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The spotted frog is a large-mouthed predator that not only eats water striders and
other insects but also gulps down smaller frogs and small fish.
Protective Coloration
84
To escape extermination, each species must in some manner foil its
enemies. Protective coloration is one of the more common adaptations helping to
do this. Most animals resemble their environment to some extent. The conspicuous
markings of some, like the bitter-tasting monarch butterfly or the striped skunk,
seem to function as a warning to prospective predators that it is in their best
interest to look elsewhere for a meal.
Some animals, such as the white-tailed ptarmigan and the snowshoe hare, have
seasonal changes in plumage or pelage, wearing white in winter and brown in
summer. Even predators, such as longtail and shorttail weasels, benefit from
seasonal camouflage. Protective coloration makes them less noticeable to prey
species and to larger predators.
Many insects, too, change coloration with the season. Bright green grasshoppers of
early summer become more brown with each molt, matching the changes in the
surrounding vegetation.
Obliterative shading is especially important to animals that frequent more than one
habitat. Seen from above, turtles match their dark background; from below,
because of their lighter underbody shading they blend into the bright skylight.
Disruptive coloration aids in breaking up an animal’s outline. Butterflies and moths
commonly have disruptive wing markings. The distinctive shapes of eyes can be
concealed. Eye coloration may mimic body color—as in the green katydid—or the
eye may continue disruptive body markings.
Ground-nesting birds are especially vulnerable to attack. Their eggs tend to be
heavily blotched with earthy colors, making them less conspicuous. Chicks also
carry these disruptive colorations on natal down.
Most mammals, with coats of brown or gray, are inconspicuous when motionless.
Deer fawns are endowed with speckled coats, mimicking the sun-flecked forest
floor; this disruptive coloration, coupled with absence of scent and their instinctive
“freezing” behavior, makes it difficult for predators to detect them.
The whitetail deer not only uses its white “flag” to warn others in the herd of
danger; it also allows a pursuing predator to use it as a target. When the tail is
suddenly dropped—abruptly obliterating the bright white patch—the deer seems to
disappear into its dim surroundings.
Since overly conspicuous animals are prone to predation, natural selection favors
development of appropriate camouflage.
85
For such ground-dwelling birds as the white-tailed ptarmigan, camouflage is an
important survival adaptation. The ptarmigan changes its plumage to match its
surroundings: it is white in winter, speckled in summer. Moving slowly and
refraining from flight, it is less likely than more-active birds to be detected by
sharp-eyed, motion-conscious predators.
86
Birds that when hatched are covered with down and are able to move about freely
are called precocial. They are less dependent upon their parents than are altricial
young, which are naked and helpless when they hatch; but they must rely heavily
on a resemblance to their surroundings for survival during their first flightless
weeks. This spruce grouse chick, which blends into its sunflecked forest-floor
habitat, is an example of a precocial bird.
87
The bold disruptive pattern of the killdeer chick’s plumage helps this precocial bird
avoid detection in its open-prairie environment. This adaptation, coupled with the
chick’s instinct to freeze at the approach of danger, ensures that enough young will
survive to perpetuate the species.
Ursus arctos horribilus: The Vulnerable King
88
At the apex of the food pyramid, this great beast is unquestionably the king
of Glacier’s biotic community. Yet the long-range future of the grizzly bear is
uncertain. With the grizzly exterminated from most of its former range—which once
extended into the midcontinent and south into Mexico—its numbers have dwindled
in proportion to its diminished range. Present concentrations in the contiguous
United States remain in and around Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks.
Probably fewer than 200 of these magnificent creatures live in Glacier National
Park.
Grizzlies are easily distinguished from the more common black bear. In addition to
larger size and heavier build, grizzlies have a characteristic shoulder hump; long,
conspicuous claws; and a broad, concave face that gives them a “dished-in”
appearance. Fur is usually brown; like the fur of the black bear, however, color may
range from black to yellowish. Light tipped hairs make the fur appear frosted,
giving rise to the nickname, “silvertip.”
