin. If, in spite of the
hayward’s care, it came to pass that any trespass occurred, the
village ‘pounder’ was ready at hand to impound the animal till its
owner claimed it, and paid the customary fine—
In Wakefield there lives a jolly pinder,
In Wakefield, all on a green.

So we are told in ‘Robin Hood.’ I need not add that our many
‘Pounders,’ ‘Pinders,’ and still more classic ‘Pindars,’ are but the
descendants of him or one of his confrères. I do not doubt myself,
too, that our ‘Penders’ (‘William le Pendere’ in the Parliamentary
Writs) will be found to be of a similar origin.
While, however, these especial officers superintended the general
interests of lord and tenant, there were those also whose peculiar
function it was to guard the particular quarry his master loved to
chase; to see them unmolested and undisturbed during such time as
the hunt itself was in abeyance, and then, when the chase came on,
to overlook and conduct its course. These, too, are not without
descendants. Such names as ‘Stagman’ and ‘Buckmaster,’[229]
‘Hindman’ and ‘Hartman,’ ‘Deerman’ and its more amatory
‘Dearman,’ by their comparative frequency, remind us how important
would be their office in the eye of their lord.
Nor are those who assisted in the lordly hunt itself left
unrepresented in our nomenclature. The old ‘Elyas le Hunderd,’ or
‘hund-herd,’ has left in our ‘Hunnards’ an abiding memorial of the
‘houndsman.’ Similarly the ‘vaultrier’ was he who unleashed them. It
has been a matter of doubt whether or no the more modern
‘feuterer’ owes his origin to this term, but the gradations found in
such registrations as ‘John le Veutrer,’ ‘Geoffrey le Veuterer,’ and
‘Walter le Feuterer,’ to be met with in the rolls of this period, set all
question, I should imagine, at rest. An old poem, describing the
various duties of these officers and their charges, says—
 A halpeny the hunte takes on the day
For every hounde the sothe to say;
The vewtrer, two cast of brede he tase,
Two lesshe of greyhounds if that he has.

‘Fewter’ and ‘Futter,’[230] however, seem to be the only relics we now

possess of this once important care. Such names as ‘John le Berner’
or ‘Thomas le Berner,’ common enough in old rolls, must be
distinguished from our more aristocratic ‘Berners.’ The berner was a
special houndsman who stood with fresh relays of dogs ready to
unleash them if the chase grew heated and long. In the
Parliamentary Rolls he is termed a ‘yeoman-berner.’ Our ‘Hornblows,’
curtailed from ‘Hornblower,’ and simpler ‘Blowers,’ would seem to be
closely related to the last, for the horn figured as no mean addition
by its jubilant sounds to the excitement of the chase. He who used it
held an office that required all the attention he could bring to bear
upon it. The dogs were not unleashed until he had sounded the
blast, and if at any time from his elevated station he caught sight of
the quarry, he was by the manner of winding his instrument to
certify to the huntsman the peculiar class to which it belonged. In
the Hundred Rolls we find him inscribed as ‘Blowhorn,’ a mere
reversal of syllables. Of a more general and professional character
probably would be our ‘Hunters,’ ‘Huntsmans,’ and ‘Hunts,’ not to
mention the more Norman ‘John le Venner’ or ‘Richard Fenner.’ It
may not be known to all our ‘Hunts’ that theirs, the shorter form,
was the most familiar term in use at that time; hence the number
that at present exist. We are told in the ‘Knight’s Tale’ of the—
Hunte and horne, and houndes him beside;

while but a little further on he speaks of—

The hunte ystrangled with the wilde beres.

