UNIT-1 RESERACH METHODOLOGY MEANING: It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent (correct) information on a specific topic.

It is an art of scientific investigation. It is the search for knowledge through objectives and systematic approach concerning generalization and formulation of a theory. DEFINITION: According to advance learners dictionary of current English, research methodology is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. According to Redman & Mery, It is a systemized effort to gain knowledge. According to Clifford woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypothesis or suggest solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deduction and reaching conclusion and at last carefully testing the conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis According to D.sleinger and M.stephenson, in the encyclopaedia of social sciences defined research as, the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH: 1. To gain familiarity with the phenomenon or to achieve new in size into it. 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with it is associated with something else. 4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH: 1. It gives the research the necessary training in gathering material and arranging them; participation in the field work when required; training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problem; in the use of statistics, questionnaires, control

experimentation and in recording evidence; sorting it out and in recording evidence; sorting it out and interpreting it. 2. The knowledge of research methodology provides good training especially to the new research worker and enables him to do better. 3. Helps him to develop disciplined thinking to observe the field objectively. 4. Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research results with reasonable confidence. 5. Knowledge of research methodology provides tools to look at things in life objectively. 6. Help the consumer of research results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH: 1. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation. 2. The role of research in several field of applied economics whether related to business or to the economy as a whole has greatly increased in modern times. 3. Research provides basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. 4. Research has its special significance in solving various operations and planning problems of business and industry market research. 5. Research is equally important for social scientist in the studying social relationship and in seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing practical solutions. 6. Thus, research provides guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems TYPES OF RESEARCH: 1. Descriptive Vs Analytical 2. Applied Vs Fundamental 3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative 4. Conceptual Vs Empirical (experiment) 5. Other types of research

a) One time research b) Longitudinal research

c) Laboratory research (Field setting research or Simulation research) d) Clinical (or) diagnostic research e) Exploratory research f) Historical research g) Conclusion oriented research h) Decision oriental research.

i) Descriptive Descriptive research includes survey and fact finding enquiries of different

kinds. It is used mostly in social science and business research. It is otherwise called as Export facts Research. This research describes the state of affairs as it exist at present. The main characteristics of the variables. The researcher reports only what has happened or what of all kind. This methods of research aims at answering what and why of the current stateof some system. Eg. This type of research is used to measure such items like : Frequency of shopping, b) attrition rate, c) Preferences of people, d) level of job satisfaction. Analytical Research The research has to use facts information already available and analyze these information make a critical evaluation. Applied Vs Fundamental :i) Applied Research Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society. Eg an industry or business organization. The aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem. This research is aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem. Eg:- Researech to identify social, economic or business or political trends that may affect a particular organization. ii) Basic/ fundamental research / pure research gathering knowledge for knowledge sake. It means the investigation of problems to further and develop existing knowledge. This research is mainly concerned with generalization and formulation of theories Eg. Investigation into natural phenomena, mathematics, physics or astronomy, study on the behavior of individuals to make some generalization about their social learning, memory pattern and intelligence level.

III). Quantitive and Qualities:

i) Quanititative research : This research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phomena relating to or involving quality. This research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires using indepth interviews for the purpose. Motivation research is an important type of qualitative research. Eg : - Word ariciaf test, sentence completion test, story completion test, projective techniques. This research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives, interests, personality and attitudes of human beings.

IV)Conceptual vs. Empirical : i) Conceptual research : This research is related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concept or to re interpret the existing ones. ii) Empirical Research (Experimental) This research mainly relies on experience or observation alone without due regard for system and theory. The research should collect enough data to prove or disprove his hypothesis. It is considered that evidence gathered through experiment or empirical study provides the most powerful support possible for the given hypothesis.

IV)

Other types of research :a) One time research research is confined to a single time period. b) Longitudinal research research is carried on over several time periods. c) Laboratory research (Field setting research or simulation research) the emphasis in laboratory research is on controlling certain variables in such a way as to observe the relationship between two or more variables. d) Clinical (or) diagnostic research This research follows case study method or indepth approaches to reach the basic casual relationship. It takes only a few samples and studies the phenomenon in depth and observes the effect. e) Exploratory research the objective of this research is the development of

hypothesis rather than their testing f) Historical Research It utilizes historical sources like documents, literature etc to study or ideas of the past. Involved in defining a problem

1.Statement of the problem in a general way. 2.Understanding the nature of the problem. 3.Surveying the available literature. 4.Developing the ideas through discussions. 5.Rephrasing the research problem. 6.Technical terms with special meanings used in the statement of the problem should be clearly defined. 7.Basic assumptions relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.. 8.The suitability of time period,sources of data available must also been considered. 9.Scope and limitations of the study must be mentioned explicitly

RESEARCH DESIGN: Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It is the blueprint for the collection , measurement and analysis of data. TYPES OF RESEAECH DESIGN: Sampling design-deals with method of selecting items for the observation design- it relates to the conditions under which observation are to be made. Statistical design-it concern with how manage to be observed and how information and data gathered are to be analyzed. Operational design-deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified can be carried out. FEATURE OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN:

 Its a plan,that specifies the sources and type of information relevant to the research problem. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data . it also includes time and cost. NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN: For smooth sailing if conduct of the various research operations. Making research efficient. For yielding maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort,time and money. It stands for advance planning of the method to be adopted for collecting the data. Help the researcher to organize his ideas where by it will be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. IMPORTANT CONCEPT RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN: i. Dependent and independent variables: Dependent if one variable depends upon another consequence of other variable, it is called dependent. Independent it variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is called independent variable. Eg.height depends upon age.height-dependent variable,age-independent variable. ii. Extraneous variable-independent variable that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable are called extraneous variable. iii. Control control is used to minimize the effect of extraneous independent variables. In experimental research,the term control is used to refer to restrain experimental condition. iv. Confounded relationship when the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable,the relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable. v. Research hypothesis it is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. vi. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis research-when the purpose of a research is to test a research hypothesis,it is termed as hypothesis testing.

 Experimental hypothesis research-it is the research in which the independent variable is manipulated. Non-experimental hypothesis research- it is the research in which the independent variable is not manipulated. What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important? When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society?

One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms but different individuals interpret, apply, and balance these norms in different ways in light of their own values and life experiences.

Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, it is important to remember that ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers urged citizens to disobey laws in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of expressing political viewpoints.

Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming, one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake.

Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These norms also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical norms govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms. There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration.

Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely. Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public. Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research.

People more likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research. Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety.

Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.

Codes and Policies for Research Ethics

Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility (American Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors), the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association).

The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes address*: Honesty Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.

Objectivity Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

Integrity

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

Openness

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.

Competence

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

Legality

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.

* Adapted from Shamoo A and Resnik D. 2009. Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press).

Ethical Decision Making in Research

Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules. For example, consider the following case,

Case 1:

The research protocol for a study of a drug on hypertension requires the administration of the drug at different doses to 50 laboratory mice, with chemical and behavioral tests to determine toxic effects. Tom has almost finished the experiment for Dr. Q. He has only 5 mice left to test. However, he really wants to finish his work in time to go to Florida on spring break with his friends, who are leaving tonight. He has injected the drug in all 50 mice but has not completed all of the tests. He therefore decides to extrapolate from the 45 completed results to produce the 5 additional results.

