Silviculture notes:

Collected by; Ashish Ghimire

Batch:075/79

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition and objectives of silviculture:

Silvilculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crops. In broad sense, silviculture includes
both silvics and its practical application. According to Toumey and Korstian: Silviculture is
defined as “the branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care, and

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

reproduction of stands of Timber”. According to FRI, Dehra Dun: The art and science of
cultivating forest crops. Champion and Seth define Silviculture as: The term silviculture, in
English, commonly refers only to certain aspects of the theory and practice of raising forest
crops.

Silvics: Silvics is the study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees and crops with
particular reference to environmental factors as basis for the practice of silviculture. Silviculture can
be described to include all practical and theoretical aspects of silvics. The knowledge gathered in
silvics is applied to the production and care of forest crops.

Thus, the practice of silviculture is applied silvics. The practice of silviculture is concerned with the
social as well as the biological aspects of forestry. The important objective of forestry is to make
forests useful to society.

Objective of Silviculture: The objective of study and practice of silviculture is to produce more
useful and valuable forests to meet our requirements in a shorter time. The study of silviculture
helps to attain the following objectives;

1. To produce the species of economic value: The production of timber species of economic value
per unit area is low. If the forests have to produce timber of industrial and economic importance, it is
necessary to study and practice of silviculture so that we can produce only the desired species.

2. To produce more volume per unit area: In the virgin forest the crop is generally either very
dense or very open. Both these extremes are unsuitable for quantitative production. The study and
practice of silviculture helps in raising sufficient trees per unit area right from the beginning to fully
utilize the soil and as they grow up gradually reduce their number so that the requirement of light
and food of the remaining tree is met. In this way silviculture helps to bring the production of more
timber per unit area on a sustained basis.

3. To produce high quality timber: In the unmanaged forest because of much competition a large
number of trees become crooked, malformed, diseased and defective. Silviculture techniques help to
avoid these problems and to produce timber of a very high quality. Thus knowledge of silviculture is
essential to ensured disease free timber production.

4. To reduce the rotation period: Rotation is the planed period of time expressed in years between
the regeneration of a crop to its final felling. In unmanaged forests rotation tend to be longer because
the growth of individuals’ tree is retarded. There is intense competition and it takes the trees a longer
time to attain an exploitable size. With the knowledge and practical application of silvilcultural
techniques density of the crop can be properly regulated and consequently the rate of growth
increased and rotation reduced.

5. To raise forest in blank areas: In nature a large number of areas potentially suitable for tree
growth, remain blank due to certain adverse factors inhibiting growth of trees. Silvilcultural skills
and techniques help in raising forest in such areas.

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

6. To create of plantation: Plantations may be created in place of natural forest. This can be
brought about under conditions where the natural forest has failed to regenerate itself or when the
existing forest is too slow growing for exploiting its potential to the optimum extent possible.

7. To introduction of exotics: Knowledge of silviculture is highly beneficial for the successful

introduction of exotic species for industrial environmental or related purpose e.g. Eucalyptus,
Populus and Teak etc

8. To increase the employment potential: Increased employment potential is clearly one of the
objectives of modern silvilcultural techniques. In any plantation operation, the labor component
accounts for between 60-70% of the total financial input.

9. To increase the production of fuel and fodder: Silvilcultural techniques help to bring about an
increase in the production of fuel wood and fodder from the forest both of which are very essential
for a developing country like Nepal.

10. To develp forest industries: Silviculture contributes to the development of the industrial
potential of a region as forests provide important raw materials e.g. Resin, pulpwood, industrial
wood and minor forest products for various forest-based industries.

11. Derive environmental benefits: Silviculture helps to raise forests so that human beings may
drive maximum environmental benefits from them such as soil and water conservation, control of
air and noise pollution, wild life conservation, regulation of climatic conditions and regulation of
water cycle.

1.2 Some important terms of silviculture

Phenology is the science dealing with the time of appearance of characteristic periodic events
such as leaf shedding, fruit ripening etc in life cycle of organisms. The variation in time of these
periodic events may be correlated with changes in climatic factors but it also depends upon
species. For example, heavier rainfall and higher humidity sometimes quicken fruit ripening in
Albizzia procera and Shorea robusta. Also, fruit ripening in Dalbergia sissoo and Sisso and
Mangifera indica does not appear to be affected by changes in climatic factors.

Weeding: Weeding may be defined as a tending operation done in the seedling stage in a nursery
or in a forest crop that involves the removal or cutting back of all weeds.

Cleaning: It is a tending operation done in a sapling crop involving the removal or topping of
inferior growth including individual of favored species, climbers etc, When they are interfering
with the better grown individuals of the favored species. It merges with thinning as the saplings
grow into poles.

Thinning: It is defined as a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of improving the
growth and form of the trees that remain without permanently breaking the canopy.

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Girdling: It is defined as cutting through bark and outer living layers of wood in a continuous
incision all round the bale of a tree.

Silvicultural System: It may be defined as a method of silvicultural procedure worked out in

accordance with accepted sets of silvicultural principles, by which crops constituting forests are
harvested, regenerated and tended. It is a planned silvicultural treatment, which is applied to a
forest crop throughout its life to get a distinctive form. It begins with regeneration felling and
includes adopting of some suitable method of regeneration and tending of the new crop
throughout of its life. A silvicultural system is a planned program of treatments throughout the
life of the stand to achieve stand structural objectives based on integrated resource management
goals. A silvicultural system includes harvesting, regeneration and stand-tending methods or
phases. It covers all activities for the entire length of a rotation or cutting cycle.

1.3 Relation of silviculture with forestry and its other branches

Silviculture and Forest Protection

Forest protection is defined as that branch of forestry which is concerned with ‘the activities directed
towards the prevention and control of damage to forests by man, animals, fire, insects, disease or other
injurious and destructive agencies’. So while silviculture is concerned with the raising of forest crop,
forest protection is concerned with its protection against various sources of damage.

Silviculture and Forest Mensuration

Forest mensuration is defined as that branch of forestry which deals with ‘the determination of
dimensions, form, volume, age and increment of logs, single trees, stands or whole woods’. Thus while
silviculture deals with raising of forest crop, Forest Menstruation deals with measurement of diameter
and heights of crop so produced, calculation of its volume, age, etc., to decide the best treatment to be
given to the crop while it is being raised.

Silviculture and Forest Utilization

Forest utilization is defined as ‘the branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting, conversion,
disposal and use of the forest produce.’ Thus while silviculture is concerned with the cultivation of
forest crops, forest utilization is concerned with the harvesting, conversion and disposal of crops so
produced.

Silviculture and Forest Economics

Forest Economics is defined as ’those aspects of forestry that deal with the forest as a productive asset,
subject to economic laws.’ Thus while silviculture is concerned with the cultivation of forest crops,
forest economics works out the cost of production in raising the crops to decide whether raising of the
crop is economically profitable or not. It is also the function of the Forest Economist to compare the cost

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

of production of a particular crop by different methods and then decide the most profitable method of
raising that crop.

Silviculture and Forest Management

Forest Management has been defined as ‘the practical application of the scientific, technical and
economic principles of forestry.’ Thus while silviculture deals with the cultivation of forest crop, forest
management manages that crop according to the dictates of the forest policy. Silviculture deals with the
techniques and operations which result in the development of a forest. Forest management prescribes the
time and place where the silvicultural techniques and operations should be carried out so that the objects
of management are fulfilled.

Silviculture and Forestry

Forestry is defined as ‘the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and
scientific management of forests and the utilization their resources.’ From this definition, it is clear that
forestry has a very wide scope and silviculture is only one of its branches. It has the same relation with
forestry as agronomy has with agriculture. While agronomy and silviculture deal with cultivation of
crops, agriculture and forestry deal not only with the cultivation of crops but also with their protection,
management, mensuration, marketing, etc. In short, forestry is an applied science which has many
branches, and forestry and its other branches are supported on silviculture without which there would be
neither forestry nor its branches.

UNIT 2: LOCALITY (ENVIRONMENTAL) FACTORS

INTRODUCTION
The trees and other vegetation forming the forest in a place are influenced by the climate, soil,
topography and living beings of that place. In other words, the type of forests occurring naturally in a
place is not an accidental aggregation of various plants but is the result of the complex influence of the
climatic, edaphic, topographic and biotic factors of the locality. So, the factors of locality may be defined

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

as the effective climatic, edaphic, topographic and biotic conditions of a site, which influence the
vegetation of the locality. These factors are also referred to as environment which is defined as ‘all biotic
and abiotic factors of a site’.

Classification: Factors of locality are classified into following four broad categories:
 Climatic factors
 Topographic factors
 Edaphic factors
 Biotic factors

2.2 Climatic Factors

Climate is defined as the average weather conditions prevalent in any locality. Though it is dependent on
various meteorological and weather conditions, the most important are solar radiation which gives light
and heat both, moisture and wind. Therefore, climatic factors are defined as ‘light, atmospheric
temperature, pressure and humidity, wind and other features of climate – regional, local and seasonal –
that influence vegetation’. Thus the climatic factors may be classified as under:
(a) Solar radiation (i) Light (ii) Heat and temperature
(b) Moisture
(c) Wind

Solar radiation: The energy which is responsible for the growth of vegetation and all life depending on
it, on the earth comes directly or indirectly from the sun (solar radiation). Thus, the nature and amount of
solar radiation received on the surface of the earth is a factor of great importance. Solar radiation
provides both light as well as Heat and temperature. Both light and temperature are very important. The
short explanation of their importance is given below:

(i) Light is a very important factor of locality because of its following effects on plants and other
vegetation:

 Chlorophyll formation – Light is one of the important and essential factors responsible for
chlorophyll formation in plants. Light of any wavelength or low intensity is sufficient to form
chlorophyll. Without light, plants become pale yellow and have long thin internodes, a condition
known as etiolation.

 Functioning of stomata – Light is an important factor influencing the daily opening and closing
of stomata which, in turn, affects respiration and photosynthesis.

 Photosynthesis – Light is the most important factor of locality for photosynthesis as it

can not take place in darkness. The light actually used in photosynthesis is a small fraction o the
light that falls on a leaf. It has been estimated that light used in photosynthesis is less than 2 %
of the light energy incident on well-illuminated leaves.

 Growth – Light influences the growth of plants and trees through its effect on
photosynthesis. Best growth takes place in moderate intensity of light provided ample food is

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

 available. Because extremely high intensity of light increases transpiration excessively and in
extremely low intensity of light, the growth is retarded.

 Form and quality of trees – The elongation of the growing axes of trees in the forest occurs
mainly between sunset and sunrise because the low intensities of light and infra-red radiation
tend to stimulate height growth. Height growth is retarded in intense light conditions.

 Species stratification, and size, color and structure of leaves – According to the requirement
of light, there results in the stratification of species in different canopies. Light also affects the
size, color and structure of leaves. The leaves exposed to full light are smaller than those in
partial light. The trees growing in deep shade have foliage of darker color. Many forest trees
develop different anatomical structure in their leaves in shade as compared to those grown in sun.

(B) TEMPERATURE

Factors affecting temperature (landform)

(a) Latitude (b) Altitude (c) Nearness to the sea (d) Direction of wind
(e) Forest (f) Ocean current (g) Rainfall (h) Mountains

Importance of temperature (Air temperature)

(i)The solar radiation directly as well as through its influence on air temperature, provides heat to the
plant body and helps in satisfactory initiation and continuation of various physiological activities, i.e.
transpiration, photosynthesis and respiration.

(ii)Air temperature increases microbiological activity on soil surface resulting in decomposition of

organic matter and release of nutrients to be available to trees.
(iii)Air temperature increases cambial activity in the shoot portion. Through its effect on the vital
physiological activities and cambial activity, air temperature affects growth of trees.
(iv)Temperature is essential for germination of seeds.

Soil temperature – Soil temperature influences trees in the following ways:

 Soil temperature has a profound influence on absorption of soil moisture which increases
markedly with the rise in temperature up to a certain limit.
 It also affects cambial activity which starts earlier in warmer soils than in colder soils. Thus
growth starts earlier in warmer soils than in colder soils.
 Excessively low temperature results in frost and snow which cause injury to trees and forest
vegetation.

(C) MOISTURE
Moisture is one of the most important factors influencing vegetation, because water is essential for
various physiological activities of plants as well as for soil formation processes.

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Importance of moisture in physiological activities
 Water forms about 90 to 95 % constituent part of the cell wall and 80 % part of the protoplasm
which is the physical basis of of all life.
 Water occurs in all call vacuoles as cell sap and on it depends the turgidity of the cells, which in
turn, governs the growth of plants.
 It is the only medium for absorption of soil minerals and gases in the plants.
 It is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis.
 It is required for translocation of manufactured food as well as for all chemical reactions taking
place in plant body.
 It is essential for respiration which can not take place in its absence.
 It is also necessary for transpiration which prevents excessive heating in the plant.
 It is responsible for various movements of plants.
 It is essential for germination and viability of seeds.

(D) WIND: Wind has a great influence not only on the form of trees but also on their distribution.
It has favorable as well as harmful effects.
Favorable effects
a. Wind brings fresh supplies of carbon dioxide to the foliage of trees and thus helps
in photosynthesis.
b. Wind helps in pollination of anemophilous flowers.
c. Wind helps in the dispersal of seed of many forest trees, i.e., Holoptelia, Bombax,
Toona, etc.

