Mechanical Timers: Mechanical Timers Regulate Their Speed. Inaccurate, Cheap

Adjustable Timer
Chapter 1 Introduction
A timer is a specialized type of clock. A timer can be used to control the sequence of an event or process. Whereas a stopwatch counts upwards from zero for measuring elapsed time, a timer counts down from a specified time interval, like an hourglass. Timers can be mechanical, electromechanical, electronic (quartz), or even software as all modern computers include digital timers of one kind or another. When the set period expires some timers simply indicate so (e.g., by an audible signal), while others operate electrical switches, such as a time switch, which cuts electrical power. Mechanical timers: Mechanical timers regulate their speed. Inaccurate, cheap mechanisms use a flat beater that spins against air resistance. Mechanical egg-timers are sometimes of this type. More accurate mechanisms have mechanisms similar to mechanical alarm clocks; they require no power, and can be stored for long periods of time. The most widely-known application is to control explosives. Electromechanical timers: Short-period bimetallic electromechanical timers use a thermal mechanism, with a metal finger made of strips of two metals with different rates of thermal expansion sandwiched together; steel and bronze are common. An electric current flowing through this finger causes heating of the metals, one side expands less than the other, and an electrical contact on the end of the finger moves away from or towards an electrical switch contact. The most common use of this type is in the "flasher" units that flash turn signals in automobiles, and sometimes in Christmas lights. This is a non-electronic type of multivibrator. An electromechanical cam timer uses a small synchronous AC motor turning a cam against a comb of switch contacts. The AC motor is turned at an accurate rate by the alternating current, which power companies carefully regulate. Gears drive a shaft at the desired rate, and turn the cam. The most common application of this timer now is in washers, driers and dishwashers. This type of timer often has a friction clutch between the gear train and the cam, so that the cam can be turned to reset the time. Electromechanical timers survive in these applications because
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, Bhopal
Adjustable Timer
mechanical switch contacts may still be less expensive than the semiconductor devices needed to control powerful lights, motors and heaters. In the past these electromechanical timers were often combined with electrical relays to create electro-mechanical controllers. Electromechanical timers reached a high state of development in the 1950s and 60s because of their extensive use in aerospace and weapons systems. Programmable electromechanical timers controlled launch sequence events in early rockets and ballistic missiles. As digital electronics has progressed and dropped in price, electronic timers have become more advantageous. Electronic timers: Electronic timers are essentially quartz clocks with special electronics, and can achieve higher precision than mechanical timers. Electronic timers have digital electronics, but may have an analog or digital display. Integrated circuits have made digital logic so inexpensive that an electronic timer is now less expensive than many mechanical and electromechanical timers. Individual timers are implemented as a simple single-chip computer system, similar to a watch and usually using the same, mass-produced, technology. Many timers are now implemented in software. Modern controllers use a programmable logic controller rather than a box full of electromechanical parts. The logic is usually designed as if it were relays, using a special computer language called ladder logic. In PLCs, timers are usually simulated by the software built into the controller. Each timer is just an entry in a table maintained by the software. Digital timers are used in safety device such as a gas timer.
Adjustable Timer
1.1 Block Diagram
SWITCH ON
GREEN LED GLOWS
CAPACITOR STARTS CHARGING CHARGES UPTO 2Vcc/3
RED LED GLOWS

BLEEPER SOUNDS IMPLIES TIME PERIOD OVER SWITCH OFF
Fig 1.1 Block Diagram
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1.2 Block Diagram Description

The circuit starts its operation as soon as the switch is closed. The green led starts glowing at the instant when the switch is closed The capacitor at pin no. 6 starts charging through the power supply. It charges upto 2Vcc/3 through resistor R1. When the voltage across the capacitor exceeds 2Vcc/3 the output at pin no 3 is a logic zero and the voltage difference is developed across the red led which is in series with a bleeper. The instant pin no. 3 is at logic zero the bleeper starts sounding and red led glows which implies the period is elapsed. Hence the switch now should be switched off.
Adjustable Timer
Chapter 2 Principle,Theory and Concepts