Many different research ethics policies would hold that Tom has acted unethically by fabricating data. If this study were sponsored by a federal agency, such as the NIH, his actions would constitute a form of research misconduct, which the government defines as "fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism" (or FFP). Actions that nearly all researchers classify as unethical are viewed as misconduct. It is important to remember, however, that misconduct occurs only when researchers intend to deceive: honest errors related to sloppiness, poor record keeping, miscalculations, bias, self-deception, and even negligence do not constitute misconduct. Also, reasonable disagreements about research methods, procedures, and interpretations do not constitute research misconduct.

Unit-2 SAMPLING DESIGN

STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Types of universe Sampling unit Source list Size of sample Parameters of interest Budgetary constraint Sampling procedure. CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE:

COST

Cost of data collection Causes of incorrect inference a.System bias

Cost of an incorrect inference

inappropriate sampling frame Defective measuring device Indeterminacy principle reporting. Nature bias in data

b.sampling errors.

SAMPLING DESIGN: It is a definite plan for obtaining sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. It is determined before data collection. Basic concepts concering testing of hypothesis:a)Null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis(h0-Null hypothesis,h1-Alternate)

b)The level of significance (5%) c) Decision rule (or) Test of hypothesis. d) Type I and II error. 4) Preparing the Research Design

Exploration Descriptive

Diagnosis

Experimentation

5) Determining sample design: Universe /Population Census inquiry Sample Sample, size Sampling Sample Design

Types of sampling method

Random or probability 1. Simple random sample 2. Systematic sample 3. Stratified random sample 4. Multi stage random sample 5. Cluser sample/Area sample

Non-random or Non-probability 1. Purposive sample /Deliberate sampling 2. Quota sampling 3. Convenient sampling

6. Sequential sample /sample in installments 7. Replicated or interpenetrating sample

6) Collecting the data: Primary data

Experiment

Survey

Ways of data collection through survey I. II. III. IV. V. Observation Personal Interview Telephone interview Mailing of questionnaries Schedules

7) Execution of the Project Execution in a systematic manner and in time 8) Analysis of data: Coding Editing Tabulation Analysis using stat tools 9) Hypothesis Testing:Chi-square test, E-test, f-test 10) Generalizations of Interpretation: Arriving certain generalization Interpretating data based on some theory. 11) Preparation of the report:1. Layout of the Report

Preliminary

Maintest

Endmatter

2. Report should be consises and objective.

3. Charts x Illustrations. 4. Confidence limits must be mentioned.

I.

The purpose of the research should d be clearly defined and common concepts should be used.

II. III. IV.

The research procedure should be described in sufficient detail. Procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield objective results. Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and methods of analysis used should be appropriate.

V. VI.

Conclusion should be confined to the data of the research. Greater confidence in research is required.

Problems encountered by researches in India:I. II. Lack of scientific training in the research methodology. There is insufficient interaction between the university research department and business units Government departments and other research institutions III. Business units in our country do not have confidence that the information obtained by them will not be misused. IV. V. Research studies overlapping the under taken quite often. Many of out libraries are not able to get the copies of old and new acts/rules, report and other government publications in time. Defining the research problem: To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know what a problem is. A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researchers experiences in the content of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Components of research problem: I. II. III. IV. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem. There must be some objectives to be attained. There must be some alternatives for obtaining the objectives. There must remain some doubt in the mind of the researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives. V. There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.

Need for defining the problem. Problem must be unambiguously defined will help to discriminate relevant data from the data. It is a pre requistic for any study.

Types of samples design The first step in developing any sample design is define the set of objects called universe. It can be finite or infinite. Sampling unit- A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. It may be geographical (state, village, district etc) or construction unit (house, flats etc) or social unit (clubs, family, schools) or an individual) socialist it is also known as sampling frame from which sample is to be drawn. It contains name of all items of a universe. It source list is not available , researcher has to prepare it. 4) Size of the sample (or) sample size it refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to confute the sample . Sample size should be optimum. 5) Parameters of interest - in determining the sample design, one must consider the question of specific population parameters which are of great interest. Budgetary constraint- cost consideration have major impact upon decisions relating to sample size and sample. procedure- finally, the researcher about the technique to the used in selecting the sample. Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure Two costs are involved in sampling I. II. cost of data collection cost of incorrect inferences.

the reasons for the cause of incorrect inferences are: 1. Systematic bias 2. Sampling error 1. Systematic bias:It results from errors in the sampling procedure and it is the result of one or more of the following factors Inappropriate sampling frame. Defective measuring device. Indeterminacy principle. Natural bios in data reporting

2. sampling error:It is the random variations in the sample estimates around the tree population parameters. Sampling error decreases with increase in sample size. Characteristics of good sample design: it must result in truly representative sample it must be the one that results in small errors. It must be visible in the context of funds for the research study.

Measurement & scaling techniques Measurement Measurement scales a) Nominal scales b) Ordinal scales c) Interval scales d) Ratio scale Measurement It is the process of mapping aspects of a domain on to other aspects of a range according to same rule of correspondence. Types of measurement scales I)Nominal scale It is simply a system of assigning number or symbols to events in order to label them. It provides convenient pay of keeping track of people, objects and it is the lowest and least powerful level of nominal scale (eg) assigning numbers to basket ball in order to identity them. ii) Ordinal Scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale used places events in order but there is no equal in the scale. It permits ranking of items from highest to lowest. (eg):- Ranking of students in a class. iii) Interval scale:

It provides more powerful measurement than ordinal scales since it incorporates the concept of equality of interval. Intervals are established by some rule. Eg: Age 15 20 yrs etc. iv) Ratio scale: It have an absolute or true zero of measurement. It facilitates a kind of comparison in case of an interval scale. Eg: 1:4 Item2 is 4 times better than item1. Sources of Error in Measurement: Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. The following are the possible sources of error in measurement. i) Respondent: At times the respondents may be reluctant to express strong negative feeling or he may leave little knowledge or he may not admit his ignorance. ii) Situation: Any condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer respondent rapport. iii. MEASURES : Interviewer can distort responses by rewarding or recording a questions , his behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage replies from the respondent. iv. INSTRUMENT : Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. Eg:- complex word, ambiguous meaning, poor printing , inadequate space for replies, poor sampling etc.

SCALING : Scaling Sale classifications a) Subject orientation b) Responses form

c) Degree of subjectivity d) Scale properties e) Number of dimension f) Scale construction techniques Scaling:It describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degree of opinion, attitude and other concepts. Definition:Scale is a continuum consisting of highest point and the lowest point along with several intermediate points between these two extreme points. scaling is the procedure for assignment of numbers to a property of objects in ordern to impart some of the characteristics of number to the properties in question . Scale classification: a.subject orientation:scale may be designed to measure characteristics of the respondent completes it or to judge the object which is presented to the respondent. b. Rsponse from:scales are classified into i. ii. Categorical scale(rating scale) Comparative scale(ranking scale)

c.Dgree of subjectivity:with this basis, the scale data may be based on whether we measure subjective personal preferences or non preference judgements. d.Scale properties:on this basis, scales are classified into nominal , ordinal, interval, ratio scale. e.Number of dimensions:on this basis, scales are classified into unidimensional scales, multidimensional scales.

f.Scale construction techniques:the following are the approaches for scale construction techniques. i. ii. iii. iv. v. Arbitrary approach. Consensus approach. Item analyse approach. Cumulative scales approach. Factor scales approach.