Harmful effects

(a) Direct harmful effects

1. Because of the pressure of the wind, the tree in the open in the plains and on the
ridges on the hills are short stature and have pronounced taper in their boles.
2. Trees often get bent if wind blows only in one direction.
3. Trees are often uprooted or their stem or branches get damaged.
4. The branches on the windward side get, often, killed and they remain only on the
leeward side. This adversely affects the growth on one side.
5. The bole of the tree, often, becomes elliptic, instead of being circular with larger
diameter in the direction of the prevailing wind.
6. As a result of strong winds, timber often gets ruptured.

(b) Indirect harmful effects

1. Wind fans up forest fire thereby increasing fire damage.
2. Wind affects the trees through its influence on humidity and dry winds increase
transpiration.
3. Winds also increase evaporation from the soil.
4. In dry areas, wind causes wind erosion. It removes the top fertile soil or deposits
sand
on fertile fields, thereby deteriorating the soil in both cases.

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

2.3 Topographic Factors

Topography is the description of the physical features of a place. It describes configuration of the
ground, its altitude, slope, aspects, etc. These physical features affect the local climate, soil formation
processes, soil moisture, soil nutrients etc., and since all these have a profound influence on vegetation,
topography affects the vegetation indirectly. So, topographic factors may be defined as factors
‘pertaining to the configuration of land surface, altitude, slope, aspect and exposure’.

Topographic factors may be classified into:

a) Configuration of land surface
b) Altitude
c) Slope
d) Aspect and exposure

Configuration of land surface - Configuration of land surface influences vegetation through its effect
on temperature, wind movement, etc. In a hill and valley country, valleys are generally shaded. Due to
proximity of high hills on either side, sunlight reaches the valley late in the morning and disappears early
in the afternoon. The shade of the neighboring hills, therefore, makes the valleys colder in winter.
During the summer, though the shade prevents rise in temperature early in the morning, yet the heat
radiated by the neighboring hills makes valleys extremely hot after sometime and this continues to be so
till late at night. Thus, the valleys, due to proximity of hills, have a far greater variation in diurnal and
seasonal temperatures than the places on the hills. Proximity of hills also results in collection of cold air
in the land-locked valleys and therefore pool frost affects the vegetation of the valleys. Configuration of
land surface also affects wind movements. Therefore, hills which experience greater humidity and
reduced temperature variation have a climate very different from a plain area with the same mean actual
temperature.

Altitude – Altitude affects solar radiation, temperature, rainfall, which, in turn, have a great effect on
vegetation. The air at higher altitude is clearer and rarer. So, the solar radiation has to pass through lesser
turbid atmosphere at higher altitude than the places with low altitude. Consequently, solar radiation
increases with increasing altitude. As the air gets rarer at higher altitude, it is increasingly incapable of
absorbing and retaining heat. Consequently, there is fall in temperature with increase in altitude.
Generally up to 1500 m, there is a fall of 10 C in the mean temperature with a rise of 270 m in the hills
but after 1500 m, fall in temperature is more rapid. Rainfall increases with increase in altitude up to
about 1220 m height above mean sea level after which it begins to decrease.

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Slope – Slope affects run-off and drainage and thus has a profound influence on the moisture regime of
the soil. As a general rule, the steeper the slope, the greater the run-off and better the drainage. Slope
also affects erosion as well as depth of soil.

Aspect and exposure - Aspect is defined as ‘the direction towards which a slope faces’. Exposure, on
the other hand, is defined as ‘the relation of a site to weather conditions, especially sun and wind’. Thus
both of them have the same effect. In Nepal, all southerly aspects are comparatively warmer than the
northern slopes. The intensity of light on southern aspects is about 1.6 to 2.3 times higher than that on
the northern aspect. So there results in different vegetations on them.

2.4 Edaphic Factors

Edaphic factors are defined as ‘ecological influences characteristics of the soil brought about by its
physical and chemical characteristics’. Thus, edaphic factors are factors which relate to the soil in which
the trees grow and which, therefore, forms environment of roots.

Definition of Soil
Soil: It is defined as ‘the uppermost weathered layer of the earth’s crust’ and has the following two sub-
divisions.
Forest soil : ‘A portion of earth' surface which serves as a medium for the sustenance of forest
vegetation; it consists of minerals and organic matter, permeated by varying amount of water and air and
inhabited by organisms; it exhibits peculiar characteristics impressed by the physical and chemical
action of the roots and forest debris’ - Wilde

Soil formation: The factors responsible for soil formation and development are:
• Climate
• Biological agencies including vegetation and animals
• Parent rock
• Topography
• Time

The first two of these above factors are referred to as active factors because it is through their action that
soil formation takes place. As the last three do not take any active part in soil formation, they are
referred to as passive factors. Actually, it is only when the active factors, having modified by
topography, act on the parent material for considerable length of time that the soil is formed. The active
factors result in the formation of soil through their effect on a geological process known as ‘weathering’
which is of two kinds:
– Physical weathering
– Chemical weathering

(a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

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Physical properties of soil have a profound influence on tree growth because of their effect on the supply
of moisture, nutrients and air. They relate to its texture, structure, porosity, etc.

Soil texture: Soil texture is defined as ‘the relative proportion of the various size groups of individual
soil particles’. The individual size groups are referred to as soil separates.

Various soil groups:

Clay – particles smaller than 0.002 mm.
Silt – particles between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm.
Fine sand – particles between 0.02 mm and 0.2 mm.
Coarse sand – particles between 0.2 mm and 2.0 mm.
Gravel – particles over 2.0 mm.

Depending upon the proportion of soil separates, soils are classified into different soil classes as below:
Coarse-textured soils – sand and sandy loams;
Medium-textured soils – loams and silt loams; and
Fine- textured soils – clays and clayey loams.

Coarse-textured soil is also called light soil. Similarly, the fine-textured soil is called heavy soil.

Importance of soil texture

Moisture relations – Coarse textured soils are easily drained and apt to dry while, on the other hand,
fine-textured soils are poorly drained and hold much water on the large surface area.

Nutrient supplies – The percentage of finer particles governs nutrient status of the soil. The fine-
textured soils are high in nutrient status; sandy soils, on the other hand, are low in fertility.

Aeration – Texture of the soil regulates pore space and consequently the aeration of the soil. Coarse-
textured soils are better aerated than clayey soils.
Root development – Texture of the soil affects root development.
(ii) Soil structure
Soil structure is defined as ‘the arrangement of individual soil particles into aggregates of definite size
and shape’.
Various soil structures:
• Single-grained
• Plate-like
• Prism-like
• Block-like
• Sphere-like
- Granular
- Crumby

Importance of soil structure

• It affects soil moisture and soil air relations.

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 • It is an indication of nutrient status and activity of micro-organisms in the soil.
• It affects soil erosion.
- Crumby structure is least liable to erosion.
- Single-grained is most liable to erosion.

(iii) Soil porosity

Soil porosity is defined as ‘the extent to which the gross volume of the soil is unoccupied by solid
particles’. The space unoccupied by solid particles is also known as pore space.

Soil porosity is of two kinds:

Capillary porosity – It is the portion in a soil which is not filled by water when the soil is wet but well
drained.

Non-capillary porosity – It is the air space in a soil at field moisture capacity.

Importance of soil porosity

• It determines the moisture and air relations of the soil.
• It affects the internal drainage and diffusion of soil air.

(b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The soil – It is said to be the chemical laboratory of nature in which various chemical
decomposition and synthesis reactions keep on taking place in a hidden manner resulting in
varying chemical properties of different soils.

Important chemical properties of soil:

[Link] Exchange Capacity

 Clay and humus form the inorganic and organic colloidal fraction of the soil. It has the negative
charges.
 As the surface of clay and humus particles have negative charge, it has the capacity to absorb
cations (positively charged ions) from the soil solution.
 The cations absorbed are Ca, Mg, K, Na and H and the cations exchange takes place when any
cation is added.
• The exchange of cations in the soil takes place in equivalent quantities between cations in the
soil
solution and those on the surface of clay and humus particles
• It is the process by which a colloidal fraction of the soil absorbs certain cations from the soil
solution and gives up other cations held by it in equivalent quantities.
• The cations released in equivalent quantities go into the solution and become available for
absorption for plants.

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 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
• It is defined as the total capacity of the soil for holding cations.
• It is usually expressed in terms of milli-equivalent per 100 gms of oven dry soil.
• An equivalent is that quantity which is chemically equal to one gramme of hydrogen.
• The number of hydrogen in an equivalent is equal to 6.02 x 10 23.
• A milli-equivalent CEC of a small quantity of soil means that the soil contains 6.02 x 10 20
negatively charged absorption sites.

Importance of knowledge of CEC

• Cation exchange material is a sort of store house in which mineral nutrients are stored.
• CEC determines the rate at which fertilizers may be usefully applied to nursery and plantation
soils.
• The strongly absorbed cations favor flocculation and thus improve soil structure.
• So, it helps in proper and complete soil utilization.
• It also helps in the choice of species for successful plantation.

2. Soil Acidity
• Acidity of the soil is due to an excess of hydrogen ions over hydroxyl ions.
• These concentrations of ions are indicated by pH.

Importance

 PHalue indicates what species would be successful in a particular soil having a particular pH
value, i.e. Shorea robusta grows best in soils with pH 4.5 to 5.5 and poor quality Sal may
grow in soils with pH up to 7.
- Tectona grandis occurs best in soils with pH 6.5 to 7.6.
- In barren saline and alkali soils:
Eucalyptus hybrid and Acacia arabica – up to pH 9.0
Azadirachta indica, Terminalia arjuna – up to pH 9.8

 pH value affects the availability of nutrients.

 Increase in pH results in increased availability of Ca, Mg, Mo and K and decreased supply
of Fe and Mn.
 Nitrogen is best available when pH is between 6 and 8.

 pH value determines the degree of maturity of soil and the stage of development in plant
succession. For example, in humid areas, soil acidity is associated with maturity of soil and
climax vegetation, whereas basic soils are indicative of immaturity. But in dry regions, increase
in alkalinity is associated with maturity of soil.

2.5 Biotic Factors

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The vegetation of a place is the result of not only the climate, soil and topography of the place but also
the community life of living organisms. Biotic factors are defined as ‘the influence of living organisms’.
Influence of biotic factors can be described under the following headings:
o Influence of plants
o Influence of insects
o Influence of wild animals
o Influence of man and his animals

Influence of plants

Besides the healthy competition between trees species there are always some undesirable species
affecting the growth of trees of the favored species. The undesirable species may be weeds or other
harmful plants. The following are some of the undesirable harmful plants found in the forest:

Parasites – Parasite is defined as ‘an organism that draws a part or whole of its nourishment from
another living organism’. They grow on some living plant called host and penetrate their sucking roots,
called haustoria, into the host plant. The parasites draw either their whole nourishment from host or only
a part of it and on this basis, they are classified into total parasites or partial parasites. Among the total
parasites, Cuscuta reflexa and Cassytha filiformis are common in forest areas. Among the partial
parasites, Viscum, Loranthus, and Arceuthobium are the commonest. There is, however, one useful and
valuable parasite tree species, Santalum album. Sandal wood is a root parasite as contrasted with the
above mentioned stem parasites.

Epiphytes – Epiphyte is ‘a plant growing on, but not nourished by another plant’. Epiphytes do not draw
food from the plant on which they occur. They only take the help of other plant in getting access to light.
Epiphytes commonly found in forests are Ficus bengalensis, F. religiosa, orchids, etc. The first two
sometimes attain such huge sizes that the trees, on which they grow, are completely covered and
ultimately killed.

Climbers – Climber is ‘ a herbaceous or woody plant that climbs up trees or other support by twining
round them or by holding on to them by tendrils, hooks, aerial roots or other attachments’. Climbers
depend upon other plants for physical support as they cannot remain erect by themselves. They are very
harmful to forest trees. Some of the common climbers are found in the forests are Dioscorea, Mucuna,
Ipomaea, Bauhinia vahlii, etc.

Abnoxious weeds – One of the most important abnoxious weeds is Lantana camara which covers large
areas of forests. It colonizes new areas by seed dispersal by birds and once it reaches in an area, it
spreads fast. It coppices so well that efforts to eradicate it, have completely failed. It has become a
serious obstacle in the natural regeneration of important species including Sal. Other troublesome weeds
are Eupatorium antidysentric and E. adenophorum. Like Lantana, these also adversely affect
regeneration and growth of many economically important tree species including Sal.

Fungi - A large number of fungi attack forest trees and their attack, besides reducing quality of timber of
trees attacked, sometimes, change the form and structure of forest communities. They cause damping off

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in seedlings, wood rot and root rot in poles and trees, thereby killing them or at least making the timber
altogether useless.

Influence of insects – Insects is an integral part of the environment of forests. While some of them are
very useful, others are definitely harmful. One of the most important of such harmful insects is
Hoplocerambix spinicornis, popularly known as Sal borer. It makes tunnels in the timber of the trees and
in case of heavy attack, it kills the trees. Hapalia mechaeralis and Hyblaea puera are important
defoliator and skeletonizer of teak. Some other harmful insects are Hypsipyla robusta, Hylobius
angustus, Cosmotriche laeta, etc.