Forms like ‘Walter le Hunte’ or ‘Nicholas le Hunte’ are very common

to the old records. As another proof of the general use of this word
we may cite its compounds. ‘Borehunte’ carries us back to the day
when the wild boar ranged the forest’s deeper gloom. ‘Wolfhunt,’
represented in the Inquisitiones by such a sobriquet as ‘Walter le
Wolfhunte,’ reminds us that Edgar did not utterly exterminate that
savage beast of prey, as is oftentimes asserted. A family of this
name held lands in the Peak of Derbyshire at this period by the
service of keeping the forest clear of wolves. In the forty-third year
of Edward III. one Thomas Engeine held lands in Pitchley, in the
county of Northampton, by service of finding at his own cost certain
dogs for the destruction of wolves, foxes, &c., in the counties of
Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, Essex, and Buckingham; nay, as late
as the eleventh year of Henry VI. Sir Robert Plumpton held one
borate of land in Nottinghamshire, by service of winding a horn, and
chasing or frightening the wolves in Sherwood Forest.[231] Doubtless,
however, as in these recorded instances, it would be in the more
hilly and bleaker districts, or in the deeper forests, he found his
safest and last retreat. It seems well-nigh literally to be coming
down from a mountain to a mole-hill to speak of our ‘Mole-hunts,’
the other compound of this word. But small as he was in comparison
with the other, he was scarcely less obnoxious on account of his
burrowing propensities, for which the husbandman gave him the
longer name of mouldwarp. His numbers, too, made him formidable,
and it is no wonder that people found occupation enough in his
destruction, or that the name of ‘Molehunt’ should have found its
way into our early rolls. So late, indeed, as 1641, we find in a
farming book the statement that 12d. was the usual price paid by
the farmer for every dozen old moles secured, and 6d. for the same
number of young ones. This speaks at least for their plentifulness.
An old provincialism for mole, and one not yet extinct, was ‘wont’ or
‘want.’ This explains the name of ‘Henry le Wantur,’ which may be
met with in the Hundred Rolls. In the Sloane MS. is a method given
‘for to take wontes.’ It would be in the deeper underwood our
‘Todmans’ and ‘Todhunters,’ the chasers of the fox, or ‘tod,’ as he
was popularly called, found diversion enough. It would be here our
‘Brockmans’ secured the badger. I doubt not these were both also of
professional character—aids and helps to the farmer. Indeed, he had
many upon whose services he could rely for a trifle of reward in the
shape of a silver penny, or a warm mess of potage on the kitchen
settle. Our ‘Burders’ and ‘Fowlers,’ by their craft, whether of falconry
or netting, or in the use of the cross-bow bolt, aided to clear the air
of the more savage birds of prey, or of the lesser ones that would
molest the bursting seed. I need scarcely remark that the distinction
between ‘bird’ and ‘fowl’ is modern. The ‘fowls of the air’ with our
Saxon Bible, and up to very recent days, embraced every winged
creature, large and small. In our very expression ‘barndoor-fowl’ we
are only using a phrase which served to mark the distinction
between the wilder and the more domesticated bird. The training
and sale of bullfinches seem to have given special employment then,
as now, to such as would undertake the care thereof. A ‘Robert le
Fincher’ occurs at an early period, and I see his descendants are yet
in being. As we shall see in a later chapter, this bird has set his mark
deeply upon our sobriquet nomenclature. Our ‘Trappers,’ whether for
bird or beast, confined their operations to the soil, capturing their
spoil by net or gin.
We owe several names, or rather several forms of the same name,
to the once favourite pursuit of falconry. Of all sports in the open air
this was the one most entirely aristocratic. In it the lord and his lady
alike found pleasure. It had become popular so early as the ninth
century, and, as Mr. Lower says, in such estimation was the office of
State falconer held in Norman times that Domesday shows us, apart
from others, four different tenants-in-chief, who are described each
as ‘accipitrarius,’ or falconer. Until John’s reign it was not lawful for
any but those of the highest rank to keep hawks, but in the ‘Forest
Charter’ a special clause was introduced which gave power to every
free man to have an aerie. So valuable was a good falcon that it
even stood chief among royal gifts, and up to the beginning of the
seventeenth century it brought as much as 100 marks in the market.
[232]
Royal edicts were even passed for the preservation of their eggs.
From all this, and much more that might be adduced, it is easy to
understand how important was the office of falconer, nor need we
wonder that it is one of the most familiar names to be found in early
rolls. Of many forms those of ‘Falconer,’ ‘Falconar,’ ‘Faulkner,’
‘Falkner,’[233] ‘Faulconer,’ and ‘Faukener,’ seem to be the commonest.
The last form is found in the ‘Boke of Curtasye’—
The chaunceler answeres for their clothyng,
For yomen, faukeners, and their horsyng,
For their wardrop and wages also.