i.Arbitrary approach:the scales is developed on adhoc basis. It is mostly widely used approach. ii. Consensus approach. Here, panel of judges evaluate the items chosen for inclusion in the research. iii. Item analyse approach. Under this approach, a number of individual items are develop[ped into a test which is given to a group of respondents. iv.Cumulative scales approach. Scales are chjopsen on the basis of their confirmation of to some ranking of items with ascending or descending order. V.factor scales approach. This is constructed on the basis of inter correlation of items which indicates that a common factor accounts for the relationship between items. IMPORTANT SCALING TECHNIQUES:1.RATING SCALE:Rating scales involves quantitative description of a limited number of ascepts of a thing or of traits. When rating scales are used in an object in absolute term against some specified criteria are judged. Eg:- 1. like dislike (2 point scaling tech) 2. above avg-avg-below avg (3 point scaling)

3. Like very much like some what netural dislike some what dislike very much (5 point) 4. excellent good avg below avg poor.

a.GRAPHICAL RATING SCALE (3-7points) It is quite simple and ti is commonly used in practice. Under it various points are usually put along the line to form a continuum. The rates indicates his rating by simple making a mark at the appropriate point on a line. Eg:- how do you like the product ? o Like very much. o Like some what. o Neutral o Dislike some what. o Dislike very much. b.ITEMISED RATING SCALER:It present series of statements from which a respondents select one as best reflecting his evaluation . Eg:- suppose you wish inquire how well does a worker get along with his fellow workers. o He is almost always involved in some friction with the fellow workers. o He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow workers. o He sometime get involved in friction . o He infrequently becomes involved in friction with workers. o He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow workers. 2.RANKING SCALE:Under ranking scales, relative judgement against other similar objects are made.

Approaches of Ranking scale: a) Method of paired comparison: Under it, the respondent can express his attitude by making a choice between two objects. Eg: Choice between a new flavor of soft drinks and established brand of a drink The number of judgements required in the paired comparison is given by the formula: N = n (n-1) 2 n No of stimulior objects to be judged b) Methods of Rank order: Under this method, the respondents are asked to rank their choices. This method is easier and faster than the method of paired comparison. SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES: Name of the scale Construction Name of the scale developed Approach 1. Arbitrary Approach Arbitrary scale N No of judgement

2. Consensus scale approach

Differential scale (Thurston)

3. Item Analysis Approach Summated scales (Likert scale) 4. Cumulative scales approach Cumulative 5. Factor scales approach scalogram) Factor scale (Osgoods semantic differential scale, Multiscales (Guttmans

dimensional scale)

1. Arbitrary Scale: Arbitrary scales are developed on adhoe basis. The researcher first collects few statements or items which the believes are unambiguous and appropriate a given topic. 2. Differential Scales: (Thurstone scale) This scale have been developed using the on sensus scale approach Panel of judges evaluate the topic is relevant or not Under this approach the selection of items made by a panel of judges who evaluate the items in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic or not 3. Summated Scales: (Likert scale) Summated scales are developed by utilizing the tem analysis approach where in a particular item is evaluates on the basis of how well it disuiminates between those persons whose total score is high and those whose score is low. Summated scales consist of a no of statement which express either a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the given object. Each response is given a numerical score indicating its favorableness or unfavorableness and the scores are totaled to measure the respondents attitude. Eg: When ask to express opinion where one consider his job quite pleasant, the respondent may respond in any one of the following ways. *Strongly Agree *Disagree 4. Cumulative scales: Lewis Guttmans scale gram consists of series of statement to which a respondent expresses his agreement or disagreement. The special feature of this type of scale is that statements in its form a cumulative series. 5. Factor Scale: Factor scales are developed through factor analysis on the basis of inter correlation of items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationship between items. A important factor scale based on factor analysis is Semantic differential scaling *Agree *Strongly *Undecided *Disagree

Multi dimensional scaling

Unit -3
Processing and Analysis of Data Processing Operations: a) Editing b) Coding c) Classification d) Tabulation Chi-Square Test: It is the most important test among other tests developed by statisticians. It is symbolically written as x2 It is a statistical measure used for comparing a variance to a theoretical variance It is non-parametric test used to determine if categorical datas source dependency or the two classifications are independent It is a technique used to do the following:to test the goodness of fit According to class Intervals Acc to Attributes

to test the significance of association between two attributes to test the homogeneity or the significance of population variance i) As a test of goodness of fit Chi square test enables to see how well does the assume theoretical distribution fit to the observed data. If the calculated value of Chi Square is less than the table value at a certain level of significance, the fit is considered to be good one otherwise is it not considered to be good one.

ii)

As a test of independence. Chi square test enables to explain whether or not the two attributes are associated.

Formula :X2 = E (Oij Eij) 2

Eij Where, Oij Observed frequency of the cell in the i row and j column Eij Expected frequency of the cell in the i row and j column I = row, j = column

Degree of freedom = (C 1) (R 1) where C = Column (No. Of columns) R = No. Of Rows. CONDITIONS FOR THE APPLICATION OF CHI SQUARE TEST Observations recorded and used are collected on a random basis. All the items in the sample must be independent. No group should contain very few items must also be reasonably large.

 The constraints must be linear.

Hypothesis Testing :Note :- Refer step 3 of the Research process. Procedure for hypothesis Testing:Step 1) Making a Formal statement Formulate null hypothesis (Ho) and alternate hypothesis (Ha). It also indicates whether we should use one-tailed test or two-tailed test. Step 2) Selecting a significance level Generally 5% of 1% level is adopted Factors that affect the level of significance: a) Magnitude of the difference between sample means. b) Size of the samples c) Variability of measurements with in samples d) Whether hypothesis is directional or non-directional Step 3) Deciding the distribution to use whether to use normal distribution or t-distribution. Step 4) Selecting a random sample and computing a appropriate value. Step 5) Calculation of the probability-by using the formula for each text.

Step 6)

Comparing the probability. If the calculated probability is greater than the value,we reject null hypothesis otherwise we accept the null hypothesis.

Statistics in research:1. Descriptive Statistics Statistics inferential statistics (sampling statistics) 2. Important measures of statistics

Measures of dispersion

Measures of Asymmetry

Measures of

Measures of other measure Central Tende

relationship (skweness)

(statistical averages) Arithmetaic Mean Median Mode Range

*measures of

*Karl pearson`s

Mean deviation skweness based coff.of correlati Standard deviation on mean & mode * *quartiles

Geometric (mean (GM) Coefficient of Harmonic Mean (HM)

standard deviation *methods of

Coefficient of
Varation

moments *kurtosis

Chi Square Test problems: The following table give the number of screws declared fit and also unfit by three inspectors X, Y x Z.

Test the hypothesis that the proportion of screws declared unfit by the three inspectors are the same.X NO. OF SCREWS Y INSPECTOR FIT SCREWS 50/ X 50 47 /Y 47 56/ Z 56 153 EF 153 x 55 180 UNFIT SCREWS TOTAL 55 61 64 180 5 14 8 27 153 x 61 180 Z TOTAL

Table value X2 1df = 3.84, X22df = 5.99. 1. Null Hypothesis (Ho) Proportiion of screws declared unfit by three inspectors are same. Alternate Hypothesis (Ha) Proportion of screws declared unfit by the three inspectors are different. 2. Level of significance = 5% (or) 0.05. 3. X2 = E (O E) Degree of freedom = (C- 1) (R- 1) E (DF) = (3 1 ) (2 1) =2

Expected Frequency (E) X Fit screws Unfit screws Table Value O E (O E) Y 46.75 8.25 Z 51.85 9.15 54.4 9.6

2df = 5.99

(O E) 2

(O- E)2 E

50 47

46.75 51.85

3.25 -4.85

10.56 20.52

0.226 0.454

56 5 14 8

54.4 8.25 9.15 9.6

1.6 -3.25 4.85 -1.6

2.56 10.56 23.52 2.56

0.047 1.28 2.570 0.267 4.844

Since the calculated value of X2 (4.844) less than table value (5.99), the null hypothesis is accepted. Hence, the proportion of screws declared unfit by three inspectors are the same. Measures of central Tendency (Statistical Averages) :-i) Mean is defined as the value which we get by dividing the total of the values of various given items is a series by the total number of items. Mean (X) = Exi = X1 + X2 + ...... + Xn where, N n

E denotes summation, Xi denotes value of ith items, n denotes total number of item ii) Median It is the value of the middle term of series when it is arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude. Median (M) value of n + 1 2 iii) iv) Mode (z) It is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series. Geometric Mean (GM) It is defined as the nth route of the product of the values of n items in a given series. GM = n x i = n X 1 x X2 x X3 ........ Xn Where n = no of items
th

item.