Influence of wild animals – Like insects, animals are also an integral part of environment of forests.
The animals help in dispersal of seed. They, however, often cause considerable damage to forest crops
and make regeneration of certain species practically impossible. For example, excessive increase in the
population of cheetals, sambhars and nilgai, has a great adverse effect on Sal regeneration. Porcupines
destroy innumerable seedlings of bamboo, khair, and simal every year so much so that, unless the
damage is kept under control, they make regeneration of these species absolutely impossible. Monkeys
and langurs cause enormous damage to fruits and seeds. They pull out chir seedlings not only in
[plantations but also in natural regeneration areas with the result that regeneration operation, often, fail
completely on this account. Pigs do considerable damage to Sal, Teak and other species. They are so
fond of bamboo rhizomes that they, sometimes, dig up whole plants planted in plantations. Bisons and
elephants also do enormous damage to forest crops. Bisons repeatedly browse seedlings and saplings of
Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium etc. Elephants feed on Ficus spp., bamboos, etc. In the
temperate coniferous forests, bark of deodar, spruce and blue pine is stripped off by black beers to lick
the rising sap and cambium layer beneath the bark. In this way, a number of trees of these species are
annually damaged by them.

Influence of man and his animals

 Deforestation and denudation
 Forest degradation
 Fire
 Lopping
 Removal of dry leaves
 Collection of flowers and fruits
 Grazing etc.

UNIT 3: CONCEPT OF PLANT SUCCESSION

There is a gradual replacement of one plant community by another because of the interaction of
vegetation and the locality factors and consequent improvement in the conditions of both. This is called
plant succession, which is defined as the gradual replacement of one community by another in the
development of vegetation towards a climax which is the culmination stage in plant succession for a
given environment. The plant communities involved in the succession before the climax is reached are
called ‘seres’.

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

How does it take place?
There occurs interaction between locality factors and vegetation. As a result of this interaction, both the
locality factors and the vegetation are affected. In other words, a set of factors of locality allow the
growth and development of a plant community whose continued presence in the site changes the factors
of locality so much that the conditions become unsuitable for the original plant community and the site is
gradually replaced by the members of other plant community. For example, take the case of a new sandy
soil along the bank of a river. After decreasing of the flood water, the bare sandy soil is gradually
colonized by some grass. As the grass covers most of the area, it gradually obstructs the flow of flood
water and arrests silt in the area. The decay of leaves of grass improves the soil conditions to some
extent. The soil, which was originally absolutely sandy and, therefore, unretentive of moisture, becomes
slightly retentive due to annual addition of silt and organic matter. Its fertility also improves. These
slightly improved conditions make it suitable for the colonization by a few hardy tree species, because
the conditions are still very difficult due to complete overhead sun, wider diurnal range of temperature,
strong winds, poor retentivity of moisture and low fertility of the soil. The species which can grow in
such difficult conditions are called pioneers. They come one by one in the area and gradually take the
shape of a forest community. The presence of this plant community makes further changes in the locality
factors. By the annual addition of organic matter and arrest of more and more silt, the moisture
retentivity and the fertility of the soil improve. These changed conditions make the place suitable for
some other less hardy species which come gradually and, in course of time, replace the original plant
community. The new plant community further in course of time, improves the soil and the climatic
factors and thus makes the place suitable for some other exacting species which comes in gradually and
replaces the previous plant community. Thus there is a gradual replacement of one plant community by
another because of the interaction of vegetation and the locality factors and consequent improvement in
the conditions of both.

Evolution of the concept of plant succession

The concept of plant succession has been developed during the last century by various authors. It was
Thoreau who, first, used the term ‘forest succession’. It was, however, Clements who developed the idea
and elaborated the theory of plant succession in 1916. So, it is the Clements’ theory of plant succession
that is widely accepted.

Basic features of the concept of plant succession

• There is a continual change in the vegetation as result of interaction of plant community and
the habitat factors;
• The succession is progressive and the end product is the climax; and
• The succession is the progressive development of vegetation on the same site in course of time.

Kinds of succession
(a) On the basis of moisture conditions of the place, succession is classified into:
1. Xerarch succession – It is defined as ‘the succession initiated in extremely dry
situation such as bare rock, wind blown sand, rocky slopes, etc.
2. Hydrarch succession – It is defined as ‘the succession beginning in water, or very wet
land as in ponds, lakes, marshes, etc.

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 (b) On the basis of presence or absence of vegetation in the place, succession is classified into:
1. Primary succession – It is defined as ‘the succession which takes place on sites
which have previously not borne vegetation’. Primary succession is, sometimes, termed
as autogenic succession because it takes place as a result of autogenic factors which are
defined as the ‘dominating factors of change which are only due to the individuals in a
plant community’. In other words, autogenic succession is that in which vegetation affects
the ecosystem to bring about consequential change in itself.

2. Secondary succession - It is defined as the succession which takes place on site ‘after
the destruction of the whole or part of the original vegetation’. This succession is,
sometimes, termed as allogenic succession as it takes place due to allogenic factors, such
as clearing, burning, grazing, storm, erosion, deposition, landslide, etc.

Primary Succession
As already defined in the above section (Kinds of succession), primary succession is the
succession that takes place on sites which have previously not borne vegetation. The soils on
such sites could be new alluvial deposits, new coastal sands, new estuarine deposits, sand dunes,
land slips and screes. All these sites have complete overhead sun, wider diurnal range of
temperature, strong winds, poor retentivity of moisture and low fertility of the soil. Under such
adverse climatic and soil conditions, only a few hardy tree species can grow. Their seeds are
migrated either by wind or water or both. They come one by one in the area and gradually build
up a canopy. They also start building up the true soil by adding humus through their leaf fall,
improving nitrogen status by the fixation of nitrogen by root nodules, arresting silt and stabilizing
the soil. These changed conditions make the place suitable for some other less hardy species
which come gradually and, in course of time, replace the original plant community. The new
plant community further in course of time, improves the soil and the climatic factors and thus
makes the place suitable for some other exacting species which comes in gradually and replaces
the previous plant community. Thus there is a gradual replacement of one plant community by
another due to the interaction of vegetation and the locality factors, and this goes on for a long
time till a climax vegetation is reached.

The following are some typical examples of primary Succession:

(i) Riverain succession in the Terai
The various stages of this succession leading to the establishment of a Sal forest are
given below:
1. Saccharum spontaneum, Tamarix dioica
2. Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo
3. Acacia catechu, Holoptelia, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia procera
4. Holoptelia, Adina cordifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Bombax ceiba,
Terminalia belerica.
5. Adina cordifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Terminalias, Shorea robusta.
6. Shorea robusta, Lagerstroemia, Terminalias, Adina cordifolia.

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 (ii) Coniferous Succession
1. Shrub associations
2. Pinus wallichiana
3. Mixed forest of deodar, spruce and blue pine.
4. Mixed forest of spruce, fir and deodar.

Secondary Succession
In nature, primary succession does not proceed as smoothly as described. Several unfavorable factors
may delay or interrupt the progress of succession towards the climax. These factors may be natural (i.e.
deterioration of climate, sinking of water table, storms, soil erosion, land slide, snow or drought) or
biotic (i.e. clearing for agriculture, reckless and indiscriminate cutting and lopping, burning and grazing).
On account of these factors, the primary succession may be held up at any stage, or there may be some
retrogression or regression which is defined as the ‘reversion to some earlier stage of succession
consequent on the introduction of an adverse factor’.

When the causes of retrogression are removed or when the area from where vegetation has been
completely destroyed is left to itself, the nature starts its work again, i.e., the vegetation starts progress.
This progress, which is called secondary succession, does not follow the same course as the primary
Succession. In other words, an entirely different series of successional stages of plant communities,
which are normally not seen in primary succession, appear in the secondary succession.

Causes of succession
(i) Initial causes – These are the causes which provide the basis for succession to take
place. Thus, in case of primary succession they are responsible for creation of a new soil,
while in case of secondary succession, they are responsible for making the soil bare.

Initial causes of primary succession

Erosion – Wind and water erode the soil and deposit it elsewhere. Thus, new soils are created in the
form of alluvial deposits, coastal sands, estuarine deposits, sand dunes, land slips and scree.

Physiography – The configuration of the land surface is an initial cause to the extent it helps the agents
of erosion, i.e. wind, water and gravity, to create new soils.

Elevation and subsidence – Seismic disturbances result in elevation and subsidence of the soil resulting
in the formation of new soils. Similarly, geological disturbances in the Himalayas result in the formation
of new soil for primary succession.

Initial causes of secondary succession

Climate – Climate is the initial cause when the vegetation is destroyed by the action of drought, wind,
snow or frost.

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Physiography – Physiography is the initial cause when configuration of the land surface is responsible
for the destruction of vegetation in combination with some other factors. For instance, land slide may
take place on a steep slope, destroying the forest.

Biotic factor - Biotic factor is the initial cause when a forest is destroyed as result of the activity of
man, his animals, or even wild animals. For instance, a forest may be destroyed by reckless cutting,
clearing, burning, heavy grazing, etc.

(ii)Continuing causes
Migration – Mass movement of plants from one place to another is called migration. It begins when
germule (spore, seed, fruit or plant) leaves the parent area and reaches the final resting place. This
depends upon the degree of mobility of their seeds, nearness of the parent area, topography, etc.

Ecesis or establishment – The whole process whereby a plant establishes itself in a new area from its
germination to reproduction whether sexual or asexual. Establishment of species on a new area can only
be accomplished when seeds germinate and it depends on the condition of seed and site.

Grouping and aggregation – The colonizers invade new areas gradually. The first immigrants after
establishment grow while more migration keeps on taking place. Thus, in course of time, the colonizers
make a closed canopy.

Competition – As soon as the crowns of the colonizers start touching each other, competition starts
between them for the limited food and water in the soil and for light. Competition is usually very intense
between the individuals of the same species as their demands are similar. As a result of this competition,
the weaklings are left behind in the struggle for existence.

Reaction – The effect of vegetation on site is called reaction, which can be grouped into two classes:
(i) Effect on climatic factors
- Altering the light conditions
- Decreasing the day air temp. and reducing the diurnal range
- Reducing the wind velocity
- Reducing the danger of radiation frost
- Increasing the relative humidity

(ii) Effect on soil

- Addition of organic matter
- Improving the structure of the soil
- Improving moisture receptivity of the soil
- Improving nutrient status of the soil
- Improvement of the stability of the soil
- Development of maturity of the soil

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 Concept of climax
If the succession is allowed to progress without disturbance, a stage is reached when no more
improvement is possible in the soil and the vegetation,. At that stage, the vegetation is in equilibrium
with the environment, and stays unchanged indefinitely by reproducing itself. Thus climax is the
culmination stage in plant succession for a given environment. Clements believed that the most
dominant community-forming factor was climate and, therefore, he called it Climatic Climax.

Classification of climax
Climatic climax – It is the climax which owes its distinctive characters to climatic factor in conjunction
with only such biotic influence as plants and animals naturally occurring in the area bring about. Sal is a
climatic climax in the tropical forest found in Nepal.

Edaphic climax - Edaphic climax is defined as ‘a community which differs from the climatic factors of
the area owing to the influence of special soil factors’. In other words, within the general climatic
climax, there may be characteristics vegetation locally due to the influence of soil peculiarities.
Terminalia tomentosa forest in the moist deciduous forest is an example.

Preclimax – Preclimax is ‘the plant community immediately preceding in seral development of the
climatic climax of the region and found under conditions drier than are usual in the climate of the region.
For example: Chir pine on the ridges in sub-tropical broad-leaved forest.

Post climax - Post climax is ‘a plant community more exacting than the climatic climax of a given
region and found under exceptionally favorable site conditions within that region’. It actually occurs on
sites very much moisture than the normal sites in that climatic region. Presence of evergreen and semi-
evergreen species in Sal forest is an example.

Biotic climax or sub climax – A climax which differs from the climatic climax of the area owing to the
action of biotic factors. It is a vegetation whose development towards climatic climax has been arrested
at some stage of the normal climax by the action of certain factors, natural or artificial, other than the
climate and which is more or less stable under the prevailing conditions. Grassy riverain sub climax is an
example of this climax. Since this vegetation is stable under the influence of biotic factors, it is called
biotic climax or sub climax.

UNIT 4: FOREST TYPES OF NEPAL ON ECOLOGICAL BASIS

 Refer Forest Management Note of previous year.
 Remember at least five to 10 species of each class.
 Classify on the basis of ecology (climate), legal division and functional division.

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

 UNIT 5: REGENERATION
Introduction:
Regeneration means the renewal of a forest crop by natural or artificial means. Simply, Regeneration
means reproduction.
Methods of regeneration:
 Natural regeneration
 Artificial regeneration
 Natural regeneration supplemented by artificial regeneration.(not in syllabus)

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5.1. Natural Regeneration
It is defined as the ‘the renewal of a forest crop by self-sown seed or by coppice or root suckers’. It also
refers to the crop so obtained. The natural regeneration may be obtained from the following two main
sources:
(i) From seed; and
(ii) From vegetative parts (by coppice or by root suckers)

5.1.1 Natural regeneration from seed: When regeneration obtained from seed forms a crop, it is called
a seedling crop and when this seedling crop grows into a forest, it is called a high forest. When
regeneration obtained by coppice forms a crop, it is called coppice crop and when it develops into a
forest, it is called coppice forest to differentiate it from the high forest. Root suckers are, however, not
used for large scale regeneration operation.