2.1 Principle/Theory
The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful ICs ever made and it is used in many projects. With just a few external components it can be used to build many circuits, not all of them involve timing. A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a '555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one half of a 556. Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555. The circuit symbol for a 555 (and 556) is a box with the pins arranged to suit the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3 output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labelled with their function. The 555 and 556 can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum). Standard 555 and 556 ICs create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg 100F) should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555 or 556. The 555 timer can be used in various configurations or modes. 555 Timer in Astable Mode: An astable circuit produces a 'square wave', this is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs). Note that the durations of the low and high states may be different. The circuit is called an astable because it is not stable in any state: the output is continually changing between 'low' and 'high'.
Adjustable Timer
The time period (T) of the square wave is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles per second.
Fig 2.1 555 astable output, a square wave (Tm and Ts may be different)
Fig 2.2 555 Astable Circuit
T = 0.7 (R1 + 2R2) C1 and f =
1.4 (R1 + 2R2) C1
T = time period in seconds (s) f = frequency in hertz (Hz) R1 = resistance in ohms ( ) R2 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 (R1 + R2) C1 Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 R2 C1
Adjustable Timer
Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R 2 is much larger than R1. For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For example an LED can be made to flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its resistor) between +Vs and the output. This way the LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R 1 larger than R2, making Ts short and Tm long. If Tm must be less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit. 555 Timer in Bistable Mode: The circuit is called a bistable because it is stable in two states: output high and output low. It is also known as a 'flip-flop'
Fig 2.3 Bistable circuit
It has two inputs:
Trigger (555 pin 2) makes the output high. Trigger is 'active low', it functions when < 1/3 Vs. Reset (555 pin 4) makes the output low. Reset is 'active low', it resets when < 0.7V
555 Timer in Monostable Mode: A monostable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. It is called a monostable because it is stable in just one state: 'output low'. The 'output high' state is temporary.
Adjustable Timer
Fig 2.4 555 monostable output, a single pulse
Fig 2.5 555 monostable circuit with manual trigger
The duration of the pulse is called the time period (T) and this is determined by resistor R1 and capacitor C1: time period,
T = 1.1 R1 C1
T = time period in seconds (s) R1 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F)

Choose C1 first (there are relatively few values available). Choose R1 to give the time period you need. R1 should be in the range 1k , so use a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series if R1 is variable. to 1M
Adjustable Timer
Beware that electrolytic capacitor values are not accurate, errors of at least 20% are common. Beware that electrolytic capacitors leak charge which substantially increases the time period if you are using a high value resistor.
Monostable operation: The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2) is less than 1/3 Vs, this makes the output high (+Vs) and the capacitor C1 starts to charge through resistor R1. Once the time period has started further trigger pulses are ignored. The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across C1 and when this reaches
2/3
Vs the time period is over and the output becomes low. At the same time discharge
(555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor ready for the next trigger. The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should be connected to +Vs. This project uses a power-on triggered 555 monostable circuit. A monostable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. It is called a monostable because it is stable in just one state: 'output low'. The 'output high' state is temporary.
2.2 Concepts
First, we need to know what the 555 looks like. It has eight connections (called pins) to its plastic case, arranged as four on one side and four on the other, as shown in the pinout diagram of figure 2.1. From this diagram, you can see that pin 1 is the pin on the bottom left when the IC is held horizontal with the writing the correct way up. The little notch in one side also helps to identify pin 1, as does the small white dot next to this pin.
Adjustable Timer
Fig 2.6 555 Timer Pin Diagram
The Power Supply: Pin 8 is where you connect the positive power supply (Vs) to the 555. This can be any voltage between 3V and 15V DC, but is commonly 5V DC when working with digital ICs. Pin 1 is the 0V connection to the power supply. Trigger and Reset Inputs: Pin 2 is called the Trigger input as it is this input that sets the output to the high state. Pin 4 is called the Reset input as it is this input that resets the output to the low state. Both pins may be connected to push buttons to control the operation of the 555. Sometimes the Reset input is not used in a circuit, in which case it is connected directly to Vs so that unwanted resetting cannot occur. Threshold and Discharge: Pins 6 and 7 (and sometimes the Trigger input, pin 2) are used to set up the timing aspect of the 555 IC. They are normally connected to a combination of resistors and a capacitor. Offset: Pin 5 can be used to alter the timing aspect of the 555 IC in applications such as frequency modulation. Output: Pin 3 is the digital output of the 555. It can be connected directly to the inputs of other digital ICs, or it can control other devices with the help of a few extra components.
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 3 Circuit Details