Xi = ith value of the value X, conventional product notation. Harmonic Mean (HM) It is defined as the reciprocal of the average of reciprocals of the values of the items in a series.

HM = E Rec Xi

= Rec. Rec.X1 + Rec X2 + ..... + Recxn where n Rec Reciprocal, Xi - value of the variable X, N Total number of items. Measures of Dispersion :i) Range It is the difference between the values of the extreme items of a series. Range = Highest value of an item is series Lowest value of an item in series

ii) Mean Deviation It is the average of difference of the values of items from same averages of the series. i) Mean deviation mean (Si) = Xi X where, n ii) Mean deviation from median (Sm) = Xi mn iii)Mean deviation from mode (Sz) = Xi Z n iii)Standard Deviation It is defined as the square root of the averages of squares of deviation. (Standard Deviation) = (Xi X ) 2 N X Arthimetic mean m median z mode S symbol for mean deviation

Correlation : Correlation is used to determine the relationship between two or more variables and to what extent they are related to each other. i) Charles Spearmens (rank correlation) = Co-efficient of correlation r s = 1 - 6di 2 n (n2-1)

where, di = difference between ranks of ith pair of two variables, n = no. of pairs of observation. It is a technique of determining the degree of correlation between two variables where ranks are given to variables. ii) Karl Pearsons coefficient of correlation (simple correlation) :it is the most widely used method of measuring the degree of relationship between two variables. r = (Xi X) n. x x - y Simple Regression Analysis:Regression is the determination of statistical relationship between two or more variables. Regression equation of Y on X. Y = a + bx Y estimated value of Y for a value of X. 4. MARKETING RESEARCH X standard deviation X (yi y)

Definition American marketing association defines marketing research as a, systemetic gathering, recording and analysing of data about problems relating to marketing of goods and services. Zalgtman and Burger defines marketing research as, the field which involves the diagnosis of information needs and selection of relevant interrelated variables about which valid and reliable information is gathered, recorded and analysed.

EVOLVING TECHNIQUES IN MERKETING RESEAECH: S.NO 1. DECADE Prior to 1910 TECHNIQUES First hand observations and elementary service.

2.

1910 to 1920

Sales analysis, operating cost analysis.

3.

1920 to 1930

Questionnaire survey technique.

construction

4.

1930 to 1940

Quota correlation

sampling analysis.

simple Store

auditing techniques.

5.

1940 to 1950

Probability

sampling

regression methods. Advanced statistical inference. Consumer and store panels.

6.

1950 to 1960

Motivation research operation research multiple regression and attitude measuring

instruments.

7.

1960 to 1970

Factor discriminate

analysis

and analysis models.

mathematical

Bayesian statistical analysis and decision theory, scaling theory, processing Marketing Information retrieval. 8. 1970 to 1980 Non-parametric dimensional Econometric comprehensive models. Test multiscaling. models marketing marketing computer and data analysis. simulation. storage and

laboratories. Multi- attributes models.

9.

1980 onwards

Advanced models.

mathematical

COMPANIES EMPLOYING MARKETING RESEARCH CONSULTANT FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH FOR MARKETING PROBLEMS:

i.

Private sector companies - Tesco, Telco, Hindustan lever, DCM, vim co, escorts, plasco, Pfizer. Public sector companies BHEL, oil, STC, MMTC, SAIL, Coal India.

ii.

NATURE OF MARKETING RESEARCH: i. MR as an economic resource.

ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

MR as a system of authority. As a function of marketing management. As a team work or group effort. As an art or a profession. As an interdisciplinary process.

1. MR as an economic resource: Production is a door to success but marketing is the key which turns the lock. Peter Ducker says business is the creation of customers. So, to manage a business is to manage its marketing function effectively. For making marketing management effective, we have to gather and analyses information on environmental forces (customers, suppliers, distributors etc..,). This information on environment can be made available to the organization through a sound marketing information system. Hence, the entrepreneur has to develop and improve marketing research of his organization to facilitate decision making process. With the help of proper information, he can coordinate the activities of marketing department with other functional departments. Thus, MR is the most active and critical managerial resource.

2. MR as a system of authority: A system is an assemblage of interacting and interrelated elements. So as to form a complex whole to accomplish certain common objectives. Authority is legal right to command others to act or not to act in a described manner. Marketing research is also a system having activities such as collecting, recording, tabulating, analyzing and interpreting the data. Each of these activities is performed by some specialists. Thus, he possesses an authority to guide or direct workers under his command supervision. Thus, MR functions as a system of authority in an organization. 3. MR as a function of marketing management:

Marketing management functions like planning, implementing and control retailing to marketing mix are performed in an effective manner only when information on marketing mix elements (product, price, promotion, place) and environmental factors (customer nee d & activities, competitor strategies, dealers demand, suppliers policy etc) are made available to marketing executives operating at various levels of management. thus, marketing research is a very important function of marketing management. 4. MR as teamwork or a group work: MR is performed by a group or team of executives carrying out different functional activities. An integrated effort is needed from all the MR executives who are doing different jobs. 5. MR as an art or science: Art is a style of performing a particular activity. It does not have its own techniques and depends for this on others disciplines. Science is a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to an area of study and some general truth explaining the past events or phenomena. MR is either an art (studying a consumer behavior) or science (conducting market research for introducing a new product. 6.MR as a profession: A profession refers to any occupation by which a person earns his livelihood. It requires specialized skills and training in a particular field. A professional should have the following criterias: a) b) c) d) e) Knowledge Competent application Social responsibility Self control Community action

MC.FARLAND has identified the following characteristics of management as a profession: a) b) c) d) e) existence of knowledge acquiring knowledge existing of representative body ethical standard reasonable remuneration

7.MR as a interdisciplinary process: Research is conducted in all the disciplines of physical and social sciences in almost the similar manner as in the field of marketing. SCOPE OF MARKETING RESEARCH:

MR activities are purely classified into 7 categories: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) product and service research market research promotion research distribution research pricing research corporate responsibility research miscellaneous research

TYPES OF RESEARCH

RESEARCH ACTIVITES COVERED

1) RESEARCH ON MARKET

a) Analyzing market potentials for existing products and estimating demand for the new product. b) Sales forecasting. c) Characteristics of product marketing. d) Analyzing sales potentials. e) Studying trend in markets. a) Customer acceptances of proposed new product . b) Comparative study of competitive products. c) Determining new uses of present products. d) Market testing of proposed products. e) Studying customers dissatisfaction with products. f) Product line research. g) Packaging and designing research. a) b) c) d) e) f) Evaluating and advertising effectively. Analyzing advertising and selling practices. Selecting advertising media Motivational studies. Establishing sales territories. Evaluating present and proposed sales methods. g) Studying competitive pricing. h) Analyzing salesmans effectiveness. i) Establishing sales quotas.

