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':;!"::::i'South American Camelids
Victor R. Pacheco Torres
Alfredo Altamirano Enciso
Enma Guerra Porras
Translated by Elsie Sandefur
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Archaeological Research Tools, Volume 3
Institute of Archaeology University of California, los Angeles
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH TOOLS (ART) is conceived as a series of contributions
for the practice of archaeology. Manuals for excavation, analysis, or publication; Rlossaries
of terms and expressions in English or foreign languages; simple reference works for the
field or the laboratory---th"ese are some of the applications for which the series will provide
a forum. Scholars and students, professionals and laymen will find ART volumes equally
useful in the various aspects of the archaeological practice. "
Editorial Board: Giorgio Buccellati, Brian D. Dillon, Ernestine S. Elster, Clement W. Meighan,
Merrick Posnansky, and James Sackett
Institute of Archaeology Publications Director: Ernestine S. Elster
Originally published as cura Ostealogica de Camelidas Sudamericanas, Investigations Series 4,
The Greater National University of San Marcos, Cabinet of Archaeology, Royal College, Lima,
1979.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pacheco Torres, Victor R. (Victor Raul)
The osteology of South American camel ids
(Archaeological research tools; 3)
Translation of: GUla osteologica de camelidos sudamericanos.
Bibliography: p.
1. Alpaca--Anatomy. 2. L1amas--Anatomy. 3. Bones.
4. Animal remains (Archaeology). 5. Mammals--Anatomy.
6. Mammals--50uth America--Anatomy. I. Altamirano Enciso,
Alfredo J. II. Guerra Porras, Enma S. III. Title.
IV. Series: Archaeological research tools ; v. 3.
QL737.U54P3313 1986 599.73'6 86-27680
ISBN: 0-917956-57-5
Cover and book design: Carol Leyba
"Illustration enhancements for this edition: Timothy Seymour
:i/
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Copyright 1986. Regents of the University of California.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the U.S.A.
Contents
Acknowledgments vi Prefoce, by Romiro Motos M. viii
Tronslotor's AcknowIedgment s
vii Introduction, by Jonothon Kent I
DESCRIPTIVE OSTEOLOGICAL ATLAS OF SOUTH AMERICAN CAMELIDS
The Skull 3 The Scopula 14
Figure I 4 Figure II 16
The Mandible 3 The Humerus 14
Figure 2 5 Figure 12 17
. ', ...:i';' ','.,
:"";l', -':'The Vertebral Column 5 The Radius-Ulna 18
;
: Not IIlus. Figure 13 19
Cervical Vertebrae 5 The Pelvis 18
Figure 3 6
Figure 14
20
The Atlas 6
The Femur
21
Figure 4 7
Figure 15 22
The Axis Vertebra 8 The Patella
21
Figure 5 9 Figure 16 23
Thoracic Vertebrae 8 The Tibia 21
Figure 6 10 Figure 17 24
Lumbar Vertebrae 8 The Metacarpal and
Figure 7 II the Metatarsal 25
Figur.e 18
26
The Sacrum II
Figure 8 12 The Carpal Bones 25
Figure 19 27
Caudal Vertebrae II
Not IIlus. The Tarsal Bones 28
Figure 20 29
The Ribs
I]
Figure 9
I]
The Phalanges 28
Figure 21 30
The Sternum
I:,
Figure 10 IS
Table of Ages for Camel ids
]1 References
32
Preface
For the consideration of our colleogues who are interested in Andean zooar-
chaeology or paleozoology, we submit this essay prepored by our students:
Victor Roul Pacheco Torres, Alfredo Altomirono Enciso, and Enma Guerra
Porros, entitled: "The Osteology of South American Came lids."
In the publication "On the Laboratory of Paleo-ethnozoology" (1976) we
wrote the following:
During a time of confusion and contradictions in Andean Ar-
chaeology, the Loborotory of Poleoethnozoology originated as a
center of speciolized study of the founa of the Central Andes ond
its center of influence. The founding of this loboratory is not a
matter of imitation, nor of simply establishing one more
laboratory in Peru. It is a natural consequence of the progress of
a scientific archaeological investigation. The archaeologist con
no longer work alone, much less with empty hands. He needs the
assistance of spec ia lis t s from the natural sciences, as well as
those of the social sciences, from computer analysis, and from
the specialized laboratories of biologists and physical chemists.
Many people have seen Peru as an inexhaustible mine for exploitation.
For centuries the orchaeologicol deposits were removed, finding their woy into
museums and private collections, especially in the West. Our national or-
ganizations, unfortunately, did nothing to impede this. Recently the same
thing was occurring with samples of plants and animals; others have thus
benefited from the lock of stote control.
More recently our criteria for control have been substontial and
effective. One monner of de fending our cultural ond natural resources is
precisely to think about ond to give life to the centers of investigotion. We
estoblished the Loboratory of Poleoelhnozoology in 1975. We invited visiting
professors to collaborate in its orgonizotion, and we asked the support of Dr.
Aurelio Malaga Alba, who accepted the directorship of the Laboratory, an
office which he hos held ad-honorem 10 date.
The orientation of work in archaeology with natural resources, the in-
teraction of man with his environment, etc., follows the theoretical orientation
of Kent Flannery. After my relurn from the United States in 1968, my
interest was in the archaeolo<,ical remains of animals and plants, the latter
recovered by means of the technique of flotation. Through the use of this
viii
technique and with faunal collection, by 1972 we already hod a small compara-
tive collection which increases each year. The University of Son Marcos relies
on this irnportant center, and on our obligation to continue increasing and
enlarging its services.
The collections of prehistoric fauna come principally from Junin. The
modern collections, for the most port camelids, come from Instituta
Veterinario de Investigaciones Tropicales y de Altura in La Raya, on important
Notional Center of South American camelids endorsed by the University of Son
Marcos.
By working in this Laboratory of Paleoethnozoalogy and by studying its
collection, the authors of this present manual have developed this important
work which undoubtedly will be an excellent book of reference. It is a product
of three earnest young students who have established both interest and
vocations in archaeology.
This first publication will be the object of much criticism. hope that
it will be so. In such a case, science will benefit.
Ramiro Matos M.