3.1 Circuit Description
3.1.1 Power supply: In this circuit a single dc supply is used. This is particularly a battery of 9 volts. That is the supply is given to the Circuit which simply works with the power supply. 3.1.2 555 Timer: The 555 Timer IC is available as an 8-pin metal can, an 8-pin mini DIP (dual-in-package) or a 14-pin DIP. This IC consists of 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors. The explanation of terminals coming out of the 555 timer IC is as follows. The pin number used in the following discussion refers to the 8-pin DIP and 8-pin metal can packages. R-S Flip-Flop: A pair of cross-coupled transistors is shown in figure. Each collector drives the opposite base through resistance RB. In such circuit one transistor is saturated while the other is cut-off. For instance, if transistor Q1 is saturated, its collector voltage is almost zero. So there is no base drive for transistor Q2 and it goes into cut-off and its collector voltage approaches + VCC. This high voltage produces enough base current to keep transistor Q1 in saturation. On the other hand if transistor Q1 is cut-off, its collector voltage, which is approximately equal to + VCC, drives the transistor Q2 into saturation. The low collector voltage (which is approximately to zero) of this transistor then keeps the transistor Q2 in cutoff.Depending on which transistor is saturated, the Q output is either low or high. By adding more components to the circuit, an R-S flip-flop is obtained. R-S flip-flop is a circuit that can set the Q output to high or reset it low. Incidentally, a complementary (opposite) output Q is available from the collector of the other transistor.
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Adjustable Timer
Figure shows the schematic symbol for an R-S flip-flop of any design. The circuit latches in either two states. A high S input sets Q to high; a high R input resets Q to low. Output Q remains in a given state until it is triggered into the opposite state.
Fig 3.1 Basic Timing Circuit
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Adjustable Timer
3.2 Circuit Layout
3.3 Bill of Material

Component Resistance
Fig 3.2 Circuit Diagram
S.No. 1.
Component Details 33k ohms, 100k ohms, 470 ohms, 1M ohms Ic 555 9-12V 220 uF, 0.1uF Light Emitting Green, Red 9V
Reference designation R1, R2, R3, R4
Quantity 04 Nos
2. 3. 4. 5.
Integrated Circuit Bleeper Capacitor LED
01 Nos U21. C1, C2 DI, D2. Vcc 01 Nos 02 Nos 02 Nos
Diode,
6.
Battery
01 Nos.
Table 3.1:Bill of Material
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 4 Working
The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2) is less than
1/3
Vs, this makes the output high (+Vs) and the capacitor C1 starts to charge through
resistor R1. Once the time period has started further trigger pulses are ignored. The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across C1 and when this reaches
2/3
Vs the time period is over and the output becomes low. At the same time discharge
(555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor ready for the next trigger. The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should be connected to +Vs. As soon as the circuit is switched on, the trailing edge of the supply gets applied at pin no.2 of the 555 timer. Hence the comparator 2 will consequently generate a logic 1 and the comparator 1 will generate logic 0. So the flip flop gets reset and the output produced will be 0. The green LED starts glowing. This denotes that the timing has started. Now the capacitor starts charging. As soon as the capacitor gets charged upto 2/3 Vcc the comparator 1 will now generate logic 1 whereas comparator will generate logic 0. Now the flip flop gets set and the output produced now is 1. Now the green LED tops glowing and the red LED glows. The Bleeper starts sounding at the same time. This denotes that the timing has been completed Inputs of 555/556 Trigger input: when < 1/3 Vs ('active low') this makes the output high (+Vs). It monitors the discharging of the timing capacitor in an astable circuit. It has a high input impedance > 2M . Threshold input: when > 2/3 Vs ('active high') this makes the output low (0V)*. It monitors the charging of the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits. It has a
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Adjustable Timer
high input impedance > 10M . Poviding the trigger input is > 1/3 Vs, otherwise the trigger input will override the threshold input and hold the output high (+Vs). Reset input: when less than about 0.7V ('active low') this makes the output low (0V), overriding other inputs. When not required it should be connected to +Vs. It has an input impedance of about 10k . Control input: this can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set internally to be 2/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the control input is connected to 0V with a 0.01F capacitor to eliminate electrical noise. It can be left unconnected if noise is not a problem. The discharge pin is not an input, but it is listed here for convenience. It is connected to 0V when the timer output is low and is used to discharge the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits . The circuit starts timing when the switch is closed..The capacitor at pin 2 charges up rapidly (since it has a very less time constant) up to a voltage which is less than Vcc<3 and hence it maintains a low voltage level at pin2. When the voltage at pin2 is less than Vcc/3 the output is high (pin no. 3). When the output is high the green LED lights up which shows that the time period has started and it continues glowing as per the value if resistor and capacitor chosen. The capacitor at pin 6 (timing capacitor) also charges at the same instant the switch is closed, through Vcc. The capacitor charges up to a voltage 2Vcc/3 and when the voltage across it exceeds this value the output is low, and the red led starts glowing and the bleeper sounds which indicates that the time period of the timer has elapsed.
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 5 Breadboard Implimentation