2) RESEARCH ON PRODUCT AND SERVICES

3) RESEARCH ON PROMOTION

4) RESEARCH ON DISTRIBUTION

a) b) c) d) a) b) c) d)

Location and design of distribution center. Handling and package of merchandising. Cost analysis of transportations method. Dealer supply and storage requirement. Demand elasticitys. Perceived prices. Cost analysis. Margin analysis.

5) RESEARCH IN PRICING

6) CORPORATE RESPONSIABILITY RESEARCH

a) Anti-pollution. b) Consumerism c) Attitude of consumers to package design and promotional strategy. d) Attitudes to company adding to social cost. Eg : union carbide methol gas leakage tragedy at Bhopal. a) Research on diversification. b) Satisfaction and motivation of sales personnel c) Governmental action and attitudes to corporate sectors. d) International marketing study e) Ecological impact studies. f) Long range forecasting.

7) MISCELLANEOUS RESEARCH

Importance of MR: Business executives are in causingdepending upon marketing research. They want quick and pertinent (stable) accurate information flow from the internal and external environment of firm to facilitate the process of decision making. The increasing importance of MR is based on the following three trends: Shift from local to national and international market. Transition from consumer needs to consumer wants. Shift from price competition to non-price competition. Role of MR: MR plays a vital role of making available the right information at the right time in the right place and to the right person for using decision making. Thus it facilitates, decision making concerning marketing mix element. All firms have to use marketing information, if they want to be successful in the business operation. Following are the major uses of marketing information: Consumer goods manufacturers-

They use MR product ideas to new package design, measure effectiveness of their promotional efforts are determine brand, product and company image. E.g.: Hindustan lever, godrej, TAMCO, fractor, gramble. Industrial goods manufacturersThey use MR to achieve a certain extent to determine market and sales potential by carrying out customer order, territory and product line analysis. They use MR for forecasting their production. E.g.:- kirloskar, Voltar, Telco. Market intermediesAgent merchants, brokers, wholesalers, retailers, jobbers, salesman, distributors, dealers use MR to gather information through their experience in handling a last number of customers. Consumer servicesBanks, insur5ance companies, gas agencies, transport companies, Tourism Company, hospitals use MR to know more information on consumer attitudes.

Media & business servicesAd agencies, consultancy firms, TV, newspaper, magazine, radio etc are the heavy users of marketing research. E.g.: massive, Thomson associates, TATA consultancy etc are engaged in MR. FARMERSFarmers have also realised the importance of MR as they are interested to get better revenue for their agricultural products. They use MR to know where they should sell and what time and price for their products like grains, rice, wheat, vegetables, seeds, sugarcane etc. Rural marketsBusiness people who operate in rural market also require MR to a greater extent. They intent to have information on consumer needs, wants and perceptions in rural market. E.g.: Mahindra & Mahindra excorts etc. Non-business usersGovernment agencies, educational organisation, management association, management institutions have also started using MR information. They use MR for gathering and analyzing pertinent market information. So that, they can improve their knowledge and skill in their respective areas. All India management association, AICT,etc. Government organisationInformation collected by certain organisation like economics & statistical department is of immense help to the government in formulating their policies and plans. Miscellaneous usersGovernmental & non-governmental MR agencies, conduct research on feasibility of new projects forecasting the market demand, competitors activities, consumer behaviour, environmental, economic, political and technological changes, public policy changes, marketing mix elements changes. USES/ADVANTAGES/SIGNIFICANCE OF MR:-

 It helps in obtaining sufficient background information where absolutely nothing is known about the problem area or product field in question. It helps in concept identification and its exploration. It is used to identify relevant and salient behavioural patterns, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivation etc. MR is useful in establishing priorities among categories of behaviour and psychological variables like beliefs, opinion and attitudes. Quantitative MR is generally helpful in defining problem areas fully and formulating hypothesis for further investigation and qualification. MR is useful during a preliminary screening process in order to reduce a large number of possible contenders to a smaller number of probable ones. MR also helps in obtaining large amount of data about belief, attitudes etc as data input for multi-variate analysis studies. It is also used in conducting post research investigation or postmodern to amplify (explore) and explain certain points emerging from some major study without having to repeat these on a large scale. It is used in piloting questionnaires to test comprehension word forms, memory factor etc. Qualitative MR is used where we cannot discover in a simple straight forward manner like direct questioning, why people behave as they do because the field of enquiry is personal and embarrassing in some way. LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES: MR uses the techniques of science but in itself is not an exact science. Therefore the result obtained is not very accurate as compared to physical and chemical sciences. MR is carried out in open market place where so many variables are acting on the research settings. MR is carried out on consumers, dealers, wholesalers, retailers who are human beings. So, the customer and the respondents start behaving artificially when they know their attitudes, opinions, beliefs etc are being studied. This aspect of human behaviour distorts the MR results. Subjectivity is the main limitation of MR. it is very difficult to verify the research results. MR projects generally take longer time period than other projects. Hence, time gap affects the successful implementation of research results. Research intentionally or unintentionally is biasing research results in MR. The lack of appropriate training to researchers leads to misinterpretation of questions to be asked for data collection. Some research sponsoring agencies are instructing the research to come out with particular type of solutions to a particular type of problem. Many research executives are not very clear about the research problem and its objectives. In India, research is taken as the time wasting and resource wasting activity. Therefore, MR doesnt get its pure resource allocation in the organizations.

 Researchers are not much motivated to make use of computers for analyzing the research results. MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS) It is a set of procedures and methods for the planned and regular collection and dissemination of information for uses in marketing decision making. Definition: MIS is defined as the structure introducing complex of persons. Machines and procedures designed to generate and orderly flow of pertinent information collected from both intra and extra firm sources, for use as the basis for decision making in specific responsibility areas of marketing management. Difference between marketing research and marketing information systems:

Sales control research / Techniques in sales forecasting: The different techniques used for forecasting the sales of new product are as follows: 1) Survey of buyers intention 2) Delphi method 3) Sales force polling 4) Time series analysis and trend projection 1) Survey of buyers intention: The most direct method of estimating demand in short run is to ask customers what they are planning to buy for the forecasting year. This method is most useful when bulk of the sales is made to industrial buyers. When shortages are expected customers may argugate their requirements. This method is not very useful in the case of household customers due to several reasons like customers inability to foresee their choice, Irregular nature of buying intentions, large number of household buyers etc. 2) Delphi Method: this method, a group of experts are questioned repeatedly until the responses, coverage along a single line. Each expert is given the opportunity to react to the views of other experts. This method saves time and money but it can be successful when experts are knowledgeable and objective in their approach. 3) Sales Force Polling: In this method, salesman are asked to estimate expected sales in their respective territories. Salesman are closer to the customers and therefore they are likely to have the

most intimate feel of the market. The estimates of individual salesman are consolidated to find out the total estimated sales. This method is simple and based on first hand knowledge of salesman but this method is subjective and suitable for short term forecasting. Process Of Marketing Research: Marketing research is a scientific and systematic exercise consisting of the following steps: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Problem Formulation. Decision on fact gathering procedure. Data collection. Marketing sample. Date evaluation. Interpreting the data. Report generation. a. Executive report b. Technical report c. Data report d. Popular report (or) persuasive report.

i.

Problem Formulation: The precise definition of the problem helps in determining the techniques to be used, the

extent of information to be collected and one should clearly state the problem. Marketing elements of the problem should be isolated and identified in precise terms.

ii.