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ix
" 1
.1 i,
%=E:::::::::: Pha langes
Sacrum
/ Caudal Vertel
.,.
Tarsa I Bones
Pelvis
1 i. , . 'I
.. : i; .. ';
Tibia
:...
Femur

Lumbar
Vertebrae
Carpa I Bones
Metacarpal
Thoracic Vertebrae ,.--'--"
Phalanges
"--..1'''4
Radius/Ulna
Skull
Atlas Vertebra
Axis Vertebra
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,ci,; ',:' Introduction
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", South American camel ids' entered this continent between one and three million
years' 'ago, migrating from North America. During this time, the camelids
became adapted to a dry environment and, more recently, to one characterized
by high altitudes. The adaptation was brought about by means of the develop-
ment of locomotive and feeding mechanisms suitable for areas of scarce plant
resources, such as that of the puna or the altiplano (high plain), with its rocky
ground and seasonal snow cover. These physiological mechanisms evolved as
the product of the relation between the phylogenetic history of the camel ids
and the requirements of their environment.
At present there are four principal camelids: the llama, the alpaca, the
vicuna, and the guanaco. The four are very similar in morphology. In fact, it
is now possible to hybridize them wi th various levels of success.
Because of such a high degree of similarity, caused by similar adaptation
and their ability to interbreed with some success,1 it has been very difficult to
distinguish, osteologically, the bones of each variety of came lid. This
difficulty is especially manifest macroscopically.
Less difficult, but still problematic, is' the similarity between bones of
ca'melids and those of the other ungulates that are similarly adapted, such as
the cervids, (e.g., the white-tailed deer Odocaileus virginianus, or the taruga,
Hippocamelus antisensis). This similarity stems fran: the fact that they have
developed convergent mechanisms that permit the animals of the sierra to
adapt to similar environmental requirements. This fact is reflected in an os-
teological similarity.
Our purpose in this manual is to provide the field investigator with a
handy reference for the identification of the osseous remains of came lids and
allow that investigator to easily distinguish the remains of a camelid from
those of the other animals with which they may be confused. One may apply
this manual to the remains of anyone of the four vorieties of camelid.
2
This manual may be used by range managers, biologists, archaeologists,
and public officials dedicated to the protection and propagation of these
valuable animals, as well as by investigators of animal science and veterinary
medicine. For example, the expert in animal management frequently
encounters osseous remains of animals victimized by predators or killed by
other means. He may use this manual to determine if 'the faunal remains
.belang to camel ids so that he might change pasture areas or take measures
against the predators.
In a similar manner, the biologist needs to evaluate how the food web
functions within a particular ecological zone.
1
Given that the vicuna and the guanaca are animals threatened by
extinction, and given the increase in illegal hunting, this manual would provide
those officials charged with carrying out conservation laws a way to determine
if remains found in the field belong to a camelid or to some other animal:
Th is would serve nat only to provide evidence in a court prosecution, but also
to permit the taking of effective measures against such illegal hunting
practices in the future.
The archaeologist's problems are somewhat different because often he
has, even in the best circumstances, only a portial skeleton. More frequently,
he has to identify animals represented by mere fragments of bones. It;s
hoped that the inclusion of various keys to diagnostic elements will help him in
his work.
This manual can be used with the most effectiveness if the specimen is
at hand. It is also recommended that whoever uses it familiarize himself with
each one of the illustrated bones and the keys to diagnostic elements. This
familiarity will improve the process of identification.
In the description of the diagnostic elements (including tubercles, fossae,
foramina, crests, general forms, etc.), the emphasis has been placed, through
the illustrations, on those elements which serve to distinguish efficiently the
camelids from other large animals. In those cases in which a diagnostic
feature might be variable, the variation is indicated in the text. The numbers
in parenthesis in the text refer to the features numbered in the figures and
usually are of special importance.
The manual has been prepared using a large collection of camelid
skeletons in the Paleoethnozoology Laboratory of the University of San Marcos,
academic program of Veterinary Medicine, Lima, Peru. That collection was
largely prepared through the efforts of previous investigators and, without their
activities, this manual would not exist.
Jonathan Kent
Department of. Anthropology
University of California;
Riverside, California 92521
Notes
I. "Success" is measured in terms of the proportion of live births to the total
number of births.
Three million yeors before present (b.p.) represents (] likely date for the stort of
(] major faunal interchange between North and South America. However, the dote of
the emergence of the Panamanian land bridge is uncertain, and there ore records of
minor faunol migrations between continents for much of the Pliocene (i.e.. back to
thirteen million years b.p.; see Marshall et al. 1979:275).
2. Loter on we hope to publish (] manual about methods to distinguish the bones
of the four species of comelids from one another. . .,
2
Descriptive Osteological Atlas
of South American Camelids
Note: )) indicates translator's comments for clarification in English.
The Skull (Figure I)
The mastoid foramen of the occipital is very large; however the diameter
varies considerably and it tends to become narrower in the guanaco. The
tympanic bulla (18) is compressed antero-posteriorly, its quadrangular and
oblique form is oriented forward and toward the axial axis. The edge of the
paramastoidal apophysis the most vent,ral port of the bulla is at the some
level as the occipital condyles (19).
The zygomatic arch (17) is formed' in the South American camelid when
the zygomatic process of the temporal inserts like a wedge between the two
branches of the molar (6): the orbicular and the zygomatic. The facial crest
of the molar is little pronounced and does not extend as for as the upper
max i lIary. The supraarbi tal notch, located over the orbi tal foramen, can be
found closed or open (in the guanaco).
In most of the individuals there exists a lacrimal fenestra in front of the
orbital foramen. This fenestra is not present in our samples of vicunas but
appears as a frontal-maxillary articulation.
The permanent dental formula is:
C.:!
1
pt.
1
Ml
3
In the upper maxillary, the premolars are in front of the infraorbital
foramen. The upper molars are slightly more posterior than the lowers; the
molars, of the selenodont type, possess four cusps except for the third lower
molar which has five cusps. Upon emerging, these cusps wear out. The lower
fourth premolar customarily appears with six tubercles arranged in three rows
of two tubercles each. In the palate of the adult the choanas posterior
nares reach to the level of molar three.