Natural regeneration from seed depends upon:

(a) Seed production;
(b) Seed dispersal;
(c) Germination; and
(d) Establishment

(a) Seed Production

Seed production is the most important prerequisite of natural regeneration from seed. In case of artificial
regeneration also, seeds are equally important for the production of seedlings of required quality and
quantity. The production of adequate quantities of fertile seed by the trees of the area or immediate
neighborhood is important for the establishment of a good forest.

Factors affecting seed production: The production of seed depends upon the following factors:
1. Species
2. Age of tree
3. Size of crown
4. Climate
5. Other external factors
Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation.

(b) Seed dispersal – The seed produced by the trees is dispersed by the following agencies:
 By wind: All conifers, Betula, Rhododendron, Populus, Alnus, Salix, most Dipterocarps,
Terminalias, Dalbergia, Acacia catechu, Bombax, Holoptelia, Pterocarpus marsupium, etc.
 By water: Dalbergia, Tectona grandis, Trewia, most mangrove species, etc.
 By gravity: Oaks, Juglans regia, Aesculus, etc.
 By birds: Prunus, Mulberry, Diospyros melanoxylon, etc.
 By animals: Acacia arabica, Prosopis juliflora, Zizyphus, Anthocephalus, etc.

(c) Germination – After dispersal, a lot of seed is destroyed by insects, birds and rodents. The others
germinate provided they are deposited on suitable soil. Germination of seed depends upon:

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

 Internal factors and External factors
Internal factors – The internal factors are the factors pertaining to seed itself.
The following internal factors affect germination:
 Permeability to water
 Permeability to oxygen
 Development of embryo
 After-ripening.
 Viability
 Size of seed
 Germinative capacity and germinative energy
 Plant percent
Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation

External factors – External factors are the factors of environment which affect germination. These
are:
(i) Moisture
 An adequate quantity of moisture is very essential for germination.
 It activates the dormant embryo and by softening the seed coat helps it to come out.
 It is also necessary for dissolving the food material collected in the cotyledons and for
translocating it in solution to the radical and the plumule.
 Diffusion of oxygen for respiration also takes place in aqueous solution.
(ii) Air
 The germinating seeds require oxygen and this is supplied by air.
 Seeds buried in the deeper layers of the soil often remain dormant for want of oxygen.
 Respiration is very rapid in the germinating seed and therefore, a constant supply of
oxygen is very essential.

(iii) Temperature
 Temperature is essential for germination but range of temperature within which seeds of
various species germinate varies with species.
 Within this range, the higher the temperature the better the germination.

(iv) Light
 Most species are indifferent to light conditions for their germination but some species
like Cassia fistula, Albizzia procera, require light.

(v) Seed bed

 It is necessary that the seed should be deposited on proper seed bed for germination.
 The seed will not germinate if it falls on bare rock, boulder deposit, a thick layer of dry
leaves or a dense ground cover.

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  Even on a suitable seed bed, the depth of covering has a great influence on natural
regeneration.
 Seeds which are covered with soil equal to about half of their diameter germinate best,
provided others factors are favorable.

(d) Seedling establishment: The following factors affect establishment of seedlings:

1. Development of roots
 It is essential that the seedlings may develop a long tap root soon so that it reaches a depth
where there is permanent moisture in the soil.
 The seedling mortality is less in the species in which the development of root is fast.

2. Soil conditions
 As seedlings depend upon the soil for its food, moisture and air, its establishment depends
upon favorable soil conditions.
 The soil should have adequate moisture.
 Excess of moisture or its deficiency are both harmful for plant growth.
 There should be adequate level of nutrients in the soil.
 The presence of a thick layer of un-decomposed organic matter inhibits establishment.

3. Light
 Light is a very important factor in seedling establishment but its requirement varies from
species to species.
 In the same species, the requirement of light increases with age. The younger seedlings
require comparatively lesser light but as they grow in age, they require more light.

4. Other climatic factors

 Extremely high or extremely low temperature is both harmful for seedling establishment.
 For seedling establishment, only adequate rainfall is not essential but its proper seasonal
distribution is also essential.

5. Condition of grasses and other competing weeds

 There is competition between seedlings and grasses and other weeds for moisture,
nutrients, light and growing space.
 Dense grass and other competing weed growth are very harmful for seedling
establishment.

6. Grazing, browsing and burning

 Uncontrolled grazing and browsing completely destroy regeneration.
 Similarly, uncontrolled burning is very harmful.

7. Composition of the crop

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  The composition of the crop affects soil conditions and therefore affects the
establishment.
 A mixed crop is believed to be creating more favorable condition for seedling
establishment than pure crops.

8. Drip
 Drip from the large leaves of species such as Sal, Teak, etc. is very harmful for seedling
establishment as it removes soil from the roots of the tiny seedlings in splash erosion.
 As a result, it exposes the roots and kills the plants.
 The splashed soil also covers the shoot of the tiny seedlings resulting in the death of
plants as it prevents to perform photosynthesis and rots the shoot.

5.1.2 Natural regeneration by vegetative parts (root suckers and coppice)

Root suckers: Shorts arising from the root of the woody plants. Natural regeneration from root
suckers is not being attempted on any large scale anywhere in our country. Sisoo is the chief
species used in this method. The tree produced by this method is libel to wild throw and poor in
growth and therefore this method is not being favored now. Diospyros root suckersare sometimes
encouraged because the root suckers produce best bidi leaves.

Natural regeneration by coppice can be obtained either by:

Seedling coppice is defined as the ‘coppice shoots arising from the base of the seedlings that
have been cut or burnt back’. This method of obtaining natural regeneration is used for cutting
back woody shoots and established reproduction which is not making any progress so that they
may produce vigorous shoots and soon develop into saplings and into poles. It is generally used
in case of Sal and Teak.

Stool coppice is the coppice arising from the stool. In this method, regeneration is obtained from
the shoots arising from the adventitious buds of stump of felled tree.

The factors affecting natural regeneration by coppice are:

(a) Species
(b) Age of tree
(c) Season of coppicing
(d) Height of stump and method of cutting it
(e) Rotation
(f) Silvicultural system
Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation

5.2 Artificial Regeneration (also called Plantation)

It is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting or other artificial
methods. It is carried out for the following objectives:

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 i. Reforestation - Raising of a forest artificially in an area which had forest vegetation
before. In other words, it may be defined as the ‘restocking of felled or otherwise cleared
woodland’ by artificial means.

ii. Afforestation – Establishment of a forest by artificial means on an area from which

forest vegetation has always or long been absent.

Methods of Artificial Regeneration

On the basis of planting materials, artificial regeneration is divided into following two types:
 Regeneration from seed
 Regeneration from vegetative parts

5.2.1 Regeneration from seed

It is being done either by sowing or planting. So, seeds are directly sown in plantation area or seedlings
are planted to establish plantations.
(a)Planting: Both afforestration and reforrestration can be done in this method.
(b) Sowing: Various showing methods are used to regenerate the plant artificially.

(i)Board cast sowing: The process of scattering of seed over the whole area, either that on which
the crop is to be raised directly or on a nursery bed. This sowing is generally recommended for
stocking burnt area, abandoned cultivation, landslides and grassy blanks.

(ii)Line sowing: The process of showing the seeds in drills or single lines. It may be continuous
or interrupted.

(iii)Strip sowing: The processes of sowing the seed in the narrow strip prepared usually at
definite intervals from one another and are generally 45cm to 90cm or even 120m wide. It may
be also different types.

(iv). Patch sowing: It is the sowing of seed in specially prepared patches i.e circular, rectulgular,
made at regular interval. Its important is that the patch may serve as small nurseries inside the
plantation. Moulds and pit showing are done in the place having high rainfall and dry area
respectively.

(v)Dibbling: In this method, sowing is done in shallow holes made with suitable instruments at
definite interval and is used for species like Juglans which produce large seeds.

Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation and figure.

5.2.2 Regeneration from vegetative parts

 Coppice – To fell trees or cut plants near the ground with a view to producing coppice
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 shoots (shoots arising from the base of a woody plant that has been cut near the ground).

 Cutting – portion of the stem, branch or root is placed in the soil to develop into
plant. Ex. Stem cutting, branch cutting, root cutting and root-shoot cutting.

 Root sucker – It is that method of vegetative reproduction in which a root of a

plant is partially or wholly cut to produce a shoot called root sucker (A shoot
arising from the root of a woody plant).

 Grafting – scion of one plant is applied to stock (usually rooted) of another plant.

 Layering – inducing development of roots on branches while they are attached to

trees.

 Budding – bud is grafted on the stock in the form of a patch after removing the
bark of the stock in that portion.

 Tissue culture – a technique of growing plant cells, tissues or organs in an

artificially prepared nutrient medium under an aseptic condition in the laboratory.
The concept behind it is that each and every plant cell has potential to grow as a
plant. Because of this ability, any plant cell can be developed into a plant as a
whole. These plant part cells can be grown artificially in the laboratory condition
as a tissue culture.
 Root sucker is a shoot arising from the root of a woody plant when its root is
partially or wholly cut.
UNIT 6 NURSERY OPERATIONS

Introduction:
Nursery is defined as ‘an area where plants are raised for eventual planting out’. It comprises of nursery
beds, paths, irrigation channels, etc.

6.1 Objectives and importance of nursery

A forest nursery is established and maintained for the following objectives:

 Many species do not seed every year. So their seeds are collected in moderate or good
seed years and sown in nursery annually to raise seedlings for plantation in various years.
 Some species grow very slowly and if the seed of these species is sown directly in the
plantation, the seedlings are most likely to be swamped by weeds and killed. Therefore,
slow growing species are generally raised in nursery and planted out only when the
seedlings are not liable to be damaged by weeds.

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  For roadside avenue plantations, tall and sturdy plants are needed. Such plants can be
obtained only from a nursery.
 Plantations of some species when raised by direct sowing are not so successful as when
raised by planting. In such cases, nursery is an essential part of artificial regeneration of
those species.
 The best method of introduction of exotics is only by planting and therefore nursery is
very essential for them.
 Planting of nursery grown plants is the surest method of artificially regenerating poor and
barren sites.
 Casualty replacement is done by nursery grown seedlings as sowing done in gaps is liable
to failure due to suppression from weeds.

6.2 Types of nursery

Nurseries are classified either on the basis of irrigational facility or the duration of their use
and the basis of production practices:

1. On the basis of irrigational facility, nurseries are classified into:

(a) Dry nursery – It is a nursery that is maintained without any irrigation or other artificial
watering. Mostly this type of nursery is established in dry, arid and semi arid area. This
type of nursery is best for the species which don’t need large quantity of water. E.g
Acacia’s species and Cassia’s species.

(b) Wet nursery – It is nursery that is maintained by irrigation or other artificial watering
during the dry periods. Mostly the species which requires much water are raised in this
type of nursery.

2. On the basis of duration of their use, nurseries are classified into:

(a) Temporary Nursery
 It is a nursery that is maintained for supplying nursery stock for a short period of
time after which it is abandoned.
 Normally it is made in the plantation area or as close to it as possible. So it is
also referred to as field nursery.
 As it is intended to meet the requirements of a limited area, it is usually small in
extent.

Advantages
 It is usually made in newly cleared sites fairly rich in humus, and
therefore does not require any manuring.
 It enables raising of species in their optimum altitudinal zone in hills.
 It also enables easy, quick and cheap transport of planting stock without
any serious damage or shock.

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 Disadvantages
 As is made in out-of-way places, proper supervision is not possible.
 In the absence of irrigational facility, the growth of seedlings is, usually, slow and
there is usually heavy mortality in them.
 It is relatively costlier to maintain as compared to a permanent nursery.

(b) Permanent nursery

 It is a nursery that is maintained for supplying nursery stock for a long time on a
permanent basis.
 As is intended to meet the requirements of one or more ranges, it is relatively larger in
extent.
 As the duration of service life of permanent nursery is long, seedlings can be raised in
it at reasonable cost.
 It is usually made in a central place near the headquarter of some subordinate staff for
proper supervision.
 It should be on or near some road for quick and easy transport of nursery stock.
 As plants are raised year after year for a long time, it has to be manured regularly, to
maintain its fertility.
 Permanent structures for irrigation facility, shade, storing and necessary housings are
constructed.

1. On the basis of production practices

 Social/ commercial nursery: Establishment of nursery by society for the plantation of
community owned area. The expenses and income from nursery shared by society.
 Private nursery: Establishment of nursery by individual or single family for the
plantation of private owned area and extra seedling can be sold to others. All the
responsibility is to be a particular owner.
 School nursery: Establishment of nursery by school for the plantation on school owned
area and extra seedling can be sold to other for raising fund.
 Women nursery: Establishment of nursery by women group (E.g Aama Samuha) for
raising the fund to strengthening the women’s organization fund.
 Village nursery: Establishment of nursery by the contribution of VDC for the plantation
of VDC owned area and extra seedling can be sold to others.
 Commercial nursery: Establishment of nursery for commercial purposes. It may be
established by single owner or group owner.
 Farmer nursery: Establishment of nursery by farmers for the plantation on the area
owned by them.