A breadboard (solder less breadboard, protoboard, plug board) is a reusable sometimes solders less device used to build a (generally temporary) prototype of an electronic circuit and for experimenting with circuit designs. This is in contrast to strip board (overboard) and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build more permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, and cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and digital circuits to complete central processing units (CPUs). The term breadboard is derived from an early form of point-to-point construction: in particular, the practice of constructing simple circuits (usually using valves/tubes) on a convenient wooden base, similar to a cutting board like the kind used for slicing bread with a knife. It can also be viewed as bread with a large number of pores (holes for connection); like the bread most commonly used in America and Europe, a modern prototyping board is typically white or off-white Connection on Breadboard: Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left. Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break off. The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown by the red and black lines on the diagram. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom. I suggest using the upper row of the bottom pair for 0V, then you can use the lower row for the negative supply with circuits requiring a dual supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V). The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the centre as shown by the blue lines on the diagram.
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Adjustable Timer
Fig 5.1 Photograph of Breadboard Implementation
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 6 PCB Details
We have design our PCB Layout on the Dip Trace software. In the Dip Trace software we have open Schematic window which is of Black colour window. In this window we have open Library and search different-different component which are required for our circuit design. We took four register R1,R2, R3&R4 and connect as per the circuit requirement. After that we took 2 capacitors(C1 & C2) and 2 leds green and red and searched for one 555 timer in the library ,one bleeper and 9V battery & connected in circuit. Then we have converted our schematic circuit in the PCB. We went to the layer setup option ans selected plane option. Then we run the auto-placement view tab.the we did its screen printing on the PCB. in the placement option. Then we run auto-router. Then we selected the mirror option from the
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6.1 PCB Layout
Fig 6.1 PCB Layout
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Fig 6.2 PCB Layout
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Chapter 7 Result and Conclusion
Output of 555/556 The output of a standard 555 or 556 can sink and source up to 200mA. This is more than most ICs and it is sufficient to supply many output transducers directly, including LEDs (with a resistor in series), low current lamps, piezo transducers, loudspeakers (with a capacitor in series), relay coils (with diode protection) and some motors (with diode protection). The output voltage does not quite reach 0V and +Vs, especially if a large current is flowing. To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor. The ability to both sink and source current means that two devices can be connected to the output so that one is on when the output is low and the other is on when the output is high. The top diagram shows two LEDs connected in this way. This arrangement is used in the Level Crossing project to make the red LEDs flash alternately.
Fig 7.1 555 monostable output, a single pulse
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Adjustable Timer
The green LED notifies that the time period of the timer is in progress and Bleeper sounds when the time period of the timer is elapsed and red LED glows. The variable resistor can be set to any desired value as per the time period desired, that is the value of resistor varies in direct proportion with the value of time period. After the timing lapses the output of the 555 timer remains low. Its stays in the same condition until we provide another input pulse.
Fig 7.2 Various inputs and outputs
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 8 Expectation and Achievement
S.No. 1 2 3
Value of components R1= 1M,C1=220F R1=1.5M,C1=220F R1= 2M,C1=220F
Expected time period (in sec) 242 363 484
Achieved time period (in sec) 248 370 490
Table 8.1:Expectation and Achievement
In the above table R1 is the variable resistor which is use for set the different-different time according to our requirement and C1 is the electrolyte capacitor
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 9 Shortcomings and Limitation
1. The time period of the timer is only approximate: This being said it is a constraint that we could not overcome because it would require higher rated components. The timing of our project is not that accurate and may vary about 15 seconds. 2. Electrolytic capacitors leak charge: This is one of the main reasons for the constraint. Even though all circuit components are at their rated values the electrolytic capacitor has a characteristic property of losing charge at regular intervals. This makes the timing lapse before the estimated time and hence causing error in judgement. 3. Time period is limited only to 20 mins: This is the extreme limit of our project. Even if we make use of all components at their optimum values, the timing cannot exceed more than 20 minutes. This is also a result of the charge loss through the electrolytic capacitor. 4. Elapsed time and remaining time cannot be seen: Our project does not include any display panel. Hence the timing progress cannot be monitored all along. The glowing of the red and green LEDs informs about the start and end of the timer. Apart from this we do not perceive any other indication of the timing progress during the whole process.
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 10 Future Scope and Applications
The timer can be used in any electronic gadget or automatically controlled electronic circuit involving timing applications. It can be used as time notifier , event counter and in any circuit to control the timing automatically.the several applications are listed below: 1. Microwave Oven Timers: The time set for cooking and baking for various food items is with the help of the adjustable timer. It helps in giving the accurate and desired cooking time required for various food items respectively. Hence helping in attaining the perfect meal. 2. Washing Machine Timers: The time set for washing clothes or for drying purposes is with help of the adjustable timer. It saves the need of a person standing and monitoring the washing and drying from time to time. 3. Stop Watches: The most common use in the simple stop watch. It is used to calculate the time in different sports events. It is also a very useful asset in the scientific world as experiments require the utmost precision and accuracy in all aspects. 4. Traffic Light: The countdown running for the traffic light to go from green to red or vice versa also employs the same technique.
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 11 Ideas Which could not be Implimented