The Mandible (Figure 2)
The. mandible contains a reduced angular process which generally is oriented
medially toward the main axis of the skull. The mandibular foramen has a lip
which partially covers it. The coronoid process is very high.
3
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
THE SKULL
Lateral
Ventral
I. Premaxillary
2. 'Nasals
3. Maxillary
- 17 4. Frontals
S. Lacrimals
6. Molar
7. Temporal
8. Parietal
9. Occipital
10. Mandible (body)
II. Supraoccipital
12. Mastoid foramen
13. Supermaxi lIary
14. Palatine
15. Presphenoid
16. Squamosal
17. Zygomatic arch
18. Tympanic bulla
19. Occipital condyle
'.'
---===---====--- 10cm
Figure I. Skull of a 9-yeor-olc Lama glomo (A-I 18) male. Top: Left lateral view."
Bot tom: Ventral view.
4
The Osteology of South American Camelids
10
THE MANDIBLE
--==-_===-_ Scm
I. Coronoid process
2. Mas.seteric fos.sa
1. Molars
4. Conine
5. Incisors
6. Mental foramen
7. Body of mandible
8. Mandibular angle
Angular process
10. Mandibular condyle
7
\.
6
Figure 2. Mandible of a Larro olama (A-liB) mole. Right 10 eral view.
The Vertebral Column (Not Illus fe/cd)
C-7 T-12 L-7 5-5 C-II-17
7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic, 7 lumbar, 5 sacral, and II to 17 caudal
vertebrae})
Cervical Vertebrae (Figure)}
In the cervical vertebrae Ihere is c..,icen dominance of the Jeng h over the
o her measurements, excep in firs atlas and in the seventh. The
vertebral body centrum has a VC:l ral crest wi h a posterior tubercle which
is Jess marked in the sixth cnl! Sc' enlh vertebrae. The second he axis)}
through the sixth cervicals can c;in Ircnsverse canals v rlebrarterial canals
in the interior of the vertebral neural arch) for the vertebral or ery.
The dorsal spinal process is reduced and appears only in the exlrem
anterior of each vertebra. T!- processes are winged and sli9htly
curved toward the dorsal face; in :1 1, axis hey are curv d to ard he yen ral
face.
5
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
6th Cervical Vertebra
V
6
I. Posterior articulating facet
2. Transverse process
3. Ramus of the transverse process
4. Spinous process
5 ~ Body or centrum
6. Ventral process
7. Anterior articulating process
Vertebra
=:._==-_, Scm
Figure 3. Two cervical vertebrae of a 9-year-old Lama pacos (A-I 14) male. Left:-
Sixth cervical vertebra, right side. Right: Third cervical vertebra, right side.
The Atlas (Figure 4)
This is the vertebra where the greatest dimension of the vertebral foramen
may be seen. The anterior articular cavity is not separated by a notch or
groove ((between the two doral facets as occurs in cervids. A moderate
ventral crest is present; the transverse process is winged, slanting antero-
posteriorly from above to below, with the transverse foramen ((or alar canal)
exiting on the posterior dorsal surface.
6
The Osteology of South American Camelids
~ ........ :
::. =.......~ . . I
THE ATLAS
.',
_ 4 ~
..... -
I
I
3
____-"__"""--- Scm
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....
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"
I. Dorsal arch
2. Articulating facets for the occipital condyles
3. Ventral tubercle
4. Transverse process or wing
5. Intervertebral foramen
6. Ventral orch
7. Cotyloid process
8. Alar fossa
9. Transverse foramen
10. Posterior articulating facets
II. Intervertebral conal
12. Alar conal
13. Ventral arch (for the odontoid
process of the axis)
" ~ I :
(., .. ". "
..... , ....... ' ..'.,.
Figure 4. -P-Atlos vertebra of 0 9-yeor-old Lama pacos (A-I 14) mole. Top left:
Anterior view. Top right: Ventral view. Bottom left: Posterior view. Bottom right:
Dorsal view.
7
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P. ..,.-
The Axis (Figure 5)
The transverse process is winged and slightly curved below. The spinal process
originates anteriorly and increases slightly in height as it progresses
posteriorly, without extending to the two posterior articulating facets; the
posterior end of this spinal process is expanding.
Cervical Vertebra No.6: The ventral processes the costellar processes and
the two posterior rami of the transverse processes actually these are the
postero-ventral costellar processes)} appear to elevate this vertebra on faur
feet.
Cervical Vertebra No.7: The body (centrum is shorter, broader, and more
compressed dorso-ventrally than the other cervicals. The dorsal spinal process
is always anterior, but is shorter and bears a heavier tubercle on the anterior
end. The transverse foramen mayor may not be present; the tr'ansverse
process is more anterior than in the other cervical vertebrae.
Thoracic Vertebrae (Figure 6)
The vertebral centrum or body is much shorter than in the cervical vertebrae;
all of the vertebrae are similar in size, with a ventral crest which is very
sharp-edged in the more anterior thoracic vertebrae. The spinous process is
rectangular, very high, and curved backward in the first vertebrae. In the
most poster ior vertebrae, it becomes more quadrangular, more vertical, and
smaller in size. The dorsal arch has intervertebral articulating facets (the
anterior facets face up, the poslerior facets face down), except on the first
thoracic vertebra where the anterior articulating facet is found in the
transverse process.
In the fourth and fifth thorocic vertebrae the two small posterior inter-.
vertebral articulating focets move together; at times they fuse into one single
facet, then in the following vertebra they may continue to be two separate
facets. In the anterior facets, the transverse processes begin to form a border
which serves to narrow the small articulating faces so that in the tenth,
eleventh, and' twelfth vertebrae, the articulation is of the engaging type and
will not slip..
,
.1
" ' ..
Lumbar Vertebrae (Figure I)
In all lumbar vertebrae, the cer.:ro are almost of the same length and are a
Ii t t Ie larger than those of 1!10racic vertebrae. The seventh lumbar is a
little smaller and is more dorsal-ventrally. The spinous processes
are quadrangular and, all are inclined slightly forward. The ar-
t iculating processes are found very close to the linea media dorsal half-line of
the anlero-posterior row}), cn;J the anterior articulating process possesses a
concave facet antero-posteriorly end dorsal-ventrally, giving the appearance of
being a little hole or pit wi lh a ,_"slcrior border that limits the of the
posterior process of the vertcbru v:hich precedes it. The transverse processes,
are very long and, in general, more than double the length of. the;same.i
vertebra, except in the first where it. is less than double.