6.3 Site Selection for Nursery:

The selection of an appropriate nursery site is the most important decision affecting the
efficient production of good quality plants. The following should be taken into
consideration while selecting the site for nursery.

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 1. Area:
 Area should be sufficient to fulfill the objectives/ demands.
 50% land of the total area should be separated for paths, roads, irrigation
channels etc.

2. Location
 Nursery should be situated as centrally as possible.
 The permanent nursery should be usually made near the headquarter of some
subordinate for proper supervision.
 It possible, it should be located in the natural physiographic and altitudinal zone of
the species which are to raise in it.

3. Labor availability
 It should be close to the source of supply of labor to do the various works as
and when required. Labour should be available in all seasons.

4. Source of water supply

 The site should be situated near or slightly below the source of adequate water
supply.
 Water should be available throughout the year for permanent nursery.

5. Soil
 Soil should be well-drained sandy loam.
 Clayey soils should not be selected as their aeration and drainage is poor and they
are liable to crack during summer.

6. Slope
 In the hills, a gentle slope not exceeding 5 degree should be selected.
 If the slope is steeper, cost of terracing increases. Very steep slopes should be
avoided.

7. Aspect
 The southern aspect is preferred at high elevation as it become too cold.
 Northern aspect is chosen at low elevation.

8. The natural blank area should never be chosen.

9. Transportation:
 Transport of the planting stocks from the nursery to planting site should take least
time. If possible motorable road should be constructed.
 Short and all seasons usable road should be made.

10. Others:

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  Climatic factors should be taken into consideration.
 Moisture loss is heavy in windy area. So, windy area should be
avoided.
 Wind break and shelter belt area should be selected.
 Proper shade should be provided during the extreme sun and cold
winter.
 Frost hole area should be avoided, as frost cause injuries to the plants.

6.5 Design and layout of nursery:

(a) Survey and demarcation:
 Land should be surveyed.
 After surveying, permanent boundary should be fixed.
 Fencing should be done.
 On the map layout plan including fence, nursery sheds, water supply, arrangements of
nursery beds, roads, paths, entrance gate etc should be clear.
(b)Clearance of site
 All the vegetation in the area should be felled.
 Big boulders including debries should be cleared.

©Layout and construction of terrace:

 Nursery layout will vary according to site, topography, types of plant raised and facilities
provided.
 After demarcation, nursery should be divided into rectangular blocks by permanent paths,
about 1.8m wide.
 These blocks are further divided by paths 0.9m wide into smaller blocks.
 These smaller blocks are again subdivided into rectangular nursery beds by paths 0.5m
wide.
 In the hills, nursery beds are made after terracing the area. The width of terraces should
be sufficient to accommodate at least one bed including paths on both sides of it. It should
thus be at least 2m wide.
 The beds should be laid out with their lengths east to west so that they can be shaded
against frost and sun without difficulty.

(c) Leveling of terraces:

 This should be done cutting the slopes and refilling the undulating areas.
 Refilling can be done by importing fertile soil from the forest.
 The leveling should be done in such a manner that there is a light inward slope so that
maximum moisture is retained.
 The soil refilling the terrace and leveling should be free from stones, gravel, roots,
twins etc.

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  Preferably the soil should be sieved before refilling.

(d) Construction.
 After clearing of an area and construction of terraces the outline of beds,
buildings, sheds, storage tank etc. should be set out using pegs and lines and then
necessary construction.

6.5 Nursery Construction:

Following provisions are made for the design, layout and construction:
1. Area of nursery
After selection of nursery site, the area should be decided. It depends upon:
 species to be raised,
 age of seedlings or transplants at the time of planting out,
 number of transplanting required,
 area of plantation, and
 Spacing in plantation.

The area calculated on the basis of these considerations should be increased by 50% to
allow for paths, roads, irrigation channels, etc.

2. Fencing
As soon as the area of nursery has been decided and the site has been selected, a
rectangular plot of that area should be demarcated and fenced.

3. Layout
 After demarcation, nursery should be divided into rectangular blocks by permanent
paths, about 1.8m wide.
 These blocks are further divided by paths 0.9m wide into smaller blocks.
 These smaller blocks are again subdivided into rectangular nursery beds by paths
0.5m wide.
 In the hills, nursery beds are made after terracing the area. The width of terraces
should be sufficient to accommodate at least one bed including paths on both sides of
it. It should thus be at least 2m wide.
 The beds should be laid out with their lengths east to west so that they can be shaded
against frost and sun without difficulty.

4. Water supply
 Storage tank should constructed at the highest part of the nursery
 Water can be brought down to the beds by gravity, in channels or pipes or by
water cans.

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 5. Drainage
 Drainage system should be constructed to prevent damage from heavy rain.

6. Preparation of nursery beds

 Size of beds
 1-1.2 m wide. Width of the bed is important for weeding and watering. As a
rule, width of bed should be such that it can be weeded by labor sitting on both
sides of it without resting a hand or foot in it.
 10 m length

 Soil preparation:
 After demarcation of beds, these are dug to a depth of 0.3 m to 0.45 m.
 Take out stones, roots and gravel present there.
 If soil is gravel sieved it.
 Farm yard manure should be mixed with soil.
 Aldex 5% dust should be mixed if there is danger of white ant.
 Charcoal dust and ashes also mixed to correct the acidity and keep away worms.
 Depending upon the places different beds are made.

7. Other facilities
 Area for storing soil and making compost
 Store house for tools, seeds and other materials
 Shade house – for filling pots and other nursery operations.

6.6 Types of nursery beds and their preparation

Nursery bed: “A prepared area in a nursery where seeds are sown or into which transplants or cuttings
are put”. Nursery beds are classified into:

(i)On the basis of the kind of plants growing on them:

Seedling or seed beds: Those nursery beds in which seedlings are raised by sowing seeds, either for
transplanting in other beds or for planting out.
Transplant beds: Those nursery beds in which seedlings raised in seedling beds are transplanted before
planting out in forest.
Stand out beds: For keeping polythene pots where seeds are directly sown or into which transplants or
cuttings are put.

(ii) On the basis of kind of area:

Raised beds: The seed beds which are prepared above the ground or path level is called raised bed.
In moist areas, which are liable to be water logged, raised beds may have to be prepared. Raised beds
may have to be prepared 15 to 20 cm above the ground level. The raised beds are supported either by

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 bamboos, or a line bricks, stones, etc. This prevents edges of beds from crumbling (break down) in dry
season and from eroding during rains or at the time of irrigation. The species which are commonly raised
on beds are Deodar, Fir, Spruc etc.

Sunken beds: The seed beds which are prepared below the level of the ground or path are known as
sunken bed. This type of bed is prepared in dry areas. For this purpose, the beds are made 10 to 15cm
below the general ground level. The species which are commonly raised on beds are Sissoo, mulberry,
Bamboos etc.

Level beds: In areas with long dry hot weather but ample rain, beds are kept level with or slightly
below the general ground level. These are called ‘Level beds’. Such beds can be easily irrigated, during
dry weather and can be made raised and well-drained by lowering the paths during the rains. The species
which are commonly raised on beds are Tuni, Siris, Eucalyptus, Gravillia etc.

.
6.7 Methods of seed treatment
Germination is prolonged or delayed in some seeds because of its dormancy. In order to
speed up germination of such seeds; they have to be given treatment which is called as ‘Seed
Treatment’. So, seed treatment is defined as “various treatments applied to seeds prior to sowing
in order to increase the rapidity or completeness of germination”.

The following are various treatments that hasten germination:

1. Weathering – Seeds are exposed to sun, wind and rain to crack its hard coat e.g. teak.

2. Water treatment – Seeds are soaked in water to hasten germination with following
variations of treatments:
• Soaking in cold water for one or two days before sowing – This treatment is applied
to most medium sized dry seeds e.g. chirpine and many leguminosae species.
• Soaking in boiling hot water – The water is heated in a container and when it starts
boiling, the container is removed from fire and the seed is dropped in it and then
allowed to cool. This treatment is used for hard-coated seeds e.g. Albizzia, Quercus
and Aesculus. It has the added advantage of killing insects, if any.
• Alternate wetting and drying – Seeds are alternately wetted for some hours and then
dried e.g. teak.

3. Passage through animal body – Some seeds germinate quickly if they are passed through the
digestive systems of animals or birds e.g. Acacia arabica, Santalum album and Prosopis
juliflora.

4. Mechanical treatment – It refers to the mechanical cutting or cracking of the hard impervious
coats of seeds so that moisture may reach inside e.g. teak.

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 5. Chemical treatment – Seeds are soaked in various chemical solutions to soften the hard coat
of seeds. The solutions reported to have been used successfully in certain cases are lime
water, dilute alkali or acid solutions (5 to 15 % for 1 to 24 hours), concentrated sulphuric acid
(about 4 times the volume of seed for 15 minutes to 2 hours), etc. But the method requires
more trials before it can be recommended for practice in the field.

6. Scorching or fire treatment – The teak seed is sometimes spread on ground on a layer of
leaves and given a light burn as it has been observed that a fire through the teak forests
stimulates germination.

7. Stratification – Seeds are spread in layers 1-2 cm deep alternating with layers of sand, peat
or charcoal about 5 to 7 cm deep in boxes or baskets stored in pits dug in the ground. This
method can be used in higher hill forests.

8. Fermentation – In this method, hard-coated seeds are spread on ground covered with grass
which is kept moist. Fermentation is induced by adding liquid waste from cattle shed. The
bacterial action is allowed to continue for about 2 months.

. 8 Seed Testing
Plantation depends upon the quality of seeds. Therefore, seed testing is essential before use. Seed
testing prevents loss in respect of money and effort resulting from failure due to bad seeds and
also helps in finding out real cause of failure.

Objectives of seed testing:

1 Determination of Genuineness - Identify whether the seed is really of the species which
is to be raised before sowing.

2 Determination of purity - Most of the seeds are genuine. However, there may be
adulteration of some other seeds or foreign matters. Therefore, seeds should be
tested for purity.

3 Determination of seed viability - For these following tests is carried out:

• Direct inspection - Representative sample is taken from the seeds to be tested.
Each seed is then cut open and seeds which are hollow, insect eaten or bad are
excluded. This is also known as cutting test.

• Physical test - It is done by winnowing or submerging in water and hollow and

infertile seeds are separated.

• Chemical test - Chemicals are used to determine the viability of seeds. Vital
staining test is done as certain dyes have the ability to stain dead and dying parts
of the seeds.

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 • Germination Test - Seeds are actually induced to germinate and commence
growth is called germination test. Germination tests are usually carried out in
nursery beds or wooden boxes In modern and well equipped laboratories;
electrical equipment with automatic controls specially for regulating temperatures
is also used.

• X-ray technique - Seeds are soaked in water for 16 hours and then in a solution
of barium chloride for 1-2 hours. While barium chloride penetrates the dead
tissues, it can’t penetrate the living cells. Seeds are photographed with soft x-ray.
An embryo is considered viable if it is free of impregnation.

. 9 Seed Certification
All seeds whether they are to be dispatched to outside places or stored in seed stores must have
certificates giving essential particulars. Seed certification is mainly done to improve the quality
of seed and to create the sense of responsibility for the collectors. So, it is a legally sanctioned
system designed to control and maintain high purity of seed and for propagating material of
genetically distinct crop varieties. It is the guarantee of seed quality by an officially recognized
organization usually evidenced by a certificate, which includes:
 Genuineness of species and variety
 Year of collection
 Origin
 Purity
 Soundness
 Germinative capacity

In the Nepalese context, seeds are properly labeled and recorded in the register. Following
information are included in labels:
• Species (Scientific Name with Latin or Nepali Name)
• Date of Collection
• Place of Collection
• Village Development Committee and ward number
• Zone

Additional information useful for the labeling includes the following:

• Altitude
• Aspect
• No. of trees from which the collection was made
• Area from which the seed was collected
• Average size of trees from which the collection was made
• Soil type
• General vegetation type
• Date of planting if from the plantation.

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. 10 Seedling production and management - Nursery operation plan is prepared for the production of
nursery stock and nursery management. Following things should be considered in the plan:
• Type of resources needed
• Infrastructures like wall buildings, water supplies etc
• Tools and equipments
• Expendable materials including seeds
• Labors
• Time.

UNIT 7 PLANTATION METHODS

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 7.1 Appraisal of planting sites and its protection

7.1.1 The appraisal of planting site is carried-out taking into consideration the following
various factors, such as:
 Climatic conditions in the area
 Topographic factors like altitude, slope, aspect, exposure, etc.
 Local vegetation
 Soil conditions: Soil should be tested by taking up soil samples from
different horizons if indigenous species are not found
locally in the area or if any exotic species are to be
raised.

7.1.2 Works to be done in the plantation area including its protection – Following
activities are carried out:
Time table – There should be a time table for various works to be done in the plantation area.
This has to be prepared by working backwards from the crucial time of sowing and planting.

Boundary demarcation – It is the first work to be done. Area of plantation is selected and then
the boundary of the plantation demarcated.