In our former ‘Idonea or Walter le Oyseler’ we recognise but another

French term for the same. A special keeper of the goshawk, or
‘oster,’ got into mediæval records in the shape of ‘William le Astrier,’
or ‘Robert le Ostricer,’ or ‘Richard le Hostriciere,’ or ‘Godfrey
Ostriciarius.’ The Latin ‘accipiter’ is believed to be the root of the
term, which with such other perverted forms as ‘Ostregier,’
‘Ostringer,’ ‘Astringer,’ and ‘Austringer,’ lingered on the common
tongue till so late as the seventeenth century.[234] A curious proof of
the prevailing passion is found in the name of ‘Robert le Jessmaker,’
set down in the Hundred Rolls. The ‘jess’ was the leathern or silken
strap fastened closely round the foot of the hawk, from which the
line depended and was held by the falconer. That the demand for
these should be so great as to cause a man to give himself up
entirely to their manufacture, will be the best evidence of the ardour
with which our forefathers entered into this pastime. The end of
falconry was, however, sudden as it was complete. The introduction
of the musket at one fell swoop did away with office, pursuit, with,
in fact, the whole paraphernalia of the amusement, and now it is
without a relic, save in so far as these names abide with us.
In concluding this part of our subject it is pleasant to remind
ourselves that, however strong might be the antagonism which this
chapter displays between Norman and Saxon, the pride of the one,
the oppression of the other, that antagonism is now overpast and
gone. We well know that a revolution was at work, sometimes
showing itself violently, but generally silent in its progress, by which
happier circumstances arrived, happier at any rate for the country at
large. We well know how this consummation came, how these
several races became afterwards one by the suppression of that
power the more independent of these barons had wielded, by
confusion of blood, by the acquisition of more general liberty, by
mutuality of interests, by the contagious influences of commerce,
and, above all, by the kindly and prejudice-weakening force of
lapsing time. All this we know, and, as it is in a sense foreign to our
present purpose, I pass over it now. I trust that I have already
shown that there is something, after all, in a name; at any rate in a
surname, for that in it is supplied a link between the past and the
present, for that in the utterance of one of these may be recalled not
merely the lineaments of some face of to-day, but the dimmer
outline of an age which is past beyond recall for ever. Viewed in a
light so broad as this, the country churchyard, with each mossy
stone, is, apart from the diviner lessons it teaches, a living page of
history; and even the parish register, instead of being a mere record
of dry and uninteresting facts, becomes instinct with the lives and
surroundings of our English forefathers.
 CHAPTER IV.

SURNAMES OF OCCUPATION (COUNTRY).

I now come to the consideration of occupations generally, and to this

I think it will be advisable to devote two chapters. One reason for so
doing, the main one in fact, is that they seem naturally to divide
themselves into two classes—those of a rural character, very
numerous at that time on account of agricultural pursuits being so
general, and those of a more diverse and I may say civilized kind,
bearing upon the community’s life—literature and art, dress, with all
its varied paraphernalia, the boudoir and the kitchen. In considering
the former, the character of our surnames will give us, I imagine, by
no means a bad or ineffective picture of the simplicity of our early
rural life, its retirement, and even calm. In shadowing forth the
latter, we shall be enabled to see what were the available means of
that age, and by the very absence of certain names to realise how
numberless have been the resources that discovery has added at a
more recent period. It will be well, too, to give two entire chapters
to these surnames, as being worthy of somewhat further
particularity than the others. They betray much more of our English
life that has become obsolete. Local names, as I have said already,
while they must ever denote much of change, denote the changes
more especially of Nature herself, which are slow in general, and
require more than the test of four or five centuries to make their
transitions apparent. Personal or Christian names vary almost less
than these. The Western European system is set upon the same
foundation, and whatever has been peculiar to separate countries
has long since, by the intermingling of nations, whether peaceful or
revolutionary, been added to the one common stock. Some indeed
have fallen into disuse through crises of various kinds. A certain
number, too, of a fanciful kind, as we have already seen, have been
added within the last two centuries, but these latter have not of
course affected our surnames. Nicknames, which form so large a
proportion of our nomenclature, remain much the same; for a
nation’s tongue, while receiving a constant deposit and throwing off
ever a redundant phraseology, still, as a rule, does not touch these;
they are taken from the deeper channel of a people’s speech. But
the fashion and custom of living is ever changing. New wants spring
up, and old requirements become unneeded; fresh resources come
to hand, and the more antique are at once despised and thrown
aside. In a word, invention and discovery cast their shafts at the
very heart of usage. Thus it is that we shall have such a large
number of obsolete occupations to recount—occupations which but
for our rolls even the oldest and most reliable of our less formal
writings would have failed to preserve to us.
It is quite possible for the eye to light upon hamlets in the more
retired nooks and crannies of England that have undergone but little
change during even the last six centuries, hamlets of which we could
say with Goldsmith:—
How often have I paused on every charm,
The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm,
The never-failing brook, the busy mill,
The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill,
The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade,
For talking age and whispering lovers made.

I have seen, or I at least imagined I have seen, such a picture as

this; but if there be, this of all times is that in which we must be
prepared for a revolution. Our railways are every day but connecting
us with the more inaccessible districts, following as they do the
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