8
The Osteology of South American Camelids
THE AXIS
I. Anterior articulating process
2. Intervertebral conal
3. Spinous process
4. Transverse process
5. Centrum
6. Odontoid process
7. Ventrol process
8. Postzygapophyses
Dorsal
______________ Scm
--4
--2
~ i ! ~ : ' ~ ~ J
f
I
....
.......
........
........
........ ......
- - ~ 8
Figure 5. Axis vertebra of a 9-year-old Lama pacos (A-114) mole. Top left:
Anterior view. Top right: Posterior view. Bottom left: Dorsal view. Bottom right:
Ventral view.
9
Victor R. Pacheco T.. Alfredo Altamirano E. and Emma Guerra P.
,i .
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
12.1cm
~ f ~
j
I
.
I
l
j
Posterior
.... -1_
--- --- ......... ------....--
---
Anterior
..... 2,
"
"
"
"
"
3_
--
--
I. Spinous process
2. Transverse process
3. Rib semifacet
4. Centrum
5. Articulating facets
6. Articulating semifacets for rib head
.: .
Figure 6. Thoracic vertebrae of a Lama pacos (A-114) male (top), and the third thoracic
vertebra shown in its lateral view (bottom left), anterior view (bottom'middle),:and
posterior view (bottom right). " . .
10
':
The Osteology of South American Camel ids
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Figure 7. . Left lateral view of lumbar vertebrae. The numbers correspond to the
vertebra number.
The Sacrum (Figure 8)
The lateral crests of the sacrum become narrower posteriorly but without
joining themselves to a central crest as occurs in cervids. The sacral aperture
passage is very triangular. The ventral part of the articulating surface (the
pleurapophysis of the sacrum has a postero-ventral prolongation. The sagittal
. crest spine of each sacral vertebra is independent , fowl and becomes in-
creasingly heavy toward the posterior end. The fifth. sacral vertebra usually is
not completely fused with the anterior vertebra.
Caudal Vertebrae (Not Illustrated)
A clear predominance of the vertebral centrum or body is noted in the caudal
vertebrae, with a reduction of all of the processes. From front to back, the
vertebrae do not diminish as much in length as they do, graduallYI in thickness.
11
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P. '
THE SACRUM
A
,.....
, " \
, .. ,
" '" ,
, ..
, .. ,
A. Articulating processes of the sacrum
B. Dorsal sacral foramina
C. Wing
D. Ventral sacral foramina
E. Ar'ticulating surface for the iliac
(pleurapophysis)
m
''" .:f ':.: . y
,I : t:. . ..
'?:,"
Dorsal
Lateral
Ventral
MR'
. .;
,:.>..,:>;.,;,:.. : I
'*S9*
.:
'. '
Figure 8. Sacrum of' a Lama pacos. Top left: Dorsal view.
view. Bottom: Lateral view-.-- ---
12
-."\ t
."
Top .Right: Ventral
The Osteology of South American Camel ids
Ribs (Figure 9)
,There are twelve pairs of ribs: seven sternal and five a-sternal. The size,
breadth,' and angle of the body are quite variable. The body is wider in its
sternal end than in the vertebral end, a feature that is more conspicuous in the
first to the sixth ribs. The breadth of the sternal end is more convex, antero-
posteriorly, in the third, fourth, and fifth ribs, diminishing in the last rib where
it is quite flat.
The length of the ribs increases gradually from the first to the seventh
rib, and decreases in the same manner in the a-sternal costal)) ribs. The
costal groove is always posterior; it is encountered in the sternal end in the
first rib and in the vertebral end in the rest; it is not marked in the eleventh
rib and it disappears in the twelfth.
The nutrient foramen is found in the middle of the costal groove. The
costal angle is very open in the first ribs, closing progressively until the fifth
and decreasing by degrees until the last rib. The head is composed of two
convex articulating facets in order to articulate between two thoracic
vertebrae. The anterior face is more convex than the posterior, the difference
being more marked on the first to the fifth ribs. In the seven remaining ribs
the diminution of the shape of the articulating facets is evident. The tubercle
is large in the first two ribs, convex from forward to bock in the first two
ribs, changing to be clearly concave in effect across the third to the ninth ribs.
In the tenth and eleventh ribs the tubercles are very small, flat, and they move
very close to the head, becoming fused in the twelfth rib.
The neck is thick, uniform, and short in the first ribs, but it increases
progressively until the fifth rib where it continues more or less constant to the
ninth, decreasing later until it almost disappears in the twelfth rib.
I. Tubercle
2. Anterior border
3. Sternal end
4. Neck
5. Head
6. Costal angle
6
+-::-----iT-
--===--=:=::;11_ Scm Second Rib
Medial
---
1"
. 5\
,
Figure 9. The ribs of a Lama poeos (A-114) male.' Left: Right side of the first rib,
medial view. Center: Second rib, medial view. Right: Eleventh rib, posterior view.
13
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
The Sternum (Figure /0)
The sternum is formed by six sternebrae. It has the form of a small canoe,
flattened anteriorly and posteriorly, and cylindrical in its middle portion, with'
the dorsal face concave in the longitudinal direction. The first and second
sternebrae are flattened dorso-ventrally, being more depressed in the anterior
end than in the posterior. The first sternebra is less wide in the anterior end
than in the posterior. The rest of the sternebrae are of a uniform thickness,
except for the sixth which is thinner and which is more compressed on i'ts
posterior end than on the anterior. The first sternebra, viewed from above, is
concave transversely. Ventrally, in the second, third and fourth sternebrae, a
slight longitudinal groove is evident; dorsally in the third and fourth sternebrae
are slight longitudinal crests.