Marking and Felling – After demarcation of the area, its stock map is prepared. Then the trees
standing in the area are marked and felled.

Soil and planting map – After clearance of the area, it should be surveyed in detail to make a
map of the plantation area. While doing this, a cleared strip of about 3 to 6 meters in width
should be left outside the plantation area to serve as a fire line. After surveying and mapping
the outer boundary, the area should be surveyed in detail to make a soil map showing
different types of soil which will help to decide type of species to be raised.

Inspection paths – After making soil and planting map, the area is divided into blocks based
on the area of plantation. These blocks are separated by roads or paths. A path 1.5 m wide or
motor road 3.5 m wide should also be left on the outer periphery of the plantation inside the
fence.

Staking out – Position of lines and pits are clearly marked on ground by fixing wooden or
bamboo pegs for equal distribution of the plants in regular pattern.

Soil preparation – Digging of soil at places where sowing or planting is to be done is carried-
out. Main objectives of doing this are:
 To enable seedling or cutting to develop long tap root easily.
 To enable rain water to penetrate deeper so that moisture is retained in soil for a
longer time.
 To improve aeration of soil.

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  To dig out roots of weeds so that weed growth is reduced.

Fencing – It is done to protect the plantation from different damaging agencies. Following are the
commonly used fences:

a. Cattle proof barbed wire fence – It is composed of 4 or 5 strands of barbed wire with
fence posts.

b Game proof fence – It is erected to keep away wild animals and consists of woven wire
at the bottom with 5 or 6 strands of barbed wire on top.

c Special wild boar and porcupine proof fence – Thicker woven wire has been used and
buried 30 cm in the ground. There are 5 or 6 strands of barbed wire above the ground and
one strand of barbed wire is also put at the bottom inside the ground.

d. Stone fence – Where stones are available and wooden fence posts are expensive, stone
wall fences are constructed.

e. Social fencing – Local communities protect their plantation area by not allowing their
cattle to graze and protecting the area by guarding themselves on rotational basis or by
hiring watchers.

7.2 Plantation Design

Patterns of planting
Following are the patterns of planting

i) Line Planting: In Line planting Plants are planted at some spacing in lines which are also
some distance apart. Thus the planted plants form rectangle.

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 ii) Square planting: Square planting is the planting in square pattern i.e. with plants
occupying he four corners of each successive square. This is achieved by planting plants in
lines at the same spacing as that of the lines themselves.

iii) Triangular planting: It is the planting in the pattern of equilateral triangles i.e. with
plants occupying the three corners of each adjacent equilateral triangles.

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 iv) Quincunx Planting: Quincunx is defined as “a group of five points, four of which form
the corners of a square with the fifth as the center.” Thus Quincunx planting is that method of
planting in which an extra plant is placed in the center of each square of four plants.

Method of calculating number of Plants:

1. Line planting – Plants are planted at some spacing in lines which are also at some
distance forming a rectangle.

No. of plants / ha = 100 x 100

Distance of plants in line x Distance between the lines

2. Square planting – Plants are planted in square patterns.

No of plants / ha = 100 x 100

Square of the planting distance

3. Triangular planting – Plants are planted in the pattern of equilateral triangles.

No of plants / ha = 100x 100 x 1.155

Square of planting distance (i.e. side of the triangle)

4. Quincunx planting – An extra plant is planted in the centre of each square of four plants.

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 No of plants / ha = 2 x 100 x 100
Square of the side of the planting square

7.3 Choice of species – It depends upon:

 Climatic conditions – Only those species which can grow in the regional climate as well
as in the microclimate of the plantation site should be selected.

 Soil condition – Only the species which are suited to soil and moisture conditions should
be selected to avoid failure. Plantation should be decided on the basis of stock map
prepared before felling, examination of soil and study of indicator plants.

Indicator plant (soil indicator) – Any plant which by its presence indicates the
quality of the site. Ex,
Lime rich soil – Cupressus torulosa
Soils with high concentration of soluble salts– Acacia arabica

 Stage of succession – The stage of succession which the soil has reached should also be
noted to decide the species which can grow in it.

 Objects of management – Choice of species is also affected by the object of the

plantation.

 Consumer’s requirement – Change in the taste of consumer and market requirements

should be considered while selecting species of plantation.

 Growth rate – The choice of species is also affected by their rate of growth.
A fast growing species – Height increment of 60 cm per annum in the earlier stages of its life
and minimum yield of 10 cu m / ha / yr in a short rotation of 10 – 15 years.

 Availability of suitable exotic – If indigenous species cannot meet the fast growing
requirement of industrial timber, exotic species should be selected based on the suitability
of local conditions.

 Ease of establishment – The ease with which a species can be raised also affects the
choice of species.

 Cost – The cost of raising a species also affects the choice.

 Effect on site – If a species affects site, it should not be selected.

7.4 Methods of Site/ground preparation

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 Site preparation is done to eliminate the existing vegetation on the site in order to reduce
competition to the planted trees and to provide access for planting.

7.4.1 Manual site preparation

 Use of labor to clear site
 Fire is also used for clearing the site. Fire lines are made around the plantation area.

7.4.2 Mechanical site preparation

 It is done for commercial plantation.
 Bulldozers and tractors are used for clearing the site.

7.4.3 Site preparation on difficult sites

On very steep or eroded sites, special methods for land preparation needed.
Methods – terracing, contour bunding, contour trenching and contour furrowing.

7.5Pitting
 It should be done while the ground still has some moisture in it.
 Fairly soon after monsoon is the good time but may be done until Nov-Dec.
 The standard pit is a circular at least 30 cm deep and 30 cm diameter at the bottom.
 After digging the pit, it should be checked whether all the soil has been removed or not
 The dug up soil is heaped up on a side of pit to weather for about a month or two.
 Weathering of soil for one or two months has the following advantages:
1. The crumb structure is improved. The bigger clods are broken into smaller clods
due to the action of weather;
2. The roots of the weeds get dried up; and
3. Injurious insects, etc., are eaten up by birds.

 After weathering, the dug up soil is either filled back in the pits or piled up on the sides in
a particular manner. This depends upon the amount of rainfall in the area. If the rainfall is
heavy or moderate, the dug up soil is filled in the pit to make a raised hip.

7.6 Spacing - It is the distance between the plants put out in a plantation or standing in a crop. It is
also sometimes referred to as escapements. When the distance between plants is small, it is called
close spacing and when the distance is large, it is known as wide spacing.

Advantages of wide spacing

• Saving of seeds and plants
• Cost is less
• Less labor is required

Disadvantages of wide spacing

• Canopy takes long time to close
• Trees tend to become branchy, resulting in knotty timber
• Thinning become difficult

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• Results in rapid diameter increment and wider annual rings affecting the strength of wood.

Advantages of close spacing

• Canopy closes soon and it checks growth of grass and weeds.
• Thinning becomes easier.
• Natural pruning makes the bole cleaner.

Disadvantages of close spacing

• Requires large quantity of seeds or large no. of plants
• Cost is more and more labor required.

Factors affecting spacing

The following factors govern the spacing:
• Rate of growth of species – Fast growing species have wider spacing and slow growing species
have closer spacing.

• Habit of branching – Large number of branches arising from the stem, not only reduces the
timber volume but also decreases the value. Therefore, the species which have the habit of
producing large number of branches, should be raised at close spacing so that due to deficient
light, natural pruning may make the bole clean.

• Number of annual rings per centimeter – The wood required in some industries, e.g. paper pulp,
match, etc., should have lesser number of rings per cm. As this requires rapid diameter
increment, the plants have to be raised at wider spacing. To produce denser wood with larger
number of rings per cm, close spacing is adopted.

• Height of planting material – For tall plants, wider spacing is needed.

• Site factor – Close spacing is used in drier areas. Similarly, in places where there is a danger of
infestation of weeds, e.g., Eupatotium, Lantana, etc., closer spacing should be adopted.

• Inter-cultivation – Wide spacing is required for it.

• Market for small sized timbers – Closer spacing can be adopted only when the small-sized
material can be sold and removed.

• Fruit production as objective – Wider spacing should be adopted. Example- Anacardium

occidentale, Choerospondias axillaris.

• Cost – Availability of funds has a great influence on the spacing to be adopted.

Usual spacing of some important species in India

•Teak – 1.8m x 1.8m (in lower quality class areas)
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 2.6m x 2.6m (in higher quality class areas)

•Sal – usually by line or strip sowings.

In the lines: the seeds are spaced at 8 to 10 cm apart
The lines or strips: spaced 1.8 to 3.6m

• Semal – There is no recognized spacing for semal. It is raised at spacing from about 4.6m x
4.6m to 11m x 11m.

• Eucalyptus – The usual spacing varies from 2.4m x 2.4m to 3.3m x 3.3m.

Nepal
Usually spacing in plantation is 2.5m x2.5m.

7.7 Handling seedlings

7.7.1 Preparing plants for planting-out
Hardening-off
 During plantation, seedlings will be exposed to much more difficult conditions, and if the
transition from nursery to plantation conditions is too abrupt, the seedling may suffer.

 To make this transition favorable, a gradual process known as hardening-off is used in nursery
in which plants are made able to tolerate the difficult conditions.

 This is done by gradually reducing:

• Shade
• Watering
• Use of fertilizers.

Culling (pick/gathering)
 Seedlings are sorted according to their suitability for planting.
 Weak, undersized, and badly formed plants should be culled and thrown away.
 Seedlings suitable for plantation should be:
• Min. 20 - 30 cm in height
- For naked root planting: 20 – 30 cm in height (Very big plants cannot be planted with
naked roots)
- For stump planting: Collar diameter 1 – 2 cm
• Have straight, undamaged, un-forked stems
• Healthy, deep green in color
• Free of insects or fungal diseases.

7.7.2 Packing for transport

Plants in poly pots
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  Plants in poly pots should be well watered two or three days before they are to be transported
to the field and lightly watered the evening before.
 They should not be watered heavily on the day of transport.
 The container, not the shoots should be used for handlings seedlings.
 They are transported by dokos or wheeled transport with trays.

Stumps
 Stumps are wrapped in wet jute cloth and tied in bundles and kept in cool shady places

Bare root plants

 These are dug up carefully and the soil shaken off their roots and culled and then made up into
bundles with root wrapped in jute cloth.

7.8 Plantation versus direct sowing

There are two methods of artificial regeneration - sowing or planting. The advantages and
disadvantages of both these methods are already described under Artificial Regeneration from
Seed in Unit 5 of this note.

The choice between these two methods of artificial regeneration depends upon:
 Species to be raised- Most of the species can be raised by both methods but some by
sowing or planting only.

 Condition of the site- In poorer and difficult sites, infested with grasses sowing is
generally not successful

 Availability of seed- Species which don’t produce large quantities of seed every year
have to be raised by planting.

 Cost- As a general rule, the method of artificial regeneration, which gives greater
success at comparatively lesser cost, is preferred.

7.9 Concept of forest fertilization

 Application of fertilizers in the plantation is known as fertilization which is done for quick
and best return.

 However, fertilizers have not been used in forest plantations so far to any significant extent.

 Fertile forest lands provide an optimum supply of the nutrients essential for the growth of the
trees.

 Application of fertilizer is very necessary to raise forest plantation outside forest area on
marginal soils.

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  In order to apply fertilizers to the best advantage, requirement of each species at different
stages of development and the fertility status of soil in which they are to be raised will have
to be determined.

 On the basis of this knowledge, quantity, timing and method of application of fertilizer will
have to be worked out, keeping in view that cost of production of timber does not become
much too high.

 Fertility can be maintained by proper application of both organic and inorganic fertilizers.

7.10 Concept of irrigation in plantation

 Watering is very important for increasing the growth of planted seedlings.
 Except for orchards, nurseries and other sites of very intensive tree culture, there is little
use of irrigation in forestry as irrigation water is preferred to agricultural use.
 Also as watering a plantation is both difficult and expensive, it is usually not done.

But following are some exceptions to the general rule:

 Dry tracts where irrigation is easily available –
(1) Irrigation becomes necessary for the establishment of seedlings and success of the
plantation in the dry and arid areas.

(2) So, whenever possible, watering should be provided in such areas.

 Road side avenue plantation - the plants are watered during 1st and 2nd year to
accelerate their growth.

 Casuarina plantations in coastal sands -

(1) Irrigation in Casuarina plantations is carried out during the first year, and
sometimes during the second year.

(2) Irrigation is done to help the seedlings to send their roots through the non-retentive
sand to the water table as early as possible to escape drought mortality.

 Fast growing species, i.e. Populus, Eucalyptus, etc. require more water than
Dalbergia, Acacia, Casuarina, Tectona, etc.

 Very little is known about the comparative response of different tree species to
limited availability of soil water.

 Watering helps in shortening the rotation.

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 UNIT: 8. SILVICULTURAL TREATMENTS

Tending operations
Tending is defined ‘as an operation carried out for the benefit of a forest crop, at any stage of its
life between the seedling and the mature stages; it essentially covers operations both on the crop
itself and on the competing vegetation, e.g., weeding, cleaning, thinning, improvement felling,
pruning, climber cutting and girdling of unwanted growth.’