Grizzlies, popularly considered arch predators, are more accurately described as
omnivores. Carrion, grasses, cow parsnip, and several species of berries, bulbs, and
tubers make up a grizzly’s diet, along with insects, small mammals, and an
occasional ungulate that it can catch. As a result, grizzlies play several roles in the
biotic community, functioning as herbivore, scavenger, and predator.
Ranging widely in all life zones, grizzlies follow the spring snowmelt up to the alpine
meadows, returning to lower elevations to hibernate from November until April.
One to three cubs are born in midwinter during hibernation. Since the maternal
bond lasts two years, a sow will accept a mate only every other year. Mortality of
subadults is high, resulting principally from competition among the bears
themselves. As with most animals, range—habitat—appears to be the limiting factor
of grizzly populations.
The grizzly is normally shy and fearful of man—but highly unpredictable. Wounded
or sick bears, sows defending cubs, young adults, and bears that have become
conditioned to human scent are the most dangerous. As humans continue to
encroach on grizzly territory, odds of confrontation also increase. Recent fatalities
and personal injuries inflicted by grizzlies pose a vexing problem to the National
Park Service, which is charged with visitor safety on the one hand and protection of
the park’s remaining grizzly population on the other. Continuing study of grizzly
ecology and increasingly enlightened bear management programs will, it is hoped,
allow man and bear to co-exist in a wilderness both require.
89
Grizzlies are fond of succulent spring grasses.
90
Traversing all life zones in the park, the grizzly is a true opportunist, eating
anything from ants and berries to wapiti.
91
Seldom will a grizzly exceed 225 kilograms in Glacier. This is a young adult.
Bald Eagles and Kokanee Salmon: A Recent Gathering
92
In 1916 the kokanee salmon, a small, land-locked form of the Pacific coast
species, was planted in the Flathead drainage. With the first planting augmented by
additional stockings, the fish thrived in cold, deep Flathead Lake, and, to a lesser
extent, in Lake McDonald. The salmon fed almost exclusively on zooplankton.
By the mid-1930s, salmon runs were becoming established. The outlet of Lake
McDonald provides an ideal spawning site for the salmon. The fast-flowing water is
clear, cold, and shallow, and the creek bed is gravelly.
Averaging 0.3 meters in length and weighing less than a half-kilo, the 4-year-old
adult salmon cease feeding and begin to migrate. Many thousands swim the 100
kilometers from Flathead Lake to McDonald Creek. Males appear in the creek first,
arriving in late September, and are soon followed by the females.
Using her tail to dig a redd (a shallow nest depression), the female deposits about
650 eggs. After fertilization by the male, the eggs are covered over. The adults die
within three weeks after spawning, their bodies exhausted from the rigorous
migration journey and the weeks-long lack of sustenance.
Egg fatalities are high, due to stream erosion and disturbance by other spawning
salmon. Hatching in late March, the fry work their way out of the gravel and
migrate downstream.
Attracted to the 75,000-150,000 salmon concentrated in a 3-kilometer stretch of
shallow water, bald eagles begin gathering at McDonald Creek in October. It is not
known where the eagles come from or where they go after the spawning run.
Glacier has fewer than 20 summer-resident bald eagles, and these are distributed
among the remote lakes of the North Fork area.
In 1939, 37 bald eagles were counted along the creek. By 1969, 373 were
reported, representing approximately 10 percent of that year’s estimated winter
population for the contiguous United States. Since 1960, the count has averaged
240 birds. (In 1977 there were 444.)
Eagles feed by swooping down to pluck salmon from the water or by wading out to
grab a fish stranded on a shallow riffle. An eagle may consume as many as six fish
a day. Immature birds are not as adept at catching fish and may harry adults or
other immatures into releasing their catch.
93
From its vantage point, this mature bald eagle examines the waters of McDonald
Creek. Average weight is 5.7 kilograms; average wingspan is 2.2 meters. Females
are slightly larger than males.
94
This immature bald eagle lacks the familiar white head and tail of the adult birds. It
will not acquire those markings until it is several years old.
Breeding male and female kokanee salmon are easily distinguishable; as spawning
time approaches, they change appearance. The dark gray backs turn red; heads
become green, and the males develop humped backs and hooked jaws.
95
Swooping upward with a fish, a mature eagle heads for a convenient perch to
consume its catch. A strategically located tree may contain 30 birds.