I' . ,
The Scapula (Figure II)
The scapula is a bone of a triangular contour with the infraspinous fossa more
developed than the supraspinous fossa. The spine is elevated, its border
curved, and it continues distally with the acromion which projects to a height
. which extends well above the glenoid cavity. The neck is thicker posteriorly
than anteriorly. The anterior border of the scapula is a sharp crest; the
posterior border is thick and flattened and projects deeper at the subscapular
fossa. The tuberosity of the scapula the coracoid process is thick, rough,
and furrowed and does not extend to the glenoid cavity on the anterior border.
The coracoid process has a short lip which faces toward the interior
medially. ;
,..
The Humerus (Figure 12)
The body of the humerus is compressed laterally in its proximal metaphysis
diaphysis or shaft and is irr'egularly cylindrical in its distal end. The cir-
cumferential contour of the proximal end, viewed from above, is pentagonal.
The lateral and medial tuberosities form two sharp and parallel furrows
separated by a tubercle or prominence. Both tuberosities, viewed from the
side, are at the some level bnd are well above the head of the humerus. The
deltoid tuberosity is prominent with a lip which is directed backward. Distally
the lateral border of the olecranon fossa is more projecting and thicker than
its opposite when viewed from the medial side. Distally and anteriorly, the
medial condyle is demonstrably larger than the lateral condyle; the lateral
epicondyle is thicker than the medial epicondyle. The distal metaphysis
diaphysis or shaft presents a single nutrient foramen which tends to be on
the lateral side.
.,
,I:'
14
The Osteology of South American' Camelids
.,'
I
I
I
I
I
8
.
,
.
,
I
,
,
I
,
I
I
\ I
\ I
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ I
\ I
\ I
........ \ I
, / /
........ \ I /
, \ /
........ 1/
'9/
-.....
_-- /l \ .................. "
-- II \ -...... ',...'-jP ,
II \
/ / \
I / \
I / \
/ / \
/ / \
I / \
/ \
/ \ '
/ \ J\: /
/ \
_10 __
------ ------
--
---
1
-- 2
__ 4 __
- --
THE STERNUM
I'

Ventral Dorsal
Lateral
(. Body or sternum center 6. Seccnd sternebra
2. Fourth sternebra 7. Third Sternebra
3. Fifth sternebra 8. Manubrium

5cm
4. Sixth sternebra 9. Arficulating rib facets
5. First sternebra
'10. Xiphoid process
10. Sternum of a Lama pacos (A-275) female.
, view. Center: Dorsal vIew. Right: view.
Left: Ventral
15
,I.
Victor R. Pacheco T. Alfredo Altamirano E. and Emma Guerra P.
'i'
THE SCAPULA
(R ight)
I. Anterior angle
2. Acromion
3. Posterior angle
4. Tuberosity of the scapula
<Corocoid process)
5. Glenoid cavity
6. Spine
7. Infrospinous fossa
8. Posterior border
9. Anterior border.'
; 4
Distal
-------1
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\ .. -........ -.
,'_.,,'\IC,.I.....4'T!t .
--4
I
I
3
---9
Lateral
8---
__C::::J__==-__ Scm .
' ..
Figure It. Right side of 0 scapula from a 5-month-old Lama pacos (A-2 I9).. mole.
Left: Lateral view. Right: Distal view. " ..
16
The Osteology of South American Camel ids
--13
'\.
'\.
'\.
,
12
/;
i
Anterior
_-==--=:::=J-_" Scm
'.
- ...-
--10--
/'
//
-- /'
--3/
__8
THE HUMERUS
(Right>
Lateral
......
...... -
.......... --
3-
v
/ Posterior
5
' ..
"
'0'
;', .
r! .
I I I ~ .
\' ~ 2: .
, 3.
,4.
. 5.
I . 6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
I I.
12.
13.
Head
Neck
Delloid tuberosi ly
Olecranon fossa
Medial epicondyle
.Lateral epicondy Ie
Lateral tuberosi ly
Nutrient foramen
Coronoid fossa
Lateral condyle
Medial tuberosity
lntertuberal furrow
Medial condyle
/
/
11
Proximal View
! . .'
'\, ..
, .
F:Jgur,e. J 2. Right humerus of a II-month-oJd Lorna pacos (A-292) male.
17
Victor R. Pacheco T. Alfredo Altamirano E.; and Emma Guerra P. _.'
Rodius-Ulna (Figure 13)
The radius-ulna is long and largely fused together in the adult, evidenced by'
the interosseous space left only at the proximal and distal ends. The radius-
ulna"'is generally compressed antero-posteriorly. Proximally, the articular
surface for the humerus consists of two facets; the facet on the laterol side is
slightly larger and higher compared with the one on the medial side and in
relation to the anterior border. The two facets are divided by a single axial
elevation. Distally, in the' anterior view of the radius, two sharp and parallel
crests are presented, the lateral being the larger. The distal articulating
surface is composed of three facets for the carpals; the lateral and medial
articular facets are almost of the same width and bath are wider than the
central facet. The medial facet extends farther to the posterior and also
extends farther distally than the lateral facet.

The Pelvis (Figure 14)
In juveniles the iliac crest is curved and even, but in adults it becomes mare
vertical, more rugose and uneven, and its ventral point is inclined some 45
outward. On its internal surface the iliac wing ilium)) possesses the articular
surface for the sacrum which is posterior to and chiefly superior to the pelvis
wing.
In the external view of the pelvic wing, the females have a pronounced
concavity. In the dorsal border of the same port of the pelvic wing, the males
possess a crest. Structurally, in the female, the pelvis allows on enlargement
of the pelvic cavity. The body of the ilium is extended lengthwise, is laterally
compressed, and is more extended in the female than in the mole.
The acetabular arm of the ischium in camelids possesses a high crest
which terminates in the superior ,ide or end of the obturator foramen. The
symphysis branch or arm is flal, and its internal border forms on angle of a
clear vertex in the females while in Ihe mole it looks like on inverted keel in
which the apex of the angle is curved. .
The pubic symphysis rar.ous and the acetabular ramus of the pubis are
very concave, giving the venlral ;:,crl of the pelvis a very deep appearance; the
acetabular ramus may present a pronounced blunt elevation and be very
concave transversely. This rcr:1uS is quite perpendicular to the pubic
symphysis, causing the anterior c:"d of this symphysis to be at the same level
as the anterior border of the .