1. 555 timer IC cannot be fabricated, that is the internal structure of 555 timer cant be implemented on the circuit. 2. Countdown timer which shows the timing cant be fabricated because it would have made the circuit bulky. 3. The time period is restricted to only 15 to 20 mins because high value capacitors cant be used in the circuit.
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 12 Literature Survey

The topic for our minor project is adjustable timer. The principle of our project is to time the event or to notify the user after the time period is over. It finds application in automatically timed circuitry and hence finds its applications in wide variety of electronic products and gadgets. We searched for the project on web at www.kpsec.free.uk and decided to implement the project. We referred some of the textbooks like Robert Boylestad , Sedra and smith. We collected enough material from there and done its implementation on the breadboard. Our guide and project incharge also helped us a lot by giving proper guidance and helped us understand the circuit. We were not perfect that time working with software diptrace. So we took the help of our faculties in the college and prepared the layout of the circuit. After printing the layout on PCB, we did etching and drilling. Then we connected the components in their proper places and soldered them. Finally we have completed the project and tested its working. And we found that our project was working well.We have use of the following books and websites: 1.Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, Electronic devices and circuit theory, page no. 723 to 741, ninth edition, 2007. 2.Jacob Millman, Christos Halkias and Chetan D. Parikh, Millmans Integrated Electronics, page no. 650 to 657, second edition, 2010. 1. www.google.com 2. www.wikipedia.org 3. www.kpsec.freeuk.com
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Adjustable Timer
Chapter 13 Refrence / Bibliography

Books:
1.Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, Electronic devices and circuit theory, page no. 723 to 741, ninth edition, 2007. 2.Jacob Millman, Christos Halkias and Chetan D. Parikh, Millmans Integrated Electronics, page no. 650 to 657, second edition, 2010.
Websites:
1. www.google.com 2. www.wikipedia.org 3. www.kpsec.freeuk.com
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Adjustable Timer

1.1 Block Diagram

GREEN LED GLOWS

CAPACITOR STARTS CHARGING CHARGES UPTO 2Vcc/3

RED LED GLOWS

Fig 1.1 Block Diagram

1.2 Block Diagram Description

Chapter 2 Principle,Theory and Concepts

Fig 2.2 555 Astable Circuit

T = 0.7 (R1 + 2R2) C1 and f =

1.4 (R1 + 2R2) C1

Fig 2.3 Bistable circuit

It has two inputs:

Fig 2.4 555 monostable output, a single pulse

Fig 2.5 555 monostable circuit with manual trigger

Fig 2.6 555 Timer Pin Diagram

Chapter 3 Circuit Details

Fig 3.1 Basic Timing Circuit

3.2 Circuit Layout

3.3 Bill of Material

Fig 3.2 Circuit Diagram

Reference designation R1, R2, R3, R4

Integrated Circuit Bleeper Capacitor LED

01 Nos U21. C1, C2 DI, D2. Vcc 01 Nos 02 Nos 02 Nos

Table 3.1:Bill of Material

Chapter 5 Breadboard Implimentation

Fig 5.1 Photograph of Breadboard Implementation

Chapter 6 PCB Details

6.1 PCB Layout

Fig 6.1 PCB Layout

Fig 6.2 PCB Layout

Chapter 7 Result and Conclusion

Fig 7.1 555 monostable output, a single pulse

Fig 7.2 Various inputs and outputs

Chapter 8 Expectation and Achievement

Value of components R1= 1M,C1=220F R1=1.5M,C1=220F R1= 2M,C1=220F

Expected time period (in sec) 242 363 484

Achieved time period (in sec) 248 370 490

Table 8.1:Expectation and Achievement

Chapter 9 Shortcomings and Limitation

Chapter 10 Future Scope and Applications

Chapter 11 Ideas Which could not be Implimented

Chapter 12 Literature Survey

Chapter 13 Refrence / Bibliography

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