Decision on fact gathering procedure: (planning the research design) It consist of the following steps: a) Establishing the facts that are available at present and

The additional facts required are: Determining the reliable data. Setting and organization for the collection of additional information required. DATA COLLECTION:

This is the method of obtaining information from a sample of respondents. When the available data are insufficient, fresh data have to be collected.Usually, survey techniques are used for gathering information. MARKETING SAMPLE: A sample is the small group taken from the total group. Sampling is essential to substantiate and interpret the data. DATA EVALUATION: Locating the source and collecting information is only a part of the job. For the same set of facts, different interpreters will draw different conclusions depending upon their individual view points and their interest. INTERPRETING THE DATA: Correct interpretation of data makes the research meaningful and purposeful. The best fact study would become useless by wrong or improper interpretation of facts. Technical competence, broad understanding, intimate knowledge of the problem at hand are some of the prerequisites for a correct interpretation of the data.

REPORT GENERATION: The final step in MR is summarizing the result and making a report. The finding and recommendation are also included.

TYPES OF REPORT: Executive Report-It is meant for an executive to carry out the plan as quickly as possible. Technical Report-This report will contain the statement of the problem; research methodology etc.The purpose of this report is to collect and present necessary technical information. Data Report This report doesnt contain any interpretations. It merely presents the finding in tables and charts. Popular Report-It is non-technical and hence, of no value in commercial field. Narration of an incident is a kind of popular report. SALES CONTROL RESEARCH/TECHNIQUES IN SALES FORECASTING: Time series analysis and trend projection: A long standing firm has considerable data on sales pertaining to several years. Such data when arranged peonlogically (alphabet order) becomes time series. The trend of the

time series can be projected to estimate future sales. This method is simple and inexpensive but it is based on the assumption that past rate of change with continue in future economic indicators of sales like income level of people, regression equations and executive judgment can also be used to forecast sale

UNIT-5 INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

Interpretation-Interpretation refers to task of drawing inferences (results) from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. It is a search for border meaning of research findings Need for interpretation Techniques for interpretation Ire cautions in interpretations REPORT WRITING: 1) Different steps in writing a report: Logical analysis of the subject matter. Preparation of final outline. Preparation of rough draft Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft. Preparation of final bibliography. Writing the final draft. 2) Layout of the research report: It consists of three components: Preliminary pages Main text End matter 3) Types of report: There are two types: Technical Report Popular Report 4) Mechanics of writing a research report. THE ROLE OF COMPUTER IN RESEARCH

Computer have always assisted to solve the problems faced by the mankind since the time of invention, the size of the computers have drastically reduced from that of a room to that can be accommodated in a human palm. The word computer means something which computes or a machine for performing calculations automatically, but, today computer means not merely a calculator. It does vast variety of jobs with tremendous speed and efficiency. Today people use computers in almost every walk of life. Computers have become a subject of study at schools electronic computers have now become an indispensable part of every profession: so do research.

COMPUTER IN RESEARCH PROCESS There are five major phases of the research process. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conceptual phase Design and planning phase Empirical phase Analytic phase and Dissemination phase

1.

Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase

the conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review of literature, theoretical frame work and formulation of hypothesis. Role of computers in literature review: computers help for searching the literatures (for review of literature) and bibliographic reference stored in the electronic database of the world wide webs. It can thus be used for storing relevant published articles to the retrieved whenever needed. This has the advantage over searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and other news letters at the libraries which consume considerable amount of time and effort. 2. Role of Computers in Design and Planning Phase

Design and planning phase consist of research design, population, research variables, sampling plan, reviewing research plan and pilot study Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several softwares are available to calculate the sample size required for a proposed study. The standard deviation of the data from the pilot study is required for the sample size calculation. 3. Role of computers in empirical phase

Empirical phase consist of collecting and preparing the data for analysis:

Data Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computes are word files or excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the whole layout of the tables if needed, which is impossible or time consuming incase of writing in papers. Thus, computers help in data entry, data editing, data management including follow up actions etc. computers also allow for greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as well as grater ease during the analysis of these data. In research studies, the preparation and inputting data is the most labor-intensive and time consuming aspect of the work. Typically the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or record for suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this the researcher in conjunction with the statistician and the programmer, will convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel spreadsheet. These spread sheets can be directlyopened with statistical softwares for analysis 4. Role of Computers in Data Analysis

This phase consist of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of results. Data analysis: many softwares are now available to perform the mathematical part of the research process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods.Softwares like SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and SYSAT are some of the widely used. They can be like calculating the sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and calculating the power of the study. Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out the most intricate statistical analysis.Computers are useful not only for statistical analysis, but also to monitor the accuracy and completeness of the data as they are collected. 5. Role of Computer in Research Dissemination

This phase is the publication of the research study. Research Publishing: the research article is typed in word format and converted to portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or published in the world wide web. gretl is an example of an open source statistical package

ADMB a software suite for non-linear statistical modeling based on C++ which uses automatic differentiation.

Bayesian Filtering Library Chronux for neurobiological time series data DAP A free replacement for SAS ELKI a software framework for development of data mining algorithms in Java. Fityk nonlinear regression software (GUI and command line)

gretl gnu regression, econometrics and time-series Library JAGS Just another Gibbs sampler (JAGS) is a program for analysis of Bayesian hierarchical models using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) developed by Martyn Plummer. It is similar to WinBUGS. JHepWork Java-based statistical analysis framework for scientists and engineers. It includes an advanced IDE and Jython shell.

JMulTi Octave programming language (very similar to Matlab) with statistical features Mondrian (software) - data analysis tool using interactive statistical graphics with a link to R.

OpenBUGS OpenEpi A web-based, open source, operating-independent series of programs for use in epidemiology and statistics based on JavaScript and HTML OpenMx A package for Structural equation modeling running in R. Orange, a machine learning and bioinformatics software Ploticus software for generating a variety of graphs from raw data PSPP A free software replacement for SPSS R A free implementation of the S language. R Commander GUI interface for R RapidMiner, a machine learning toolbox Rattle GUI GUI interface for R Scilab uses GPL compatible CeCILL license SciPy (a Python library for scientific computing) contains the stats sub-package which is partly based on the venerable |STAT (a.k.a PipeStat, formerly UNIX|STAT) software

Shogun, an open source Large Scale Machine Learning toolbox that provides several SVM (Support Vector Machine) implementations (like libSVM, SVMlight) under a common framework and interfaces to Octave, Matlab, Python, R Simfit Simulation, curve fitting, statistics, and plotting SOCR SOFA Statistics a desktop GUI program focused on ease of use, learn as you go, and beautiful output. Statistical Lab R-based and focusing on educational purposes Weka is also a suite of machine learning software written at the University of Waikato.