The acetabulum is a fossa by the union and fusion of the three
pelvic bones. It is not totally fused, as a posterior and internol entry opens
into the obturator foramen; i:s inlcrnol sides constitute a smooth articular
surface, except in the center wf1crc it is rough and generally is not separated
by a projecting border. Antcrior to the foramen are two lateral-ventral
depressions for the tendons of the rcctus femoris muscle; the external is better
developed than the internal. T!',e border of the obturator foramen adjoining'
the acetabulum comes very close to Ihe acetabulum in camel ids.
18
\
"
The Osteology of South American Camelids,
6--
1
THE RADIUS-ULNA
\
\ Lateral
8
Lateral View Proximal End
Carpal View of Radius
Anterior
5-
I. Anconeal process
2. Olecranon
3. Semilunar notch
4. Glenoid cavity of the radius
5. Distal end of the radius
6. Body of the radius
7. Radius
8. Ulna
9. Distal end of the ulna
.. Scm
\
Figure 13. Right radius-ulna of an immature Lama pacas (A-293) female. Left:
Anterior view. Top: lateral view. Also shown is the radius of an adult Lama pacos
(A-249) female. Middle: Lateral view, proximal end. Bottom right: Carpal viewof
distal epiphysis seen from below.
19
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
, .'
Figure 14: Pelvis of a 4S-month-old Lama glama (A-282) male. Top:
Bottom: Dorsal view. , .' '.
,',l...'
t ...
THE PELVIS
Ventral
__Scm
I. Ilium
2. Pubis
3. Acetabulum
4. Obturator foramen
S. Ischium
-.

"
' ..
,
:'"
20
'.

.1
.1-
,}
"
The Osteology of South American Camel ids
The Femur (Figure J5)
The fem'ur is the long bone 'of the thigh. In its proximolend, the head is at
the level of the greater trochanter which has a rugged and uniform border and
posteriorly a sharp oblique crest which runs toward the lesser trochanter
with an angle of about 45. The lesser trochanter is situated more over
the medial side than over the posterior side; it is quite prominent and is
oriented slightly farward.
A posterior crest stands out clearly in the diaphysis. This crest
originates on the lesser trochanter and is directed obliquely below and outward
until it connects with the lateral and medial epicondylar crests a few cen-
timeters below the proximal half. The nutrient foramen is situated in the
middle of the posterior face of the diaphysis ond in the medial border of the
crest.
In the anterior distal end of the femur we encounter a trochlear and an
epitrochlear fossa. T ~ o ' condyles separated by an intercondylar fossa occur
posteriorly; the I.ateral condyle is larger than its opposite, and the inter-
condylar fossa is slightly oblique. The internal border of the lateral condyle
possesses an oblique groove.
,
"
,
The Patella (Figure 16)
. i
The patella is a short bone of oval form; its posterior articular surface is rec-
tangular, smooth, and concave from top to bottom but convex transversely.
Its distal end is more prominent; viewed anteriorly, it is very convex and
rugged
.' .
... \
':': , , ~ ~ .
..~
. ~ ....
...
.~ . ,
(Figure 17)
-The tibia is a 10ng
J
slightly curved bone and, except for the crest, its shaft is
compressed antero-posteriorly. Viewed from above, the proximal surface is
triangular; the posterior angles are the medial condyle and the lateral condyle.
The anterior end is an isolated tuberosity of triangular form also, which
posteriorly joins the crest. Each of the condyles forms an articular facet; the
lateral condyle is larger and more square in form.
The fibula is only a spinous process located underneath the lateral
condyle and is found only in some adults. .
Proximally and anteriorly, the shaft has a crest whose lateral side is
very concave, forming a fossa.
The nutrient foramen is always postero-lateraJ and is situated about onc-
fifth of the total length from the proximal end.
The view of the distal end shows two long parallel depressions, slanting
and separated by a prominence. Laterally there is a sulcus (or fibular
groove)) and two art iculat ing facets for he lateral malleolus. The two
prominences on the anterior edge of the distal end are forger than those of the
posterior border; the central prominence is larger or equal in size to the
medial one.
21
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
'.
Lateral
_--8
._ 1.
Scm'
Medial
THE FEMUR
Anterior
I. Head
2. Neck
3. Greater trochanter
4. Lesser trochanter
5. Medial epicondyle
6. Lateral epicondyle
7. Patellar trochlea
8. . Nutrient foramen
9. Medial condyle
10. Intercondylar fossa
II. Lateral condyle
Figure 1S. Right femur of a 9-year-old Lama pacos (A-27B> female. Left: Anterior
view. Center: Medial view. Right: Lateral view. ",': .
,.
"

".
'"
:.
.
'.'
22
The Osteology of South American Camelids
--5
Posterior
THE PATELLA
Posterior
Left
Anterior .
3--
.0 t' .. ,
--2
Lateral
Lateral
.. ':; ..
IJ-_-====:J__ __ Scm
I. Base
2. Vertex
3. Internol border
4. Externa I border
S. Posterior articular surface
9-year-old Lama pros (A-114) male. Left: Left side shown
in its anterior, posterior, and lateral views clockwise from left). Right: Right side,
also shown in its anterior, posterior, and lateral views.
23
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
THE TIBIA
(Left Side)
Anterior
9
---.... 2----
f
I
I
Posterior
(Right)
A-277
__-====-_-====-__.5cm
I. Tibial crest (cnemial crest)
2. Body or :;haft of the tibia
3. Medial malleolus
4. Lateral condyle
5. Nutrient foramen
6. Lateral malleolus
7. Tubercles of the spine
8. Medial condyle
9. Fossa
10. Superior part of the crest
I r. Articulating surface for astragalus
Figure 17. Left tibia of a 9-month-old (A-287) Lama pacos female, shown in anterior,
lateral, posterior, and superior (or top) views. Also shown is the inferior or distal.
view of a tibia belonging to a different camelid, A-277.
Inferior or Distal View
Superior View
(Right)
11
24
The Osteology of South American Camel ids
The Metacarpal (Figure 18)
,'rl)e metacarpal is a long bone which is compressed antero-posteriorly. The
'shaft, viewed from the posterior side, has a long, deep groove whose borders
are quite parallel. A central line stands out on the anterior surface running
distally from a proximal anterior process to the distal cleft which separates
the two condyles.