A Triumph of Many Colors
96
Grassland, meadow, tundra, or any other area in Glacier suitable for plant
growth and supplied with abundant sunlight produces an extravagance of
wildflowers. This display of various shapes and colors is neither an accident nor a
mere decoration of nature. Nor would Earth’s recent explosion of mammal and bird
species have been possible without the evolution of flowering plants.
Two hundred million years ago, early in the Age of Reptiles, angiosperms (flowering
plants) had not yet evolved. Plant reproduction still relied on spores and cones.
Then, during the Cretaceous Period, the last sediments were being laid down in the
inland sea that covered most of Montana. (It was these sediments that the ancient
Precambrian rocks of Glacier’s mountains later overrode, forming the Lewis
Overthrust.) During this period the evolutionary miracle occurred: flowering plants
—grasses, vines, shrubs, broadleaf trees, wildflowers—inherited the Earth.
The timing was important. As Earth’s tropical climate gradually changed to
temperate extremes during this period, the domination of cold-blooded dinosaurs
ended and the moisture-demanding coniferous forests that had covered the earth
in green monotony began to shrink. Angiosperms provided a solution to the
ecological void: grasses and forbs grew where trees no longer could. Most
important, relationships evolved between this new class of plants and the relatively
few species of insects then existing.
Insects began to use the pollen of flowering plants; the angiosperms, in turn,
evolved bright petals and nectar that exploited visiting insects for the plants’ own
reproductive purposes. This partnership allowed insects to diversify rapidly, evolving
new, specialized forms such as bees, moths, and butterflies. As a result, predatory
forms of insects and arachnids also rapidly diversified.
The most dramatic change, however, involved warm-blooded birds and mammals,
whose high rates of metabolism required high-energy fuels. Unlike gymnosperm
seeds, which contain no protective covering, angiosperm seeds are surrounded by
a fruit. The development of these highly nutritious seeds, and the attendant
explosion of insect species, ensured survival of the newly evolved birds.
As birds diversified into seed-eaters, insectivores, and carnivores, mammals, then
uncertain little ratlike creatures darting among the feet of dinosaurs, began a rapid
rise to dominance; grasslands promoted an explosion of herbivorous and
carnivorous species.
The evolution of angiosperms, and the animal revolution it made possible, came
with amazing speed. Most significant, it was a vital first step upon which the
meteoric rise of man depended.
97
Indian paintbrush is common at all elevations below tundra. It may be white,
yellow, orange, pink or red. The actual flowers, inconspicuous and green, are
surrounded by brilliantly colored bracts. Semi-parasitic on other plants, paintbrush
is normally found growing in conjunction with other wildflowers; its roots steal
sustenance from neighboring plants.
98
Yellow stonecrop, widely distributed in forest and scrub-forest zones, is one of the
park’s few plants having succulent leaves, an adaptation that helps it survive in
such situations as dry, rocky outcrops.
The Calypso orchid grows in the cool, shadowed forest where light is dim. It lives in
partnership with certain fungi that exist about the orchid’s roots and seem to help
nourish it.
99
Silky lupine, a legume, has nitrogen-fixing nodules on its roots, thus allowing it to
grow in nitrogen-poor soil. It is widely distributed in grassland and forest
communities.
Fire Succession: Key to Continuity
100
Most of Glacier’s fires are lightning-caused. Strikes may flare up
immediately; or fires may smolder in the forest duff for days until fanned into flame
by wind. Ground fires may race through the forest understory, causing minor
damage; or they may bridge the understory and reach the canopy, thus becoming
rapidly spreading crown fires. Under certain conditions, uncontrollable infernos may
develop, generating terrific winds and heat. These rare conflagrations are called fire
storms.
Every type of forest habitat has climax vegetation—trees and shrubs that are best
suited to the site and thus maintain themselves indefinitely if not disrupted.
After a major fire, habitat conditions are usually so altered that the site must pass
through several seral stages before conditions are such that climax vegetation can
return. A sere is a series of plant communities that follow one another in orderly
fashion until climax conditions are again reached.
Lightning fires occur most often during the hot, dry weeks of late summer.
101