Xlisp-stat Yxilon

Public domain

Demetra+ CSPro Epi Info X-12-ARIMA

Freeware

BV4.1 GeoDA MINUIT WinBUGS Bayesian analysis using Markov chain Monte Carlo methods Winpepi package of statistical programs for epidemiologists

Proprietary

ADAPA batch and real-time scoring of statistical models Analytica - visual analytics and statistics package Angoss ASReml for restricted maximum likelihood analyses BMDP general statistics package CalEst general statistics and probability package with didactic tutorials Data Applied for building statistical models DPS comprehensive statistics package EViews for econometric analysis FAME a system for managing time series statistics and time series databases GAUSS programming language for statistics GenStat general statistics package GLIM early package for fitting generalized linear models GraphPad InStat Very simple with lots of guidance and explanations GraphPad Prism Biostatistics and nonlinear regression with clear explanations IMSL Numerical Libraries software library with statistical algorithms

JMP visual analysis and statistics package LISREL statistics package used in structural equation modeling Maple programming language with statistical features Mathematica programming language with statistical features MATLAB programming language with statistical features MedCalc for biomedical sciences Minitab general statistics package MLwiN multilevel models (free to UK academics) NCSS general statistics package NMath Stats statistical package for .NET Framework O-Matrix programming language OriginPro statistics and graphing, programming access to NAG library Partek general statistics package with specific applications for genomic, HTS, and QSAR data Primer-E Primer environmental and ecological specific. PV-WAVE programming language comprehensive data analysis and visualization with IMSL statistical package Q research software quantitative data analysis software for market research Quantum part of the SPSS MR product line, mostly for data validation and tabulation in Marketing and Opinion Research RATS comprehensive econometric analysis package SAS comprehensive statistical package SHAZAM comprehensive econometrics and statistics package SigmaStat for group analysis SOCR online tools for teaching statistics and probability theory Speakeasy numerical computational environment and programming language with many statistical and econometric analysis features SPSS comprehensive statistics package Stata comprehensive statistics package Statgraphics general statistics package STATISTICA comprehensive statistics package StatXact package for exact nonparametric and parametric statistics Systat general statistics package

S-PLUS general statistics package Unistat general statistics package that can also work as Excel add-in The Unscrambler (free-to-try commercial Multivariate analysis software for Windows)

Add-ons

Analyse-it add-on to Microsoft Excel for statistical analysis SigmaXL add-on to Microsoft Excel for statistical and graphical analysis SPC XL add-on to Microsoft Excel for general statistics SUDAAN add-on to SAS and SPSS for statistical surveys XLfit add-on to Microsoft Excel for curve fitting and statistical analysis XLSTAT add-on to Microsoft Excel for statistics and multivariate data analysis Stats Helper add-on to Microsoft Excel for descriptive statistics and Six Sigma SPSS is a computer program used for survey authoring and deployment (IBM SPSS Data Collection), data mining (IBM SPSS Modeler), text analytics, statistical analysis, and collaboration and deployment (batch and automated scoring services).

Statistics program SPSS (originally, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) was released in its first version in 1968 after being developed by Norman H. Nie and C. Hadlai Hull. SPSS is among the most widely used programs for statistical analysis in social science. It is used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government, education researchers, marketing organizations and others. The original SPSS manual (Nie, Bent & Hull, 1970) has been described as one of "sociology's most influential books".[1] In addition to statistical analysis, data management (case selection, file reshaping, creating derived data) and data documentation (a metadata dictionary is stored in the datafile) are features of the base software. Statistics included in the base software:

Descriptive statistics: Cross tabulation, Frequencies, Descriptives, Explore, Descriptive Ratio Statistics

Bivariate statistics: Means, t-test, ANOVA, Correlation (bivariate, partial, distances), Nonparametric tests

Prediction for numerical outcomes: Linear regression

Prediction for identifying groups: Factor analysis, cluster analysis (two-step, K-means, hierarchical), Discriminant

The many features of SPSS are accessible via pull-down menus or can be programmed with a proprietary 4GL command syntax language. Command syntax programming has the benefits of reproducibility, simplifying repetitive tasks, and handling complex data manipulations and analyses. Additionally, some complex applications can only be programmed in syntax and are not accessible through the menu structure. The pull-down menu interface also generates command syntax; this can be displayed in the output, although the default settings have to be changed to make the syntax visible to the user. They can also be pasted into a syntax file using the "paste" button present in each menu. Programs can be run interactively or unattended, using the supplied Production Job Facility. Additionally a "macro" language can be used to write command language subroutines and a Python programmability extension can access the information in the data dictionary and data and dynamically build command syntax programs. The Python programmability extension, introduced in SPSS 14, replaced the less functional SAX Basic "scripts" for most purposes, although SaxBasic remains available. In addition, the Python extension allows SPSS to run any of the statistics in the free software package R. From version 14 onwards SPSS can be driven externally by a Python or a VB.NET program using supplied "plugins". SPSS places constraints on internal file structure, data types, data processing and matching files, which together considerably simplify programming. SPSS datasets have a 2-dimensional table structure where the rows typically represent cases (such as individuals or households) and the columns represent measurements (such as age, sex or household income). Only 2 data types are defined: numeric and text (or "string"). All data processing occurs sequentially case-by-case through the file. Files can be matched one-to-one and one-to-many, but not many-to-many. The graphical user interface has two views which can be toggled by clicking on one of the two tabs in the bottom left of the SPSS window. The 'Data View' shows a spreadsheet view of the cases (rows) and variables (columns). Unlike spreadsheets, the data cells can only contain numbers or text and formulas cannot be stored in these cells. The 'Variable View' displays the metadata dictionary where each row represents a variable and shows the variable name, variable label, value label(s), print width, measurement type and a variety of other characteristics. Cells in both views can be manually edited, defining the file structure and allowing data entry without using command syntax. This may be sufficient for small datasets. Larger datasets such as

statistical surveys are more often created in data entry software, or entered during computerassisted personal interviewing, by scanning and using optical character recognition and optical mark recognition software, or by direct capture from online questionnaires. These datasets are then read into SPSS. SPSS can read and write data from ASCII text files (including hierarchical files), other statistics packages, spreadsheets and databases. SPSS can read and write to external relational database tables via ODBC and SQL. Statistical output is to a proprietary file format (*.spv file, supporting pivot tables) for which, in addition to the in-package viewer, a stand-alone reader can be downloaded. The proprietary output can be exported to text or Microsoft Word, PDF, Excel, and other formats. Alternatively, output can be captured as data (using the OMS command), as text, tab-delimited text, PDF, XLS, HTML, XML, SPSS dataset or a variety of graphic image formats (JPEG, PNG, BMP and EMF) The SPSS logo used prior to the renaming in January 2010. SPSS Server is a version of SPSS with a client/server architecture. It had some features not available in the desktop version, such as scoring functions (Scoring functions are included in the desktop version from version 19). Versions Early versions of SPSS were designed for batch processing on mainframes, including for example IBM and ICL versions, originally using punched cards for input. A processing run read a command file of SPSS commands and either a raw input file of fixed format data with a single record type, or a 'getfile' of data saved by a previous run. To save precious computer time an 'edit' run could be done to check command syntax without analysing the data. From version 10 (SPSSX) in 1983, data files could contain multiple record types. SPSS versions 16.0 and later run under Windows, Mac, and Linux. The graphical user interface is written in Java. The Mac OS version is provided as a Universal binary, making it fully compatible with both PowerPC and Intel-based Mac hardware. Prior to SPSS 16.0, different versions of SPSS were available for Windows, Mac OS X and Unix. The Windows version was updated more frequently, and had more features, than the versions for other operating systems.

SPSS version 13.0 for Mac OS X was not compatible with Intel-based Macintosh computers, due to the Rosetta emulation software causing errors in calculations. SPSS 15.0 for Windows needed a downloadable hotfix to be installed in order to be compatible with Windows Vista. Ownership history Between 2009 and 2010, the premier vendor for SPSS was called PASW (Predictive Analytics SoftWare) Statistics. The company announced on July 28, 2009 that it was being acquired by IBM for US$1.2 billion.[2] As of January 2010, it became "SPSS: An IBM Company". Complete transfer of business to IBM was done by October 1, 2010. By that date, SPSS: An IBM Company ceased to exist. IBM SPSS is now fully integrated into the IBM Corporation, and is one of the brands under IBM Software Group's Business Analytics Portfolio, together with IBM Cognos. Add-ons Add-on modules provide additional capabilities. The available modules are:

SPSS Programmability Extension (added in version 14). Allows Python, R, and .NET programming control of SPSS.