8.1 Release operations (other tending operation):

 Release operation free young stands of desirable trees, not past the sapling stage, from the
competition of undesirable trees that threatened to suppress them.
 It includes weeding, cleaning and liberation cutting

A. Liberation cutting
 Cuttings made to free a young stand, not past the sapling stage, from completion of older,
overtopped individuals.
 To reduce the competition of older, overtopping individuals

B. Weeding
 Simply weeding means: Removal or cutting back of all weeds in the seedling stage.
 Any unwanted plant that interferes or tends to interfere with the growth of the individuals
of favored species is called a weed.
 In other words, weeding may be defined as ‘a tending operation done in the seedling stage
in nursery or in a forest crop that involves the removal or cutting back of all weeds’.
 Objectives:
 To reduce root competition and transpiration water.
 To improve light conditions.
 Three weeding usually done in the first year, two in the second year and one in the third
year.
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  Methods: Clean weeding, strip weeding, Patch weeding
 Patch weeding in a circle of 60 cm diameter around the plant is common in Nepal
 Use of herbicides / weedicides is uncommon in Nepal
 Plantation failure in Nepal is primarily due to use of poor stock & neglect in weeding.

Season, number and duration of weedings

 As a general rule, weedings must be done before (i) weeds have started
suppressing the seedlings and (ii) the seedlings have stopped growing.
 After the growth period is over, the seedlings require protection against frost and
browsing, afforded by weeds and so weedings should not be done.
 Thus, in practice, weedings are done in plantations during the rains and stopped
by the end of September.
 The number of weedings to be done in a particular year depends upon the intensity
of weed growth and the rate of growth of seedlings of the favored species.
 The duration, i.e., the number of years for which weedings should be done also
varies with species, the rate of growth, intensity of weeds and the local conditions.
Generally, weedings are carried out for 3 years, though fast- growing species may
require weedings for one or two years only.

C. Cleaning
 It is defined as ‘a tending operation done in a sapling crop, involving the removal or
topping of inferior growth including individuals of favored species, climbers, etc., when
they are interfering with the better grown individuals of the favored species’.

 It merges with thinning as saplings grow into poles.

Objects of cleaning
(i) To improve light conditions – Cleanings are carried out primarily to improve light
conditions as the amount of light required by a growing sapling to carry out its vital life
processes is far more than that by a seedling.

(ii) To reduce root competition – Cleanings reduce root competition thereby enabling
saplings to develop faster and faster.

(iii) To reduce transpirational water loss – Removal of excess foliage from each unit area
in cleanings also reduces the transpirational water loss.

Season, frequency and duration of cleanings

 To give maximum benefit, cleanings should be done during the season which is the
growth period of the favored species and in which the undesirable species interfere
most with their growth.

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  Therefore, cleanings should be done during the rains but where this is not possible,
they may be done during summers and winters.
 Frequency of cleanings depends upon the density of shrubs and their rate of growth
after cutting. If the shrubs are dense and grow faster, cleanings are done every year;
otherwise, they are cone at an interval of some years.
 Cleanings are normally carried out through out the sapling stage of the favored
species in order to help them to develop into straight and well-grown poles.
 The following operations are usually done in cleaning:
1. Cutting back of shrubs and associated herbs interfering with the growth of
saplings of the desired species;
2. Cutting back of the individuals of inferior species when interfering with the
growth of better species;
3. Cutting back of the malformed or diseased individuals of the desired species;
4. Singling of coppice shoots of the favored species; and
5. Climber cutting.

8.2 Pruning: The presence of the branches makes the wood of the stem knotty and defective
and also to some extent decreases the height increment of the bole. In order to produce knot-
free quality timber it is necessary that branches may be removed from the major portion of the
stem. The operation of ‘removal of live or dead branches or multiple leaders from standing
trees for the improvement of the tree or its timber’ is known as pruning.

Pruning can be classified on the basis of the kind of branches or the agency of removal. Based
on the kind of branches removed, pruning may be classified into:
• Dry pruning - pruning of dead branches.
• Green pruning - pruning of living branches.

According to the agency of pruning, it is classified into:

 Natural pruning or self pruning - the natural death and fall of branches of standing
trees from such causes as deficiency of light, decay, snow and ice.

 Artificial pruning - done by forester without waiting for nature to do it in dense natural
crop or where nature can not do it due to artificially large spacing between stems in
plantations.

The following measures or methods should be adopted during pruning:

 The branches are cut flush with the stem without leaving splinters of branch-
wood and without damaging the bark.
 All branches are removed up to a height of two meters, or up to a height of two
thirds of the total height of the tree, whichever come the less. So, the height up
to which pruning is done should be as low as possible because use of ladder for
pruning makes the operation costly.

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  It should be confined to species which are used in industries in which knot-free
timber is an important requisite.
 It should be started early in the life of the crop so that the branches to be pruned
are thin.
 It should be done on the best stems which are likely to form the final crop.

Bud pruning
 It is rubbing off the lateral buds to prevent the development of branches as a measure to
obtain knot-free timber.
 It is a cheaper method to achieve the object.
 Special rough gloves or rough cloth pieces are used for the operation.
 However, it has not been widely practiced because the branchless poles often get
damaged by wind when they start developing a crown.

Difference between Pruning and Lopping

Pruning means cutting of branches from the main stem or bole of trees for improvement of
timber of trees whereas Lopping means cutting of branches from different parts of a tree to
produce new shoots which are annually or periodically lopped for various purposes, especially
for leaf fodder. So pruning is mainly carried out to produce knot-free timber whereas lopping is
carried for obtaining new vegetative growth on trees.

8.3 Thinning: Thinning is defined as ‘a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of
improving the growth and form of the trees that remain, without permanently breaking the
canopy’.
 Object of thinning
1. To concentrate the increment of the stand on a small no. of selected trees.
2. To increase net yield of timber and money from a stand.
3. To remove dead, dying, diseased (3d) (hygienic condition).
4. To obtain earlier returns and to shorten rotation.
5. To obtain timber of the desired quality and mechanical strength.
6. To ensure decomposition of raw humus.

8.3.2 Basis for thinning

 Thinning should be done on the basis of following things:
 Age of the crop
 Height of the crop
 Density of the crop
 Objective of the management
 Relation of Crown length & width with tree height
 Relation between number of trees per unit area and diameter or basal area
 Relation between number of trees per unit area and mean or top heights or even
squares of heights of trees etc.

8.3.3 Types of Thinning

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Thinning varies with the nature of the crop, i.e. the methods of thinning used in regular crops are
different from that used in irregular crops.

[Link] TYPES OF THINNING USED IN REGULAR CROPS

1. Mechanical thinning
2. Ordinary thinning/German thinning/low thinning
3. Crown thinning
4. Free thinning
5. Maximum thinning
6. Advance thinning

MECHANICAL THINNING (Line thinning /Mechanical/Geometric or Stick thinning)

 Thinning done on the basis of predetermined spacing.
 Rows, strips or groups are removed in a minimum spacing gauged by a standard stick.
 Applicable to plantations or natural regeneration area where plants are uniformly spaced
and uniform growth.
 The length of stick depends upon the average diameter of the crop and the species.
 Some empirical formula are:
• For Sal D = 1.5d (Warren‘s formula)
• For Teak D = 1.5 ( d + 4) ( Sageiya’s formula)
• For Sissoo D = 2d (Howard’s formula)
Where, D in ft and d in inches

ORDINARY THINNING (Low/German/thinning from below):

 Trees removed from lower crown class (suppressed, overtopped) to favor the dominant
ones.
 Applied for light demanders
 It has not any significant effect on growth of retained trees

Grades of ordinary thinning - The following are the thinning grades which are recognized:
i. Light thinning (A grade): This grade of thinning is limited to the removal of dead, dying,
diseased and suppressed trees.
ii. Moderate Thinning (B grade): This grade of thinning is limited to the removal of dead,
dying, diseased, suppressed, defective dominated, whips and occasional very defective
dominant.
iii. Heavy Thinning (C grade): In addition to the removal of all classes of B grade, this
grade consists in the removal of remaining dominated and such of the defective co-
dominants as can be removed without making permanent gaps in the canopy.
iv. Very Heavy Thinning (D grade) – This grade consists in the removal of all tree classes to
be removed in C Grade as well as some of the good dominants subject to the condition of
not making any permanent gap in the canopy.
v. Extremely Heavy Thinning (E grade) – This is about the heaviest thinning that can be
done in a crop without making permanent gaps in the canopy. In this grade, more of the
good dominants are removed as compared to D grade.

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CROWN THINNING (French/high thinning or thinning from above)
 Trees are removed from the upper crown class to open canopy and favor the development
of the most promising trees of the same class; the dominated and suppressed stems are
retained unless they are dead, dying or diseased.
 Applied in shade tolerant species
 It has significant effect on growth of retained trees

Grades of crown thinning – The following two grades of crown thinning are recognized:
 Light crown thinning - This grade consists in the removal of dead, dying and diseased
trees, with such of the defective, and after them the better dominants, as are necessary to
leave room for further development of the best available trees, but not Suppressed and
Dominated trees.
 Heavy crown thinning – This grade pays even more attention to favoring the selected
best stems, but not Suppressed and Dominated trees.

FREE THINNING
It is defined as a method of thinning in which attention is concentrated on evenly spaced selected
stems (called elites or alpha-stems) which are retained until maturity or till the last thinning or
two, thinning being directed to the removal of other stems hindering their optimum development.
 This is also called Heck’s free thinning and is a modification of crown thinning.
 Future trees are selected from the beginning and thinning being done only in favor of the
selected trees.
 The trees other than future trees are removed or retained depending on whether they
affect the growth of the future trees or not.
 It is also known as ‘Elite thinning’ as elite or alpha stems are selected.

MAXIMUM THINNING
It is developed by Gehrhardt as a modification of Heck’s free thinning.
 It aims to concentrate the entire growth potential of the particular area on the retained
stems, from an early stage, the number of such stems being kept at a minimum so that
they are able to fully utilize the available growing space.
 It is the heaviest form of free thinning as there are no trees left other than elites.
 It may result in the deterioration of site.

ADVANCE THINNING
It is developed by Craib and O’Conner for wattle and pine plantation in South Africa and is
also known as Craib’s thinning.
 A thinning done in a regular crop in anticipation of suppression.
 The main object is that trees should be removed before they actually adversely
affect the better growing individuals.
 Craib, who developed this thinning, also devised a research technique for
determining numerical thinning schedules which could be used in general practice.

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  Accordingly, it requires knowledge of the number of trees which should be in a crop
of a particular diameter so that they may grow without competition.

8.3.6 Effects of thinning

There are positive as well as negative effects of thinning. Following are the positive effects of
thinning:
 It improves the growth and form of trees that remain after the operation.
 Specifically, it increases height and diameter of the trees. So it affects the quantity and
quality of timber produced.
 Regular thinning brings uniform growth in trees.

Negative effects
 Because of the pressure of the wind, thinning increases tapering in trees. Tapering, in
turn, reduces timber in a tree. But there is possibility of decreasing height and diameter of
trees, if thinning is not carried out in time.
 As it brings rapid diameter increment in trees, there is produced the less dense wood,
meaning having lesser number of annual rings per centimeter. This, in turn, may affect
the strength of wood.
 It reduces natural or self pruning. As the presence of branches makes the wood of the
stem knotty and defective, artificial pruning should also be done together with thinning.
 There is possibility of producing diseased trees due to snatching and debarking by the
trees felled while carrying out thinning.
 There are possibilities of soil erosion, soil compacting and root shaking while disposing
the felled trees.

8.4 Improvement Felling/cutting (T.S.I)

 It is done to improve the condition of the forest which is generally degraded due to heavy
felling, grazing and burning in the past.
 So, it is the removal of less valuable trees in a crop in the interest of better growth
of the more valuable individuals.
 It is usually applied to mixed uneven aged forest.
 Operations to be done are:
- Felling of dead, dying and diseased trees.
- Felling of saleable unsound over mature trees which are not likely to survive
up to next felling.
- Felling of unsound or badly shaped mature or immature trees provided their
removal will benefit better trees of the same or more valuable species.
- Cutting back of badly shaped and damaged saplings.
- Thinning of congested groups of poles and trees likely to benefit from the
operation .
- Removal of undesirable under growth or trees of inferior species interfering
favored species.

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 - Climber cutting.

8.5 Salvage Cuttings and sanitation cutting:

Salvage cutting: It is done for removing trees that have been or are in imminent danger of being
killed or damaged by injurious agencies. It is aimed at capturing the highly perishable values in
trees that are seriously damaged, dying or already dead.

Sanitation Cuttings: It involves the elimination of trees that have been attacked or appear in
imminent danger of attack by dangerous insects and fungi in order to prevent from spreading
other trees.

8.6 Effects of prescribed burning (control burning) and fire on regeneration:

 Fire can be used both constructively and destructively in handling the forest.
 The practice of using regulated fires to reduce or eliminate the incorporated.
 Organic matter of the forest floor or low undesirable vegetation is called prescribed or
controlled burning.

Effects of prescribed burning

1. Improvement in soil and undergrowth conditions for inducing natural regeneration
- It results in increase in bacterial activity with the result that nitrate production is
augmented which consumes undecomposed litter and makes potash available.
- It reduces the density of undergrowth and makes conditions suitable for natural
regeneration to come up.
- It reduces the weed growth and provides clean seed bed.