The proximal end, seen from above, consists of two quite ovoid articular
facets. The medial facet is itself subdivided by a ridge which produces two
smaller facets, the posterior being the smaller.
The distal end of the metacarpal consists of two articulating condyles
separated by a central cleft. The sagittal crest of each condyle is blunt and
runs down the center of the condyle from the midpoint to the posterior 'border,
dividing it into two symmetrical sides situated at the same level; these crests
are smooth on the anterior half.
(Figure 1.8)
"', ,..' I ..:,'),'"' .-
,;' t" ' '.:
, .The proximal surface of the metatarsal consists of four articular elements: a'
posterior elevated extension and three horizontal articulating focets. The two
most anterior facets are the lorger in size and are shaped like two beans. The
medial facet is at a slightly more elevated level than the lateral facet. The
third facet, which articulates wi th the first tarsal, is medial and very small.
The diaphysis presents a posterior fusiform groove and a smaller
concavity than that of the metacarpal; the two nutrierrt foramina are lodged in
the middle of the groove. As in the metacarpal, the external lateral edge
of the groove is sharper and more prominent than the internal edge. The
distal end of the metatarsal consislS of two articular condyles similar to those
of the metacarpal except that the scgittal crests are of smaller elevation
, . .,
/' _" .;,.. ':.' ...J: ."
\,. The ,Metatarsal
. ; .
tt.; :, . ,.' '. " '.
_'I,) Thc', Bones (Figure 19)'
". '! '. .' .. :
., .....,.
The carpals include seven small, short bones arranged in two rows; those of the
'.first' (superior) row are greater in heisht than those of the second, lower row.
In their proximal end, the firsl row of carpals together form a generally
horizontal plane with their dorsel surfcces which articulates with the radius-
u'lna.
First Row (Upper):
,Second Row (Lower):
Scaphoid (r,o. 2); Lunar (No.4); Cuneiform (No.3); and
the accessor; carpal, the Pisiform (No. I).
First car pol, the Trapezoid (No.6); second carpal, 'the
Magnum 5); end third carpal, the Unciform (No.7).
The scaphoid and cuneiform are of similar size, and larger than the
central carpal, the lunar, which is Ir.stcned like a wedge between them. The
cuneiform supports the pisiform, II-,c eccessory carpal, which projects from a
small articular protuberance on ;:oslerior surface of the cuneiform. .
The carpal bones in the row increase in size progressively from
the medial face to the 10 teral.
25
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., arid Emma Guerra
""I" ".
--2
i'.
'."
1-
. .J
Articular facet for the third tarsal
Articular facet for the fourth tarsal
... Scm
Posterior
8.
9.
--
Distal End View
-------
A-107
Proximal View
of the Metacarpa I
A-237
Proximal End View
-----
of the Metatarsal
A-275
Mea
_-4
THE METACARPAL AND THE METATARSAL
f
i
!
Posterior
Vascular. groove
Nutrient foramen
Medial condyle
Lateral condyle .
Articular facet for the fourth carpal
Articular facet for the second carpal
Articular facet for the third carpal
2
I.'
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. '
Figure 18. Posterior, proximal, and distal end views of the metacarpal <left,
middle-top, and center) and of the metatarsal (right, middle-bottom, center)
of a Lama pacos. Note that the distal end views for both the metacarpal and
the metatarsal are identical.
26
The Osteology of South American Camelios
THE CARPAL BONES
Posterior View
Dorsal
Lateral View
Ventral
Dorsal Ventral
3
4
7
Ventral Dorsal
Dorsal
3
Ventral
Anterior View
-,
I. Accessory. carpal, pisiform
2. Scaphoid I)
3. Cuneiform
4. Central carpal, lunar
5. Third carpal, magnum
6. Second carpal, trapezoid
7. 0 Unciform
8. Radius-ulna
9. Metacarpal
Medial Anterior
~
O ' jOt) ~ . ~ . 7 JCh'
<4 .'. ~
4..., -f" 0 '..::
, .. 0 '..r;': .._
. ~ . '- '- ' . ~ ..
1
Ventral Dorsal
Dorsal Ventral
Figure 19. Carpal bones of a Lama pacos (A-IOI) female.
'0,
27
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
. .: .
The Tarsal Bones (Figure 20)
The tarsals include six bones of quite different structures. The calcaneum is
well compressed laterally and has a projecting edge almost in the middle of its
medial face in order to art.iculate with the astragalus. In the anterior edge of
the calcaneum's distal end there is a smooth articular prominence for the
lateral malleolus, and in the some distal end there is an articular face for' the
fourth tarsal, the cuboid.
The astragalus is a bone with many rounded surfaces and of a rather '
regular form with two trochleae: one proximal and one distal with their cor-
respond ing crests. A fossa is si tuat ed anteriorly between both trochleae,
separating .them. Posteriorly, the astragalus is very convex and articulates
with the calcaneum.
The first tarsal is cubic and very small; the third tarsal has the form of
a drum. Both bones articulate proximally with the navicular and distally with
the metatarsal. The fourth tarsal is on irregular cuboid form with a posterior
process. Its superior medial face adjoins the navicular and it has articular
facets for all of the tarsal bones except for the first tarsal; it also has a facet
for the metatarsal. ',i
" .. -.. {._':'
."
'.- : .
,. "t
I
"
The Phalanges (Figure 21)
The camelids have two toes on each of their legs. The first phalanx is a long
bone of larger size in the foreleg than in the rear leg. The proximal articular
surface of the first phalanx is similar to a concave semi-circle, antero-
posteriorly, with a small central posterior groove. The distal articular surface
is a condyle with its anterior edge situated at a lower level than the posterior
edge.
The second phalanx differs from the first in that it is smaller and has no
mortise or groove in its venlro) posterior surface. On the other hand, the
posterior crest is more proximal than the dorsal crest, and it is more proximal
than on the same surface of the first phalanx. The second phalanx has both a
thicker body and a brooder posterior articular surface in the foreleg than in
the rear leg.
The third phalanx is a short bone of a pyramid type with a concave
posterior articular surface. Ventrally it is flattened and dorsally it is a sharp-
edged curve. In the forefoot it is less high and it is brooder than in the rear
.. foot. The sides of the third phalanx possess many holes for blood veins; most "
of these holes are on the internal side.
". c
28
l"' .....
., .
'. ,
The Osteology of South American Camel ids
\. THE TARSAL BONES (Right)
~ ..)
---,
---- ,
Anterior
------ Metatarsal
Calcaneus
__3
Ventral
~
~
Dorsal
' 1 ~
Ventral
4
Dorsal
Ventral
5
I:l'--===::J*"-===::JI__ Scm
I. Third tarsal, entocuneiform
2. Central tarsal, navicular
'3. Lateral malleolus, fibulore
4 Fourth tarsal, cuboid
5. First tarsal
3
2
r-
Ventral
+
Figure 20. Torsol bones of a Lama pacos (A-I 14) mole.
29
Victor R. Pacheco T., Alfredo Altamirano E., and Emma Guerra P.
THE PHALANGES
(Right)
Rear Foot Front Foot
.1
2
(D
.
.-: : I I
. ,.
-.... ..
/.
I
2
ff:!l
V
3
'l
;::...
: . 1 \ ~ _
. .;0
".
~ . . 'It
. .1
Anterior Medial Proximal Anterior Medial,
__=::::J--===-_ Scm
I. First phalanx
2. Second phalanx
3. Third phalanx ..
Figure 21. Right phalanges of a 9-year-old Lorna pacos (A-114) mole.
30
The Osteology of South American Camel ids
Table'" of Ages for CameJids
Based on Toath Eruption and Morphology))
By Alfredo Altamirano E.
DENTAL MORPHOLOGY OF MANDIBLE OF ONE SIDE:
AGE dP3 dP4 MI M2 M3
10 days I Pre (B) IP, IP, IP *
2P (A)
I month I Pre (B) IP, IP, IP 2P (A)
3 months I Pre (C) 3P 2P. (A)
S months I Pre 3P 2P (B, A)
',9 months I Pre 3P 2P (C, B) IP (A)
I year I Pre 3P 2P 2P (A, A)
2 years I Pre 3P 2P 2P (adult, C)
3 years'
**-
3P 2P 2P
2P (B, A)
P4 MI M2 M3
4 years Pre 2P, 2P, 2P (adult, C)
S years Pre 2P, 2P, 2P (with a small additional loph)
7 Pre 2P, 2P, 3P
,
years
8 years Pre 2P, 2P, 3P
9 years 2P, 2P, 3P
"
14 years 2P, 2P, 3P
16' years I Pre 2P, 2P, 3P
,'A
=
B
=
C
=
Pre
=
P
=
Dentition exceedingly young, unerupted, '
Dentition young, erupted from the mandible to a medium height,
compared with the adult
Dentition'in mature state without wear
Signifies premolar dentition
Number of ports, single or double cusps, or lophs to the tooth
Altamirano's permanent dental formula:
1-1-2-3
3-1-1-3
Incisors are not included on this chart))
* dP4 is tri-cusped at birth and is replaced by a permanent unicusped
premolar in adulthood.
** When P4 pushes out the dP4, the dP3 is sometimes caught and taken out
with it (hole resorbed), and sometime remains. The dP3 is unicusped at birth,
is generally lost by age I year, and is not replaced by a permanent tooth.
Dental formula for infants:
1-0-2-0
3-0-1-0 ))
31
','
Victor R. Pacheco T. Alfredo Altamirano E. and Emma Guerra P.
References
t uentes, T. L.
1953 Contribucion a
Foe. Med. Vet.
10 Osteolo 10 de 10 AI aca (Lama acos).
U MSM: Lima.
Tes. Bach.
Malaga, A., R. Matos, Jane Wheeler, and E. Pires Ferreira
1976 Sobre el Loboratorio de Paleoetnozoologia. l.!SMSM: Lima.
Marshall,
1979
L., R. Butler,
Calibration
279.
R. Drake, G. Curtis, and R. Tedford
of the Great American Interchange. Science 204:272-
Nunez, A., Ch. J. Guzman, and S. A. Sato
1967 Algunos laminas del Atlas anat6mico de 10 Alpaca, 2. Bol. Extraor-
dinario, 36-46. IVITA: Lima.
Sisson,S., and J. D. Grossman
1974 Anatomla de los animales domesticos. Salvat Ed. Barcelona
. ;,
, . ': .':'
32
Institute of "Archaeology
University of California', los Angeles
The following books moy be- of interest to the reoder ond con be obtoined from
Institute of Archoeology Publicotions, University of Colifornio, Los Angeles,
CA 90024. -
Andeon Archaeology: Papers in Memory of Clifford
Ramiro Matos M., Solveig Turpin, ond Herbert Eling, Jr.
(1986). xxvi-238 pp. ISBN: 0-917956-52-4.
.:: vans. Edi ted by
Monogroph XXVII
Petroglyphs in the Guianas and Adjocent Areas of Brozil ana Venezuelo:
'.
An Inventory With a Comprehensive Bibliogrophy of South Americon ond
Antillean Petroglyphs. By c.n Dubeloor. Monumento Archoeologico 12
(1986). 327 pp., 77 linedrawings, 184 photographs. ISBN: 0-917956-50-8.
Poh and Potters:
by Prudence Rice.
3.
Current Approaches in Ceramic Archaeology. Edited
Monograph XXIV (1984). xvii-255 pp. ISBN: 0-917956-44-
Prehistoric Trails of Atacamo: Archaeology of Northern Chile. Edited
by Clement W. Meighan and D. L. True. Monumento Archacologico 7 (1980).
x-228 PP" 61 plates. ISBN: 0-917956-10-9.
OTHER TITLES AVAILABLE III Archaeological Research Tools SERIES
Student's Guide to Archaeological Illustrating. Second, revised-edition.
Edited by Brian D. Dillon. Archaeological Research Tools I vi-185
pp. ISBN: 0-917956-38-9.
Practical Archaeology: Field and Laboratory Techniques and Ar-
chaeological Logistics. Edifcc by Orion-D. Dillon. Archaeological Research
Tools 2 (1982). 125 pp. ISBt-!: n..? I7956-42-7.