SPSS Data Preparation (added in version 14). Allows programming of logical checks and reporting of suspicious values.

SPSS Regression - Logistic regression, ordinal regression, multinomial logistic regression, and mixed models. SPSS Advanced Models - Multivariate GLM[disambiguation needed ANOVA (removed from base system in version 14).
]

and repeated measures

SPSS Decision Trees. Creates classification and decision trees for identifying groups and predicting behaviour.

SPSS Custom Tables. Allows user-defined control of output for reports. SPSS Exact Tests. Allows statistical testing on small samples. SPSS Categories SPSS Forecasting SPSS Conjoint SPSS Missing Values. Simple regression-based imputation. SPSS Complex Samples (added in Version 12). Adjusts for stratification and clustering and other sample selection biases.

AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures) - add-on which allows modeling of structural equation and covariance structures, path analysis, and has the more basic capabilities such as linear regression analysis, ANOVA and ANCO

ONE WORDS
CHAPTER 1

1.___________is to test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. a)Research c)Research process b)Research methodology d)All the above

2.__________ research includes survey and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. a)Descriptive c)Quantaive b)Analytical d)Qualitative

3. ___________research has to use facts information already available and analyze these information make a critical evaluation. a)Descriptive c)Quantaive b)Analytical d)Qualitative

4.________ research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society. a)Descriptive c)Applied b)Analytical d)Conceptual

5._________ research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. a)Descriptive c)Quantaive b)Analytical d)Qualitative

6.________ research is related to some abstract ideas or theory. a)Descriptive c)Applied b)Analytical d)Conceptual

7.________ research mainly relies on experience or observation alone without due regard for system and theory.

a)Empircial c)Applied

b)Analytical d)Conceptual

8.__________ research is confined to a single time period. a)Empircial c)Applied b) One time d)Conceptual

9._________ research is carried on over several time periods. a) Longitudinal c)Applied b)Analytical d)Conceptual

10._________ research follows case study method or in-depth approaches to reach the basic casual relationship. a) Longitudinal c)Both b and d b)Diagnostic d)Clinical

11. The relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded by an ________ variable. a) Longitudinal c)Extraneous b)Analytical d)Conceptual

12.______________deals with method of selecting items. a)Sampling design c)Applied b)Analytical d)Conceptual

CHAPTER 2
1. ________refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. a)Sampling design b)sampling unit c)Sampling process d)sampling methods

2. ________refers to some difficulty which a researchers experiences in the content of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. a) research problem b) Research design c)research methodology d)sampling unit

3. ________A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample a) Sampling unit b)sampling design c)sample size d)sampling error 4. ________it refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to confute the sample . a) Sampling unit b)sampling design c)sample size d)sampling error 5. _______ is the random variations in the sample estimates around the tree population parameters a) Sampling unit b)sampling design c)sample size d)sampling error

6. ________ is the process of mapping aspects of a domain on to other aspects of a range according to same rule of correspondence. a) Measurement b)sampling process c)nominal scale d)rating scale

7. _________is simply a system of assigning number or symbols to events in order to label them. a) Measurement b)sampling process c)nominal scale d)rating scale

8. _____ The lowest level of the ordered scale used places events in order but there is no equal in the scale. a) Measurement b)ordinal scale c)nominal scale d)rating scale

9. ______It describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degree of opinion, attitude and other concepts. a) Measurement b)sacling c)nominal scale d)rating scale

10.________involves quantitative description of a limited number of ascepts of a thing or of traits a) Measurement b)sacling c)nominal scale d)rating scale 11._________ It present series of statements from which a respondents select one as best reflecting his evaluation . a)itemised rating scaler b)sacling c)nominal scale d)rating scale 12._______It have an absolute or true zero of measurement a)Ratio scale b)ordinal scale c)nominal scale d)rating scale

unit-3
1. ________ is the most important test among other tests developed by statisticians. a)Chi-Square Test 2 ._______ enables to explain whether or not the two attributes are associated. a)Chi-Square Test b)non-parametric c)both d)none

3._____is defined as the value which we get by dividing the total of the values of various given items is a series by the total number of items. a)mean b)median c)mode d)none

4. _______ is the value of the middle term of series when it is arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude. a)mean b)median c)mode d)none

5. _______ is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series. a)mean b)median c)mode d)none

6. _______is defined as the nth route of the product of the values of n items in a given series. a) Geometric Mean b)median c)mode d)none

7. _______is used to determine the relationship between two or more variables and to what extent they are related to each other. a) Geometric Mean b)median c)mode d)correlation

8.. Selecting a significance level is the_____ in hypothesis testing. a)first step b)second step c)third step d)none

9. _______test used to determine if categorical datas source dependency or the two classifications are independent. a)Chi-Square Test b)non-parametric c)both d)none

10. It is a statistical measure used for comparing a variance to a __________ a) Geometric Mean b) theoretical variance c)mode d)correlation

CHAPTER 4

1. ----------------- is the systemetic gathering, recording and analysing of data about problems relating to marketing of goods and services. Hrm d. cost 2. ---------------- which of the following is the private sector? a. BHEL c.STC b. Oil d. Hindustan lever 3. Marketing is a ---------------------a. economic resource. c. art or a profession b. system of authority. d. all the above 4. research on promotion is ----------------e) Location and design of distribution center. f) Handling and package of merchandising. g) Demand elasticitys. h) Studying competitive pricing. 5. if a firm wants to be successful in the business operation, it must use ---------------

a. b.

Marketing

c. finance

a. b.

marketing intelligence marketing research

c.marketing information d. none of the above

6. Sales analysis and operating cost analysis was introduced in the year ------------a.1910 to 1920 c. 1920 to 1930 b.1930 to 1940 d. 1940 to 1950 7. business is a -----------a. creation of customers b. art of work c.group of customers d. creation of ability

8. --------------- is the important function of marketing management a. marketing research b. marketing analysis 9. scope of marketing has ----------viii) ix) x) xi) product and service research market research distribution research all the above c. marketing information d.none of the above

10. importance of marketing research is based on Shift from local to national and international market. Transition from consumer needs to consumer wants. Both All the above

11. significance of mr depends on It helps in concept identification and its exploration. It is used to identify relevant and salient behavioural patterns, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivation etc.

 both None of the above 12. ----------------- is used in piloting questionnaires to test comprehension word forms, memory factor etc. a. marketing finance b. marketing analysis c. marketing research d. all the above

13. ----------------- is defined as the structure introducing complex of persons. a. MIS b. MA c. MR d. MS

14. ----------- are techniques used for forecasting the sales of new product are as follows: 5) Survey of buyers intention d)all the above 6) Delphi method 7) Sales force polling 15. In ----------- method, a group of experts are questioned repeatedly until the responses, coverage along a single line. a) Survey of buyers intention d)none of the above b) Delphi method c) Sales force polling 16. In --------- method, the estimates of individual salesman are consolidated to find out the total estimated sales. a) Survey of buyers intention d)none of the above b) Delphi method c) Sales force polling 17. report generation of MR has e. Executive report f. Technical report g. Data report d) all the above

18. -------------- is the method of obtaining information from a sample of respondents a. b. c. d. data collection: data evaluation: interpreting the data: report generation

19. -------------- merely presents the finding in tables and charts. a. b. c. d. Executive Report Technical Data Popular

20. The trend of the time series can be projected ------------------

a. to estimate future sales. c. to estimate present position b. all the above d. none of the above