2. Clearance of site for artificial regeneration

- Fire is used in clearing plantation sites of weeds, grasses, shrubs and felling refuse
- It provides clean seed bed and reduces the cost of weeding to be done later
3. Hazard reduction - It eliminates most of the readily inflammable materials and thus
reduces the damage that may occur from an accidental summer fire.
[Link] of grazing - Burning at the end of the dormant season accelerates the sprouting of
green grass at the very time when the animals are most likely to be starving.
5. Recreation management - Burning can be employed to maintain a park like
appearance in stands that would otherwise develop under story jungles.
6. Control of pest - It can be used for the control of pest.

8.7 Relationship of silvicultural treatments with bio-diversity conservation

Bio-diversity or biological diversity is the variety of all species on earth. It is the different plants,
animals, and micro-organisms, their genes, and the different ecosystems. It provides many goods
and services. The important services provided by our bio-diversity include recreational, cultural
and spiritual nourishment that maintain our personal and social well-being. But the main threats
to our bio-diversity are:

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  Unsustainable use of natural resources;
 Uncontrolled fire;
 The spread of invasion;
 Degradation of habitat;
 Climate change; etc.

These above threats can be eliminated / minimized by the correct silvicultural treatments
while conserving the bio-diversity. So, there is a strong relationship between bio-diversity
conservation and silvicultural treatments.

In other words, Forest Management always aims to create a balance between bio-diversity
conservation and livelihoods of forest dependent communities. A forest can contribute to poverty
reduction effectively when forest management activities enhance its productivity. The increase in
forest productivity can be achieved through the different sivicultural treatments. So, it can be said
that these treatments help in conserving bio-diversity. These show the relationship of silvicultural
treatments with bio-diversity conservation.

UNIT 9: AFFORESTATION / REFORESTATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AREAS

9.1 Objectives and importance of afforestation and reforestation

9.1.1 Reforestation - Following are the objects of reforestation:

 To supplement natural regeneration – When the natural regeneration is not coming up
well to a desired level
 To replace natural regeneration – When natural regeneration is slow and uneconomical.
 To restock forests destroyed by fire and other biotic factors – When there are no seed
bearers for natural regeneration.
 To change the composition of the crop – When the proportion of the valuable species is
low.
 To introduce exotics - when the indigenous species are slow growing.

9.1.2 Afforestation – It is carried out to achieve the following objects:

 Increase in production of industrial timber as well as timber for urban population
 Increase in the production of fuel wood and small timber for agricultural implements and
rural housing
 Improvement of agro-ecosystem
 Moderation of climate and soil conservation in agricultural land
 Protection of catchments of rivers
 Increasing natural beauty of the landscape

9.2 Locality factors, choice of species and methods of plantation in following areas:

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9.2.1 Denuded hill slopes
Afforestation and reforestation in denuded hill slopes is necessary not only for productive and
bioaesthetic reasons but also for conservation of soil and water.

Locality Factors:
 Soil is poor, shallow and stony
 Excessive soil erosion has washed away the top soil
 Excessive run off results in low soil moisture content
 Grazing is very high

Soil Preparation: It is done either by (a) contour trenches or (b) patches or pits

(a) Contour trenches

• It is usually made on slopes up to 20% as the operation becomes costly on steeper
slopes
• They are usually made with the help of any leveling instrument like Abney’s level or
‘A’ frame
• The trenches may be continuous or interrupted. The interrupted trenches are
considered better.

(b)Patches or pits
• It is done where the slope is rocky and contour trenches cannot be made.
• Patches or pits are made for sowing and planting respectively.

Choices of species - Different species are planted under varying conditions.

Moist sub tropical - Pinus roxburghii
Dry sub tropical - Acacia catechu,Prosopis juliflora, Robinia pseudoacacia
Temperate - Pinus wallichiana, Cedrus deodara

Method of raising plants

• Planting of seedlings raised in the nursery is the best method while some plants are raised
successfully by sowing, e.g. Chir, Acacia, Prosopis, etc.
• Weeding may have to be carried out for some years due to slow growth of plants.

9.2.2 Abandoned cultivated lands

Locality factors
• Soil fertility is low due to raising of agricultural crops without manuring and washing
away of the top soil.
• Drainage, aeration and moisture content of the soil are also poor.
• As the land has been under cultivation for a long time, beneficial soil organisms
associated with tree growth disappear.
• Weeds may be very heavy as the area has been without cover for years after

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 abandonment of cultivation.

Soil Preparation
• It can be easily done by taungya method.
• If it is not possible, soil may be dug into strips. If area is large and plain, tractor ploughing
may be done.
• Conditions for improved drainage should be created.

Choices of Species
• Due to poor soil conditions, efforts should be made to select species found in the early
stages of natural succession.
• In plain areas - Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus hybrid, Terminalia tomentosa, Acacia
catechu, Bombax ceiba
• In hills-Pinus roxburghii and P. wallichiana

Method of raising plants

• Sowing and planting are both suitable
• Weeding and cleaning have to be done for several years.

9.2.3 Grasslands
Locality factors
• Soil fertility, drainage, aeration and moisture content of the soil are poor.
• Dense roots may be formed by some grasses like, Imperata.
• Grasses also increase the incidence of grazing and fire.

Soil preparation
• Soil preparation in strips is the only method and if possible, entire area should be ploughed
deep with the help of tractors and sown in strips.
• When soil preparation is done in strips, they should be wide enough to prevent the grasses of
interspaces overtopping them.

Choices of Species:
• In plains-Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, Bombax ceiba, Eucalptus hybrid
• In hills-Populas ciliata, Grewia oppositifolia, Robinia pseudocacia, Pinus roxburghii
and [Link].

Method of raising plants

• For most of the species, sowing is the main mode of propagation
• However, Eucalyptus is raised by planting polythene bag plants, Pinus roxburghii is
raised by sowing as well as by planting polythene bag plants, Populas is raised by
cutting.

9.2.4 Ravine lands

Locality factors

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• Ravines continue to cut backwards and destroy even the vegetative cover on lands above
them.
• Soil is generally sandy to stiff clay with sufficient lime which develops into kankar pan.
• This prevents the roots of plants to reach permanent soil moisture and also prevents
rain water to infiltrate to deeper layers.
• Excessive evaporation results in concentration of soluble salts on the surface forming
infertile saline alkaline soils.

Soil Preparation
• As the ravines continue to cut backwards, efforts are made to prevent water coming into the
ravined area.
• In order to prevent flow of water towards the head of the ravine and for safe disposal of the
water, contour bunds are constructed at suitable intervals depending upon the slope of the
land.
• Staggered trenches are made for afforestation of waste lands near ravines.
• Thus treatment of catchments of ravines forms an integral part of the afforestation of ravines.

Choice of species
 Sandy soil - Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Albizzia spp.
 Clayey soil - Acacia Arabica, Terminalia arjuna.

Method of raising plants

 Most of the tree species are sown in one or two lines on the ridge.
 Species which are best raised by planting are raised either by entire planting or stump
planting.
 Weeding and cleaning are done when necessary.

9.2.5 (a) Dry areas without irrigation

If the annual rainfall is less than 900mm in an area, it is known as dry area.

Locality Factors
 The soil varies from place to place with the underlying rock.
 Denudation has deteriorated the site.
 During summer, the temperature is generally high while during winter frosts are common.
 There is a great pressure of humans and animals on the land and this poses a great threat
to afforestation work.

Soil preparation
 Soil preparation is done in such a way so as to conserve maximum moisture and also to
facilitate development of deep root system. Following process is adopted
- The soil is dug as deep as possible
- Interrupted contour trenches are made in sloping areas
- The dug up soil is heaped to form a ridge along the portion of the trench

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Choice of Species
Fast growing and frost and drought resistant species are selected like Acacia arabica, [Link],
[Link], Eucalyptus, Ziziphus jujuba, Casuarina equisetifolia.

Method of raising plants

• Most of the species can be propagated by direct sowing.
• Due to scarcity of moisture, it is better if plants raised in polythene bags are planted
out.

9.2.5 (b) Dry Areas with irrigation

Locality Factors:
• Soil varies from sandy to clayey.
• Rainfall varies from place to place
• The temperature is higher during summer.
• During the winter temperature falls considerably and severe frost is common.
• There is a heavy pressure of human and animal population.

Soil Preparation:
• For effective irrigation, the area has to be thoroughly leveled and stumps removed.

Choice of species:
It depends upon climatic and soil conditions. The main species planted are:
Tamarix spp, Acacia catechu, Eucalyptus, Bombax cieba, Prosopis juliflora, Morus alba,
Syzygium cuminii, Populus ciliata, Dalbergia sissoo, etc.

Method of raising plants – Trees may be raised in the following manner:

• Sowing – Direct seed sowing is done for Syzygium, Acacia, Prosopis, etc.
• Seedling planting – Seedlings of Eucalyptus are raised in polypots in nursery and
planted during rainy season.
• Stump planting – Stumps of Dalbergia, Morus, Bombax are raised in nursery and
planted during monsoon or winter rain.

9.2.6 Canal Banks

Locality Factors:
• The soil varies from sandy to clayey
• With the proximity of the canal, soil moisture condition is good but at places there is
water-logging due to seepage.
• The pressure of human and animal population is excessive as canals pass through
agricultural land

Choice of species
• The choice of species depends upon the soil and climatic conditions.
• The main species planted are:Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, Acacia Arabica,
Eucalyptus, Populus spp

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Method of raising plants
• The species used for planting are generally planted with ball of earth, or as container
plants.
• Thus, mango, jamun, Eucalyptus is planted as entire plants with ball of earth.
• Sissoo is raised by sowing as well as by planting.
• Khair, babul, siris and Ailanthus are raised by sowing.

9.2.7 Road Side Plantation

Locality Factors
• Climate conditions vary from area to area through which the road passes
• The soil varies from sandy to stiff clay
• The pressure of human population is excessive

Choice of species
• Some suitable species are Azadirachta indica, Albizzia procera, Dalbergia sissoo,
Eucalyptus, Madhuca indica, Magnifera indica, Syzyzium cumini, etc.

Method of raising plants

• Nursery grown tall plants with ball of earth or raised in containers are planted
• The plants are transplanted 2-3 times in nursery to enable them to develop a bushy root
System.
• After planting watering is done.
• Watering is necessary in the first and second dry seasons.

9.2.8 Farm Forestry

Farm forestry is ‘the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farm and village lands, generally
more or less integrated with other farm operations’. This implies that farm forestry is to be
practiced in the following two categories of lands:
 Individual farmers’ holding where trees can be raised on bunds, round farm house and
cattle shed.
 Village land where groves of trees can be raised on waste land, along streams and
village roads, round village schools, wells, ponds etc.
Thus, there is scope for individual enterprise for raising trees as well as collective effort for
raising small forest for the village as a whole. In the first case, the ownership is that of a farmer
but in the latter, the ownership is of the village community but in both cases, the villagers will be
the beneficiaries.

Objectives of farm forestry

• To supplement production of leaf fodder, fuel wood and small timber to meet the
increasing requirements of the villagers
• To release cow dung for use as manure
• To create diverse eco-system by having trees interspersed with agriculture.
• To help the development of cottage industries and add to the income of the farmer

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

 from the sale of excess timber.
• To beautify the villages and country side.

Difficulties
Difficulties are mainly due to some objections put forward by farmers against farm-
forestry. The following are some of the objections:

(A) Objections against trees on the bunds

(1) Shading effect – The farmers object to raising of trees on bunds because they think
that the shade of trees would adversely affect agricultural crops. This objection can be removed
by selecting trees with attenuated foliage for farm forestry on field bunds. Besides, if trees whose
foliage is used as fodder for cattle, are planted, annual lopping would leave their crown so small
as to have practically no shading effect.

(2) Root competition – Farmers fear that the trees would compete with agricultural crops
for moisture and nutrition. This objection can be met with by selecting trees with long tap root so
that they draw their moisture and nutrition from the deeper layers of the soil. Besides, a trench
0.5 to 1 m deep can be dug round the trees to eliminate root competition because agricultural
crops rarely draw sustenance from below 50 cm of the surface.

(3) Damage by birds – The farmers think that the birds will rest on the trees and damage
the agricultural crops. Though there is some truth in this argument, it is not realized that birds
have beneficial effects as well. Useful birds feed on crops but they destroy pests also. It is,
however, necessary to investigate in detail to find out the harmful birds and the tree species
which harbor them so that they may be excluded from farm forests.

(B) Objections against small forests on village wastelands or commons

(1) Reduction in grazing ground – The farmers feel that the raising of trees on village
wastelands and commons will reduce grazing ground for their cattle. But closure to grazing for
raising trees would rehabilitate them and the villagers would be allowed to cut grasses even when
the area is closed. The species selected for such areas should be light-crowned deep-rooted ones,
so that they do not inhibit the growth of grass, and, as far as possible, be fodder species as well.
(2) Animal damage to crops – The farmers feel that these forests would harbor wild life
which will damage the agricultural crops. This fear is also more imaginary than real because the
small forests that would be created in this way can hardly harbor any wild animals. However,
pigs and rabbits may create some trouble. If a clear-cut policy to keep them out is firmly pursued,
there.

9.2.9 Afforestation in urban areas (urban forestry):

The End

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU