Musical instrument

A musical instrument is a device creat ed or adapt ed t o make musical sounds. In principle, any
object t hat produces sound can be considered a musical inst rument —it is t hrough purpose t hat t he
object becomes a musical inst rument . A person who plays a musical inst rument is known as an
instrumentalist.

Abraham Bloemaert playing a bagpipe.

T he hist ory of musical inst rument s dat es t o t he beginnings of human cult ure. Early musical
inst rument s may have been used f or rit uals, such as a horn t o signal success on t he hunt , or a drum in
a religious ceremony. Cult ures event ually developed composit ion and perf ormance of melodies f or
ent ert ainment . Musical inst rument s evolved in st ep wit h changing applicat ions and t echnologies.

T he exact dat e and specific origin of t he first device considered a musical inst rument , is widely
disput ed. T he oldest object ident ified by scholars as a musical inst rument , is a simple flut e, dat ed
back 50,000–60,000 years. Many scholars dat e early flut es t o about 40,000 years ago. Many
hist orians believe t hat det ermining t he specific dat e of musical inst rument invent ion is impossible, as
t he majorit y of early musical inst rument s were const ruct ed of animal skins, bone, wood, and ot her
non- durable, bio- degradable mat erials. Addit ionally, some have proposed t hat lit hophones, or st ones
used t o make musical sounds—like t hose f ound at Sankarjang in India—are examples of prehist oric
musical inst rument s.

Musical inst rument s developed independent ly in many populat ed regions of t he world. However,
cont act among civilizat ions caused rapid spread and adapt at ion of most inst rument s in places f ar
f rom t heir origin. By t he post - classical era, inst rument s f rom Mesopot amia were in marit ime
Sout heast Asia, and Europeans played inst rument s originat ing f rom Nort h Af rica. Development in t he
Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cult ures of Nort h, Cent ral, and Sout h America shared
musical inst rument s.

By 1400, musical inst rument development slowed in many areas and was dominat ed by t he
Occident . During t he Classical and Romant ic periods of music, last ing f rom roughly 1750 t o 1900,
many new musical inst rument s were developed. While t he evolut ion of t radit ional musical
inst rument s slowed beginning in t he 20t h cent ury, t he proliferat ion of elect ricit y led t o t he invent ion
of new elect ric and elect ronic inst rument s, such as elect ric guit ars, synt hesizers, and t he t heremin.

Musical inst rument classificat ion is a discipline in it s own right , and many syst ems of classificat ion
have been used over t he years. Inst rument s can be classified by t heir ef fect ive range, mat erial
composit ion, size, role, et c. However, t he most common academic met hod, Hornbost el–Sachs, uses
t he means by which t hey produce sound. T he academic st udy of musical inst rument s is called
organology.

Definition and basic operation

Bamileke slit drum drummers in

Cameroon's West Province.

A musical inst rument is used t o make musical sounds. Once humans moved f rom making sounds wit h
t heir bodies — f or example, by clapping—t o using object s t o creat e music f rom sounds, musical
inst rument s were born.[1]

Primit ive inst rument s were probably designed t o emulat e nat ural sounds, and t heir purpose was
rit ual rat her t han ent ert ainment .[2]
T he concept of melody and t he art ist ic pursuit of musical composit ion were probably unknown t o
early players of musical inst rument s. A person sounding a bone flut e t o signal t he st art of a hunt
does so wit hout t hought of t he modern not ion of "making music".[2]

Musical inst rument s are const ruct ed in a broad array of st yles and shapes, using many dif ferent
mat erials. Early musical inst rument s were made f rom "f ound object s" such as shells and plant
part s.[2] As inst rument s evolved, so did t he select ion and qualit y of mat erials. Virt ually every mat erial
in nat ure has been used by at least one cult ure t o make musical inst rument s.[2]

One plays a musical inst rument by int eract ing wit h it in some way — f or example, by plucking t he
st rings on a st ring inst rument , st riking t he surf ace of a drum, or blowing int o an animal horn.[2]

Archaeology

Researchers have discovered archaeological evidence of musical inst rument s in many part s of t he
world. One disput ed art if act (t he Divje Babe flut e) has been dat ed t o 67,000 years old, but
consensus solidifies around art if act s dat ed back t o around 37,000 years old and lat er. Art if act s
made f rom durable mat erials, or const ruct ed using durable met hods, have been f ound t o survive. As
such, t he specimens f ound cannot be irref ut ably placed as t he earliest musical inst rument s.[3]
Recent st udies indicat e early hominins produced t heir percussive inst rument s f rom such perishable
mat erials as wood and animal hides which likely t he passing of t ime dest royed t he art if act s beyond
recovery.[4]

Found in S lovenia, the Divje

Babe Flute is sometimes
considered the world's oldest
known musical instrument
Flutes

T he Divje Babe Flut e is a perf orat ed bone discovered in 1995, in t he nort hwest region of Slovenia by
archaeologist Ivan Turk. It s origin is disput ed, wit h many arguing t hat it is most likely t he product of
carnivores chewing t he bone,[5] but Turk and ot hers argue t hat it is a Neandert hal- made flut e. Wit h
it s age est imat ed bet ween 43,400 and 67,000 years old, it would be t he oldest known musical
inst rument and t he only Neandert hal musical inst rument .[6]

Mammot h bone and swan bone flut es have been f ound dat ing back t o 30,000 t o 37,000 years old in
t he Swabian Alps of Germany. T he flut es were made in t he Upper Paleolit hic age, and are more
commonly accept ed as being t he oldest known musical inst rument s.[7]

Sumerian city of Ur

Archaeological evidence of musical inst rument s was discovered in excavat ions at t he Royal
Cemet ery in t he Sumerian cit y of Ur.

T hese inst rument s, one of t he first ensembles of inst rument s yet discovered, include nine lyres (t he
Lyres of Ur), t wo harps, a silver double flut e, a sist rum and cymbals. A set of reed- sounded silver
pipes discovered in Ur was t he likely predecessor of modern bagpipes.[8] T he cylindrical pipes
feat ure t hree side holes t hat allowed players t o produce a whole- t one scale.[9]

T hese excavat ions, carried out by Leonard Woolley in t he 1920s, uncovered non- degradable
f ragment s of inst rument s and t he voids lef t by t he degraded segment s t hat , t oget her, have been
used t o reconst ruct t hem.[10]

T he graves t hese inst rument s were buried in have been carbon dat ed t o bet ween 2600 and 2500 BC,
providing evidence t hat t hese inst rument s were used in Sumeria by t his t ime.[11]

Jiahu site

Archaeologist s in t he Jiahu sit e of cent ral Henan province of China have f ound flut es made of bones
t hat dat e back 7,000 t o 9,000 years,[12] represent ing some of t he "earliest complet e, playable,
t ight ly- dat ed, mult inot e musical inst rument s" ever f ound.[12][13] T he examinat ion of t hese
inst rument s reveals t hey were made wit h precision t o generat e specific not es t hus showing
Neolit hic China's advanced knowledge of music scales and sound engineering.[14]
History

Scholars agree t hat t here are no complet ely reliable met hods of det ermining t he exact chronology
of musical inst rument s across cult ures. Comparing and organizing inst rument s based on t heir
complexit y is misleading, since advancement s in musical inst rument s have somet imes reduced
complexit y. For example, const ruct ion of early slit drums involved felling and hollowing out large
t rees; lat er slit drums were made by opening bamboo st alks, a much simpler t ask.[15]

German musicologist Curt Sachs, one of t he most prominent musicologist s[16] and musical
et hnologist s[17] in modern t imes, argues t hat it is misleading t o arrange t he development of musical
inst rument s by workmanship, since cult ures advance at dif ferent rat es and have access t o dif ferent
raw mat erials.

For example, cont emporary ant hropologist s comparing musical inst rument s f rom t wo cult ures t hat
exist ed at t he same t ime but dif fered in organizat ion, cult ure, and handicraf t cannot det ermine
which inst rument s are more "primit ive".[18]

Ordering inst rument s by geography is also not reliable, as it cannot always be det ermined when and
how cult ures cont act ed one anot her and shared knowledge. Sachs proposed t hat a geographical
chronology unt il approximat ely 1400 is preferable, however, due t o it s limit ed subject ivit y.[19] Beyond
1400, one can f ollow t he overall development of musical inst rument s over t ime.[19]

T he science of marking t he order of musical inst rument development relies on archaeological

art if act s, art ist ic depict ions, and lit erary references. Since dat a in one research pat h can be
inconclusive, all t hree pat hs provide a bet t er hist orical pict ure.[3]
Prehistoric

Two Aztec slit drums (teponaztli). T he

characteristic "H" slits can be seen on the
top of the drum in the foreground.

Molo, a lute of the Hausa people of

northern Nigeria.

Unt il t he 19t h cent ury AD, European- writ t en music hist ories began wit h myt hological account s
mingled wit h script ure of how musical inst rument s were invent ed. Such account s included Jubal,
descendant of Cain and "f at her of all such as handle t he harp and t he organ" (Genesis 4:21) Pan,
invent or of t he pan pipes, and Mercury, who is said t o have made a dried t ort oise shell int o t he first
lyre. Modern hist ories have replaced such myt hology wit h ant hropological speculat ion, occasionally
inf ormed by archeological evidence. Scholars agree t hat t here was no definit ive "invent ion" of t he
musical inst rument since t he t erm "musical inst rument " is subject ive and hard t o define.[20]

Among t he first devices ext ernal t o t he human body t hat are considered inst rument s are rat t les,
st ampers, and various drums.[21] T hese inst rument s evolved due t o t he human mot or impulse t o add
sound t o emot ional movement s such as dancing.[22] Event ually, some cult ures assigned rit ual
f unct ions t o t heir musical inst rument s, using t hem f or hunt ing and various ceremonies.[23] T hose
cult ures developed more complex percussion inst rument s and ot her inst rument s such as ribbon
reeds, flut es, and t rumpet s. Some of t hese labels carry f ar dif ferent connot at ions f rom t hose used
in modern day; early flut es and t rumpet s are so- labeled f or t heir basic operat ion and f unct ion rat her
t han resemblance t o modern inst rument s.[24] Among early cult ures f or whom drums developed rit ual,
even sacred import ance are t he Chukchi people of t he Russian Far East , t he indigenous people of
Melanesia, and many cult ures of Af rica. In f act , drums were pervasive t hroughout every Af rican
cult ure.[25] One East Af rican t ribe, t he Wahinda, believed it was so holy t hat seeing a drum would be
f at al t o any person ot her t han t he sult an.[26]

Humans event ually developed t he concept of using musical inst rument s t o produce melody, which
was previously common only in singing. Similar t o t he process of reduplicat ion in language,
inst rument players first developed repet it ion and t hen arrangement . An early f orm of melody was
produced by pounding t wo st amping t ubes of slight ly dif ferent sizes—one t ube would produce a
"clear" sound and t he ot her would answer wit h a "darker" sound. Such inst rument pairs also included
bullroarers, slit drums, shell t rumpet s, and skin drums. Cult ures who used t hese inst rument pairs
associat ed t hem wit h gender; t he "f at her" was t he bigger or more energet ic inst rument , while t he
"mot her" was t he smaller or duller inst rument . Musical inst rument s exist ed in t his f orm f or t housands
of years bef ore pat t erns of t hree or more t ones would evolve in t he f orm of t he earliest
xylophone.[27] Xylophones originat ed in t he mainland and archipelago of Sout heast Asia, event ually
spreading t o Af rica, t he Americas, and Europe.[28] Along wit h xylophones, which ranged f rom simple
set s of t hree "leg bars" t o caref ully t uned set s of parallel bars, various cult ures developed
inst rument s such as t he ground harp, ground zit her, musical bow, and jaw harp.[29] Recent research
int o usage wear and acoust ics of st one art ef act s has revealed a possible new class of prehist oric
musical inst rument , known as lit hophones.[30][31]

Antiquity

Images of musical inst rument s begin t o appear in Mesopot amian art if act s in 2800 BC or earlier.
Beginning around 2000 BC, Sumerian and Babylonian cult ures began delineat ing t wo dist inct classes
of musical inst rument s due t o division of labor and t he evolving class syst em. Popular inst rument s,
simple and playable by anyone, evolved dif ferent ly f rom professional inst rument s whose
development f ocused on ef fect iveness and skill.[32] Despit e t his development , very few musical
inst rument s have been recovered in Mesopot amia. Scholars must rely on art if act s and cuneif orm
t ext s writ t en in Sumerian or Akkadian t o reconst ruct t he early hist ory of musical inst rument s in
Mesopot amia. Even t he process of assigning names t o t hese inst rument s is challenging since t here
is no clear dist inct ion among various inst rument s and t he words used t o describe t hem.[33]

Alt hough Sumerian and Babylonian art ist s mainly depict ed ceremonial inst rument s, hist orians have
dist inguished six idiophones used in early Mesopot amia: concussion clubs, clappers, sist ra, bells,
cymbals, and rat t les.[34] Sist ra are depict ed prominent ly in a great relief of Amenhot ep III,[35] and are
of part icular int erest because similar designs have been f ound in f ar- reaching places such as T bilisi,
Georgia and among t he Nat ive American Yaqui t ribe.[36] T he people of Mesopot amia preferred
st ringed inst rument s, as evidenced by t heir proliferat ion in Mesopot amian figurines, plaques, and
seals. Innumerable variet ies of harps are depict ed, as well as lyres and lut es, t he f orerunner of
modern st ringed inst rument s such as t he violin.[37]

Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting

lute players, 18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC)

Musical inst rument s used by t he Egypt ian cult ure bef ore 2700 BC bore st riking similarit y t o t hose of
Mesopot amia, leading hist orians t o conclude t hat t he civilizat ions must have been in cont act wit h
one anot her. Sachs not es t hat Egypt did not possess any inst rument s t hat t he Sumerian cult ure did
not also possess.[38] However, by 2700 BC t he cult ural cont act s seem t o have dissipat ed; t he lyre, a
prominent ceremonial inst rument in Sumer, did not appear in Egypt f or anot her 800 years.[38] Clappers
and concussion st icks appear on Egypt ian vases as early as 3000 BC. T he civilizat ion also made use
of sist ra, vert ical flut es, double clarinet s, arched and angular harps, and various drums.[39]

Lit t le hist ory is available in t he period bet ween 2700 BC and 1500 BC, as Egypt (and indeed, Babylon)
ent ered a long violent period of war and dest ruct ion. T his period saw t he Kassit es dest roy t he
Babylonian empire in Mesopot amia and t he Hyksos dest roy t he Middle Kingdom of Egypt . When t he
Pharaohs of Egypt conquered Sout hwest Asia in around 1500 BC, t he cult ural t ies t o Mesopot amia
were renewed and Egypt 's musical inst rument s also reflect ed heavy influence f rom Asiat ic
cult ures.[38] Under t heir new cult ural influences, t he people of t he New Kingdom began using oboes,
t rumpet s, lyres, lut es, cast anet s, and cymbals.[40]

Unlike Mesopot amia and Egypt , professional musicians did not exist in Israel bet ween 2000 and
1000 BC. While t he hist ory of musical inst rument s in Mesopot amia and Egypt relies on art ist ic
represent at ions, t he cult ure in Israel produced few such represent at ions. Scholars must t heref ore
rely on inf ormat ion gleaned f rom t he Bible and t he Talmud.[41] T he Hebrew t ext s ment ion t wo
prominent inst rument s associat ed wit h Jubal: t he ugab (pipes) and kinnor (lyre).[42] Ot her
inst rument s of t he period included t he tof (f rame drum), pa'amon (small bells or jingles), shof ar, and
t he t rumpet - like hasosra .[43]

T he int roduct ion of a monarchy in Israel during t he 11t h cent ury BC produced t he first professional
musicians and wit h t hem a drast ic increase in t he number and variet y of musical inst rument s.[44]
However, ident if ying and classif ying t he inst rument s remains a challenge due t o t he lack of art ist ic
int erpret at ions. For example, st ringed inst rument s of uncert ain design called nevals and asors
exist ed, but neit her archaeology nor et ymology can clearly define t hem.[45] In her book A Survey of
Musical Instruments , American musicologist Sibyl Marcuse proposes t hat t he nevel must be similar
t o vert ical harp due t o it s relat ion t o nabla , t he Phoenician t erm f or "harp".[46]

In Greece, Rome, and Et ruria, t he use and development of musical inst rument s st ood in st ark
cont rast t o t hose cult ures' achievement s in archit ect ure and sculpt ure. T he inst rument s of t he t ime
were simple and virt ually all of t hem were import ed f rom ot her cult ures.[47] Lyres were t he principal
inst rument , as musicians used t hem t o honor t he gods.[48] Greeks played a variet y of wind
inst rument s t hey classified as aulos (reeds) or syrinx (flut es); Greek writ ing f rom t hat t ime reflect s a
serious st udy of reed product ion and playing t echnique.[9] Romans played reed inst rument s named
tibia , feat uring side- holes t hat could be opened or closed, allowing f or great er flexibilit y in playing
modes.[49] Ot her inst rument s in common use in t he region included vert ical harps derived f rom t hose
of t he Orient , lut es of Egypt ian design, various pipes and organs, and clappers, which were played
primarily by women.[50]

Evidence of musical inst rument s in use by early civilizat ions of India is almost complet ely lacking,
making it impossible t o reliably at t ribut e inst rument s t o t he Munda and Dravidian language- speaking
cult ures t hat first set t led t he area. Rat her, t he hist ory of musical inst rument s in t he area begins wit h
t he Indus Valley civilizat ion t hat emerged around 3000 BC. Various rat t les and whist les f ound among
excavat ed art if act s are t he only physical evidence of musical inst rument s.[51] A clay st at uet t e
indicat es t he use of drums, and examinat ion of t he Indus script has also revealed represent at ions of
vert ical arched harps ident ical in design t o t hose depict ed in Sumerian art if act s. T his discovery is
among many indicat ions t hat t he Indus Valley and Sumerian cult ures maint ained cult ural cont act .
Subsequent development s in musical inst rument s in India occurred wit h t he Rigveda, or hymns.
T hese songs used various drums, shell t rumpet s, harps, and flut es.[52] Ot her prominent inst rument s in
use during t he early cent uries AD were t he snake charmer's double clarinet , bagpipes, barrel drums,
cross flut es, and short lut es. In all, India had no unique musical inst rument s unt il t he post - classical
era.[53]
 T he monumental Bianzhong of Marquis Yi
of Zeng, c. 5th century BCE, from Hubei

Musical inst rument s such as zit hers appeared in Chinese writ ings around 12t h cent ury BC and
earlier.[54] Early Chinese philosophers such as Conf ucius (551–479 BC), Mencius (372–289 BC), and
Laozi shaped t he development of musical inst rument s in China, adopt ing an at t it ude t oward music
similar t o t hat of t he Greeks. T he Chinese believed t hat music was an essent ial part of charact er
and communit y, and developed a unique syst em of classif ying t heir musical inst rument s according t o
t heir mat erial makeup.[55] In Viet nam, an archaeological discovery of a 2,000- year old st ringed
inst rument gives import ant insight s on early chordophones in Sout heast Asia.[56]

Idiophones were ext remely import ant in Chinese music, hence t he majorit y of early inst rument s were
idiophones. Poet ry of t he Shang dynast y ment ions bells, chimes, drums, and globular flut es carved
f rom bone, t he lat t er of which has been excavat ed and preserved by archaeologist s.[57] T he Zhou
dynast y saw percussion inst rument s such as clappers, t roughs, wooden fish, and yǔ (wooden t iger).
Wind inst rument s such as flut e, pan- pipes, pit ch- pipes, and mout h organs also appeared in t his t ime
period.[58] T he xiao (an end- blown flut e) and various ot her inst rument s t hat spread t hrough many
cult ures, came int o use in China during and af t er t he Han dynast y.[59]

Carnyx discovered in T intignac

Alt hough civilizat ions in Cent ral America at t ained a relat ively high level of sophist icat ion by t he
elevent h cent ury AD, t hey lagged behind ot her civilizat ions in t he development of musical
inst rument s. For example, t hey had no st ringed inst rument s; all of t heir inst rument s were idiophones,
drums, and wind inst rument s such as flut es and t rumpet s. Of t hese, only t he flut e was capable of
producing a melody.[60] In cont rast , pre- Columbian Sout h American civilizat ions in areas such as
modern- day Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile were less advanced cult urally but more
advanced musically. Sout h American cult ures of t he t ime used pan- pipes as well as variet ies of
flut es, idiophones, drums, and shell or wood t rumpet s.[61]

An inst rument t hat can be at t est ed t o t he Iron Age Celt s is t he carnyx, which is dat ed t o c.300 BC.
T he end of t he bell, which was craf t ed f rom bronze, was int o t he shape of a screaming animal head
which was held high above t heir heads. When blown int o, t he carnyx would emit a deep, harsh sound;
t he head also had a t ongue which clicked when vibrat ed. It is believed t he int ent ion of t he
inst rument was t o use it on t he bat t leground t o int imidat e t heir opponent s.[62][63]

Post-classical era/Middle Ages

During t he period of t ime loosely referred t o as t he post - classical era and Europe in part icular as t he
Middle Ages, China developed a t radit ion of int egrat ing musical influence f rom ot her regions. T he
first record of t his t ype of influence is in 384 AD, when China est ablished an orchest ra in it s imperial
court af t er a conquest in Turkest an. Influences f rom Middle East , Persia, India, Mongolia, and ot her
count ries f ollowed. In f act , Chinese t radit ion at t ribut es many musical inst rument s f rom t his period
t o t hose regions and count ries.[64] Cymbals gained popularit y, along wit h more advanced t rumpet s,
clarinet s, pianos, oboes, flut es, drums, and lut es.[65] Some of t he first bowed zit hers appeared in
China in t he 9t h or 10t h cent ury, influenced by Mongolian cult ure.[66]

India experienced similar development t o China in t he post - classical era; however, st ringed
inst rument s developed dif ferent ly as t hey accommodat ed dif ferent st yles of music. While st ringed
inst rument s of China were designed t o produce precise t ones capable of mat ching t he t ones of
chimes, st ringed inst rument s of India were considerably more flexible. T his flexibilit y suit ed t he
slides and t remolos of Hindu music. Rhyt hm was of paramount import ance in Indian music of t he
t ime, as evidenced by t he f requent depict ion of drums in relief s dat ing t o t he post - classical era. T he
emphasis on rhyt hm is an aspect nat ive t o Indian music.[67] Hist orians divide t he development of
musical inst rument s in medieval India bet ween pre- Islamic and Islamic periods due t o t he dif ferent
influence each period provided.[68]
 T he Alboka has a double-reed that vibrates
when blown on the small tube. T he tubes
regulates the melody and the big horn
amplifies the sound.

In pre- Islamic t imes, idiophones such as handbells, cymbals, and peculiar inst rument s resembling
gongs came int o wide use in Hindu music. T he gong- like inst rument was a bronze disk t hat was
st ruck wit h a hammer inst ead of a mallet . Tubular drums, st ick zit hers (veena), short fiddles, double
and t riple flut es, coiled t rumpet s, and curved India horns emerged in t his t ime period.[69] Islamic
influences brought new t ypes of drum, perfect ly circular or oct agonal as opposed t o t he irregular
pre- Islamic drums.[70] Persian influence brought oboes and sit ars, alt hough Persian sit ars had t hree
st rings and Indian version had f rom f our t o seven.[71] T he Islamic cult ure also int roduced double-
clarinet inst rument s as t he Alboka (f rom Arab, al- buq or "horn") nowadays only alive in Basque
Count ry. It must be played using t he t echnique of t he circular breat hing.

An Indonesian metallophone

Sout heast Asian musical innovat ions include t hose during a period of Indian influence t hat ended
around 920 AD.[72] Balinese and Javanese music made use of xylophones and met allophones, bronze
versions of t he f ormer.[73] T he most prominent and import ant musical inst rument of Sout heast Asia
was t he gong. While t he gong likely originat ed in t he geographical area bet ween T ibet and Burma, it
was part of every cat egory of human act ivit y in marit ime Sout heast Asia including Java.[74]

T he areas of Mesopot amia and t he Arabian Peninsula experiences rapid growt h and sharing of
musical inst rument s once t hey were unit ed by Islamic cult ure in t he sevent h cent ury.[75] Frame
drums and cylindrical drums of various dept hs were immensely import ant in all genres of music.[76]
Conical oboes were involved in t he music t hat accompanied wedding and circumcision ceremonies.
Persian miniat ures provide inf ormat ion on t he development of ket t le drums in Mesopot amia t hat
spread as f ar as Java.[77] Various lut es, zit hers, dulcimers, and harps spread as f ar as Madagascar t o
t he sout h and modern- day Sulawesi t o t he east .[78]

Despit e t he influences of Greece and Rome, most musical inst rument s in Europe during t he Middles
Ages came f rom Asia. T he lyre is t he only musical inst rument t hat may have been invent ed in Europe
unt il t his period.[79] St ringed inst rument s were prominent in Middle Age Europe. T he cent ral and
nort hern regions used mainly lut es, st ringed inst rument s wit h necks, while t he sout hern region used
lyres, which feat ured a t wo- armed body and a crossbar.[79] Various harps served Cent ral and Nort hern
Europe as f ar nort h as Ireland, where t he harp event ually became a nat ional symbol.[80] Lyres
propagat ed t hrough t he same areas, as f ar east as Est onia.[81]

European music bet ween 800 and 1100 became more sophist icat ed, more f requent ly requiring
inst rument s capable of polyphony. T he 9t h- cent ury Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh ment ioned
in his lexicographical discussion of music inst rument s t hat , in t he Byzant ine Empire, t ypical
inst rument s included t he urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a t ype of harp or lyre), salandj (probably
a bagpipe) and t he lyra.[82] T he Byzant ine lyra, a bowed st ring inst rument , is an ancest or of most
European bowed inst rument s, including t he violin.[83]

T he monochord served as a precise measure of t he not es of a musical scale, allowing more

accurat e musical arrangement s.[84] Mechanical hurdy- gurdies allowed single musicians t o play more
complicat ed arrangement s t han a fiddle would; bot h were prominent f olk inst rument s in t he Middle
Ages.[85][86] Sout hern Europeans played short and long lut es whose pegs ext ended t o t he sides,
unlike t he rear- f acing pegs of Cent ral and Nort hern European inst rument s.[87] Idiophones such as
bells and clappers served various pract ical purposes, such as warning of t he approach of a leper.[88]

T he nint h cent ury revealed t he first bagpipes, which spread t hroughout Europe and had many uses
f rom f olk inst rument s t o milit ary inst rument s.[89] T he const ruct ion of pneumat ic organs evolved in
Europe st art ing in fif t h- cent ury Spain, spreading t o England in about 700.[90] T he result ing
inst rument s varied in size and use f rom port able organs worn around t he neck t o large pipe
organs.[91] Lit erary account s of organs being played in English Benedict ine abbeys t oward t he end of
t he t ent h cent ury are t he first references t o organs being connect ed t o churches.[92] Reed players
of t he Middle Ages were limit ed t o oboes; no evidence of clarinet s exist s during t his period.[93]
Modern

Western Classical

Renaissance

Musical inst rument development was dominat ed by t he Occident f rom 1400 on, indeed, t he most
prof ound changes occurred during t he Renaissance period.[20] Inst rument s t ook on ot her purposes
t han accompanying singing or dance, and perf ormers used t hem as solo inst rument s. Keyboards and
lut es developed as polyphonic inst rument s, and composers arranged increasingly complex pieces
using more advanced t ablat ure. Composers also began designing pieces of music f or specific
inst rument s.[20] In t he lat t er half of t he sixt eent h cent ury, orchest rat ion came int o common pract ice
as a met hod of writ ing music f or a variet y of inst rument s. Composers now specified orchest rat ion
where individual perf ormers once applied t heir own discret ion.[94] T he polyphonic st yle dominat ed
popular music, and t he inst rument makers responded accordingly.[95]

The Duet, by Dutch painter Cornelis

S aftleven, c. 1635. It shows a violinist and a
cittern player.

Beginning in about 1400, t he rat e of development of musical inst rument s increased in earnest as
composit ions demanded more dynamic sounds. People also began writ ing books about creat ing,
playing, and cat aloging musical inst rument s; t he first such book was Sebast ian Virdung's 1511
t reat ise Musica getuscht und ausgezogen ('Music Germanized and Abst ract ed').[94] Virdung's work is
not ed as being part icularly t horough f or including descript ions of "irregular" inst rument s such as
hunt ers' horns and cow bells, t hough Virdung is crit ical of t he same. Ot her books f ollowed, including
Arnolt Schlick's Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten ('Mirror of Organ Makers and Organ Players')
t he f ollowing year, a t reat ise on organ building and organ playing.[96] Of t he inst ruct ional books and
references published in t he Renaissance era, one is not ed f or it s det ailed descript ion and depict ion
of all wind and st ringed inst rument s, including t heir relat ive sizes. T his book, t he Syntagma musicum
by Michael Praet orius, is now considered an aut horit at ive reference of sixt eent h- cent ury musical
inst rument s.[97]
In t he sixt eent h cent ury, musical inst rument builders gave most inst rument s – such as t he violin –
t he "classical shapes" t hey ret ain t oday. An emphasis on aest het ic beaut y also developed; list eners
were as pleased wit h t he physical appearance of an inst rument as t hey were wit h it s sound.
T heref ore, builders paid special at t ent ion t o mat erials and workmanship, and inst rument s became
collect ibles in homes and museums.[98] It was during t his period t hat makers began const ruct ing
inst rument s of t he same t ype in various sizes t o meet t he demand of consorts , or ensembles
playing works writ t en f or t hese groups of inst rument s.[99]

Inst rument builders developed ot her feat ures t hat endure t oday. For example, while organs wit h
mult iple keyboards and pedals already exist ed, t he first organs wit h solo st ops emerged in t he early
fif t eent h cent ury. T hese st ops were meant t o produce a mixt ure of t imbres, a development needed
f or t he complexit y of music of t he t ime.[100] Trumpet s evolved int o t heir modern f orm t o improve
port abilit y, and players used mut es t o properly blend int o chamber music.[101]

Baroque

Baroque mounted Jacob S tainer violin

from 1658

Beginning in t he sevent eent h cent ury, composers began writ ing works t o a higher emot ional degree.
T hey felt t hat polyphony bet t er suit ed t he emot ional st yle t hey were aiming f or and began writ ing
musical part s f or inst rument s t hat would complement t he singing human voice.[95] As a result , many
inst rument s t hat were incapable of larger ranges and dynamics, and t heref ore were seen as
unemot ional, fell out of f avor. One such inst rument was t he shawm.[102] Bowed inst rument s such as
t he violin, viola, baryt on, and various lut es dominat ed popular music.[103] Beginning in around 1750,
however, t he lut e disappeared f rom musical composit ions in f avor of t he rising popularit y of t he
guit ar.[104] As t he prevalence of st ring orchest ras rose, wind inst rument s such as t he flut e, oboe, and
bassoon were readmit t ed t o count eract t he monot ony of hearing only st rings.[105]

In t he mid- sevent eent h cent ury, what was known as a hunt er's horn underwent a t ransf ormat ion int o
an "art inst rument " consist ing of a lengt hened t ube, a narrower bore, a wider bell, and a much wider
range. T he det ails of t his t ransf ormat ion are unclear, but t he modern horn or, more colloquially,
French horn, had emerged by 1725.[106] T he slide t rumpet appeared, a variat ion t hat includes a long-
t hroat ed mout hpiece t hat slid in and out , allowing t he player infinit e adjust ment s in pit ch. T his
variat ion on t he t rumpet was unpopular due t o t he difficult y involved in playing it .[107] Organs
underwent t onal changes in t he Baroque period, as manuf act urers such as Abraham Jordan of
London made t he st ops more expressive and added devices such as expressive pedals. Sachs
viewed t his t rend as a "degenerat ion" of t he general organ sound.[108]

Classical and Romant ic

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart plays the

keyboard while his father, Leopold
Mozart, plays violin.

During t he Classical and Romant ic periods of music, last ing f rom roughly 1750 t o 1900, many musical
inst rument s capable of producing new t imbres and higher volume were developed and int roduced
int o popular music. T he design changes t hat broadened t he qualit y of t imbres allowed inst rument s
t o produce a wider variet y of expression. Large orchest ras rose in popularit y and, in parallel, t he
composers det ermined t o produce ent ire orchest ral scores t hat made use of t he expressive
abilit ies of modern inst rument s. Since inst rument s were involved in collaborat ions of a much larger
scale, t heir designs had t o evolve t o accommodat e t he demands of t he orchest ra.[109]

Some inst rument s also had t o become louder t o fill larger halls and be heard over sizable orchest ras.
Flut es and bowed inst rument s underwent many modificat ions and design changes—most of t hem
unsuccessf ul—in ef f ort s t o increase volume. Ot her inst rument s were changed just so t hey could
play t heir part s in t he scores. Trumpet s t radit ionally had a "defect ive" range—t hey were incapable of
producing cert ain not es wit h precision.[110] New inst rument s such as t he clarinet , saxophone, and
t uba became fixt ures in orchest ras. Inst rument s such as t he clarinet also grew int o ent ire "f amilies"
of inst rument s capable of dif ferent ranges: small clarinet s, normal clarinet s, bass clarinet s, and so
on.[109]

A "young boy playing the violin"

from Glengarry County, Ontario
taken [between 1895 and 1910]
from the Bartle Brothers fonds at
the Archives of Ontario.

Accompanying t he changes t o t imbre and volume was a shif t in t he t ypical pit ch used t o t une
inst rument s. Inst rument s meant t o play t oget her, as in an orchest ra, must be t uned t o t he same
st andard lest t hey produce audibly dif ferent sounds while playing t he same not es. Beginning in 1762,
t he average concert pit ch began rising f rom a low of 377 vibrat ions t o a high of 457 in 1880
Vienna.[111] Dif ferent regions, count ries, and even inst rument manuf act urers preferred dif ferent
st andards, making orchest ral collaborat ion a challenge. Despit e even t he ef f ort s of t wo organized
int ernat ional summit s at t ended by not ed composers like Hect or Berlioz, no st andard could be
agreed upon.[112]

Twentieth century to present

Early Fender brand electric

guitars

T he evolut ion of t radit ional musical inst rument s slowed beginning in t he 20t h cent ury.[113]
Inst rument s such as t he violin, flut e, f rench horn, and harp are largely t he same as t hose
manuf act ured t hroughout t he eight eent h and ninet eent h cent uries. Gradual it erat ions do emerge; f or
example, t he "New Violin Family" began in 1964 t o provide dif ferent ly sized violins t o expand t he
range of available sounds.[114] T he slowdown in development was a pract ical response t o t he
concurrent slowdown in orchest ra and venue size.[115] Despit e t his t rend in t radit ional inst rument s,
t he development of new musical inst rument s exploded in t he t went iet h cent ury, and t he variet y of
inst rument s developed overshadows any prior period.[113]

T he proliferat ion of elect ricit y in t he 20t h cent ury led t o a new cat egory of musical inst rument s:
elect ronic inst rument s, or elect rophones.[116] T he vast majorit y produced in t he first half of t he 20t h
cent ury were what Sachs called "elect romechanical inst rument s"; t hey have mechanical part s t hat
produce sound vibrat ions picked up and amplified by elect rical component s. Examples include
Hammond organs and elect ric guit ars.[116] Sachs also defined a subcat egory of "radioelect ric
inst rument s" such as t he t heremin, which produces music t hrough t he player's hand movement s
around t wo ant ennas.[117]

A 1975 Moog Modular 55 synthesizer

T he lat t er half of t he 20t h cent ury saw t he evolut ion of synt hesizers, which produce sound using
circuit s and microchips. In t he lat e 1960s, Bob Moog and ot her invent ors developed t he first
commercial synt hesizers, such as t he Moog synt hesizer.[118] Whereas once t hey had filled rooms,
synt hesizers can now be embedded in any elect ronic device,[118] and are ubiquit ous in modern
music.[119] Samplers, int roduced around 1980, allow users t o sample and reuse exist ing sounds, and
were import ant t o t he development of hip hop.[120] 1982 saw t he int roduct ion of MIDI, a
st andardized means of synchronizing elect ronic inst rument s.[121] T he modern proliferat ion of
comput ers and microchips has creat ed an indust ry of elect ronic musical inst rument s.[122]

Classification

T here are many dif ferent met hods of classif ying musical inst rument s. Various met hods examine
aspect s such as t he physical propert ies of t he inst rument (mat erial, color, shape, et c.), t he use f or
t he inst rument , t he means by which music is produced wit h t he inst rument , t he range of t he
inst rument , and t he inst rument 's place in an orchest ra or ot her ensemble. Most met hods are specific
t o a geographic area or cult ural group and were developed t o serve t he unique classificat ion
requirement s of t he group.[123] T he problem wit h t hese specialized classificat ion schemes is t hat
t hey t end t o break down once t hey are applied out side of t heir original area. For example, a syst em
based on inst rument use would f ail if a cult ure invent ed a new use f or t he same inst rument . Scholars
recognize Hornbost el–Sachs as t he only syst em t hat applies t o any cult ure and, more import ant ly,
provides t he only possible classificat ion f or each inst rument .[124][125] T he most common
classificat ions are st rings, brass, woodwind, and percussion.

Ancient systems

An ancient Hindu syst em named t he Natya Shastra , writ t en by t he sage Bharat a Muni and dat ing
f rom bet ween 200 BC and 200 AD, divides inst rument s int o f our main classificat ion groups:
inst rument s where t he sound is produced by vibrat ing st rings; percussion inst rument s wit h skin
heads; inst rument s where t he sound is produced by vibrat ing columns of air; and "solid", or non- skin,
percussion inst rument s.[124] T his syst em was similar t o some degree in 12t h- cent ury Europe by
Johannes de Muris, who used t he t erms tensibilia (st ringed inst rument s), inflatibilia (wind
inst rument s), and percussibilia (all percussion inst rument s).[126] In 1880, Vict or- Charles Mahillon
adapt ed t he Natya Shastra and assigned Greek labels t o t he f our classificat ions: chordophones
(st ringed inst rument s), membranophones (skin- head percussion inst rument s), aerophones (wind
inst rument s), and autophones (non- skin percussion inst rument s).[124]

Hornbostel–Sachs

Erich von Hornbost el and Curt Sachs adopt ed Mahillon's scheme and published an ext ensive new
scheme f or classificat ion in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Hornbost el and Sachs used most of
Mahillon's syst em, but replaced t he t erm autophone wit h idiophone.[124]

T he original Hornbost el–Sachs syst em classified inst rument s int o f our main groups:

Idiophones, which produce sound by vibrat ing t he primary body of t he inst rument it self ; t hey are
sort ed int o concussion, percussion, shaken, scraped, split , and plucked idiophones, such as claves,
xylophone, guiro, slit drum, mbira, and rat t le.[127]

Membranophones, which produce sound by a vibrat ing a st ret ched membrane; t hey may be drums
(f urt her sort ed by t he shape of t he shell), which are st ruck by hand, wit h a st ick, or rubbed, but
kazoos and ot her inst rument s t hat use a st ret ched membrane f or t he primary sound (not simply t o
modif y sound produced in anot her way) are also considered membranophones.[128]
 Chordophones, which produce sound by vibrat ing one or more st rings; t hey are sort ed according t o
t he relat ionship bet ween t he st ring(s) and t he sounding board or chamber. For example, if t he
st rings are laid out parallel t o t he sounding board and t here is no neck, t he inst rument is a zit her
whet her it is plucked like an aut oharp or st ruck wit h hammers like a piano. If t he inst rument has
st rings parallel t o t he sounding board or chamber and t he st rings ext end past t he board wit h a
neck, t hen t he inst rument is a lut e, whet her t he sound chamber is const ruct ed of wood like a
guit ar or uses a membrane like a banjo.[129]

Aerophones, which produce a sound wit h a vibrat ing column of air; t hey are sort ed int o f ree
aerophones such as a bullroarer or whip, which move f reely t hrough t he air; reedless aerophones
such as flut es and recorders, which cause t he air t o pass over a sharp edge; reed inst rument s,
which use a vibrat ing reed (t his cat egory may be f urt her divided int o t wo classificat ions: single-
reeded and double- reeded inst rument s. Examples of t he f ormer are clarinet s and saxophones,
while t he lat t er includes oboes and bassoons); and lip- vibrat ed aerophones such as t rumpet s,
t rombones and t ubas, f or which t he lips t hemselves f unct ion as vibrat ing reeds.[130]

Sachs lat er added a fif t h cat egory, elect rophones, such as t heremins, which produce sound by
elect ronic means.[116] Wit hin each cat egory are many subgroups. T he syst em has been crit icised and
revised over t he years, but remains widely used by et hnomusicologist s and organologist s.[126][131]

Schaeffner

Andre Schaef f ner, a curat or at t he Musée de l'Homme, disagreed wit h t he Hornbost el–Sachs
syst em and developed his own syst em in 1932. Schaef f ner believed t hat t he pure physics of a
musical inst rument , rat her t han it s specific const ruct ion or playing met hod, should always det ermine
it s classificat ion. (Hornbost el–Sachs, f or example, divides aerophones on t he basis of sound
product ion, but membranophones on t he basis of t he shape of t he inst rument ). His syst em divided
inst rument s int o t wo cat egories: inst rument s wit h solid, vibrat ing bodies and inst rument s cont aining
vibrat ing air.[132]

Range

Musical inst rument s are also of t en classified by t heir musical range in comparison wit h ot her
inst rument s in t he same f amily. T his exercise is usef ul when placing inst rument s in cont ext of an
orchest ra or ot her ensemble.

T hese t erms are named af t er singing voice classificat ions:

 Soprano inst rument s: flut e, violin, soprano saxophone, soprano sarrusophone, t rumpet , clarinet ,
oboe, piccolo, glockenspiel

Alt o inst rument s: alt o saxophone, alt o sarrusophone, f rench horn, alt o flut e, english horn, alt o
clarinet , viola, alt o horn, xylophone, vibraphone

Tenor inst rument s: t rombone, t enoroon, t enor saxophone, t enor sarrusophone, t enor violin, guit ar,
t enor drum, harpsichord, marimba

Barit one inst rument s: bassoon, barit one saxophone, barit one sarrusophone, bass clarinet , cello,
barit one horn, euphonium

Bass inst rument s: double bass, bass guit ar, cont rabassoon, bass saxophone, bass sarrusophone,
t uba, bass drum

Some inst rument s f all int o more t han one cat egory. For example, t he cello may be considered t enor,
barit one or bass, depending on how it s music fit s int o t he ensemble. T he t rombone and French horn
may be alt o, t enor, barit one, or bass depending on t he range it is played in. Many inst rument s have
t heir range as part of t heir name: soprano saxophone, t enor saxophone, barit one horn, alt o flut e, bass
guit ar, et c. Addit ional adject ives describe inst rument s above t he soprano range or below t he bass,
f or example t he sopranino saxophone and cont rabass clarinet . When used in t he name of an
inst rument , t hese t erms are relat ive, describing t he inst rument 's range in comparison t o ot her
inst rument s of it s f amily and not in comparison t o t he human voice range or inst rument s of ot her
f amilies. For example, a bass flut e's range is f rom C3 t o F♯6, while a bass clarinet plays about one
oct ave lower.

Construction

African kalimba made from a food can

T he mat erials used in making musical inst rument s vary great ly by cult ure and applicat ion. Many of
t he mat erials have special significance owing t o t heir source or rarit y. Some cult ures worked
subst ances f rom t he human body int o t heir inst rument s. In ancient Mexico, f or example, t he mat erial
drums were made f rom might cont ain act ual human body part s obt ained f rom sacrificial of ferings. In
New Guinea, drum makers would mix human blood int o t he adhesive used t o at t ach t he
membrane.[133] Mulberry t rees are held in high regard in China owing t o t heir myt hological significance
—inst rument makers would hence use t hem t o make zit hers. T he Yakut s believe t hat making drums
f rom t rees st ruck by light ning gives t hem a special connect ion t o nat ure.[134]

Two five string Finnish kanteles. S hape of

the upper kantele is more traditional, while
the one for kantele below is slightly
modernised

Musical inst rument const ruct ion is a specialized t rade t hat requires years of t raining, pract ice, and
somet imes an apprent iceship. Most makers of musical inst rument s specialize in one genre of
inst rument s; f or example, a lut hier makes only st ringed inst rument s. Some make only one t ype of
inst rument such as a piano. What ever t he inst rument const ruct ed, t he inst rument maker must
consider mat erials, const ruct ion t echnique, and decorat ion, creat ing a balanced inst rument t hat is
bot h f unct ional and aest het ically pleasing.[135] Some builders are f ocused on a more art ist ic
approach and develop experiment al musical inst rument s, of t en meant f or individual playing st yles
developed by t he builder t hemself .

User interfaces

T he five-manual, 522-stop detached

console at the United S tates Naval
Academy Chapel crafted by R. A. Colby,
Inc.[136]
Regardless of how t he sound is produced, many musical inst rument s have a keyboard as t he user
int erf ace. Keyboard inst rument s are any inst rument s t hat are played wit h a musical keyboard, which
is a row of small keys t hat can be pressed. Every key generat es one or more sounds; most keyboard
inst rument s have ext ra means (pedals f or a piano, st ops and a pedal keyboard f or an organ) t o
manipulat e t hese sounds. T hey may produce sound by wind being f anned (organ) or pumped
(accordion),[137][138] vibrat ing st rings eit her hammered (piano) or plucked (harpsichord),[139][140] by
elect ronic means (synt hesizer),[141] or in some ot her way. Somet imes, inst rument s t hat do not
usually have a keyboard, such as t he glockenspiel, are fit t ed wit h one.[142] T hough t hey have no
moving part s and are st ruck by mallet s held in t he player's hands, t hey have t he same physical
arrangement of keys and produce soundwaves in a similar manner. T he t heremin, an elect rophone, is
played wit hout physical cont act by t he player. T he t heremin senses t he proximit y of t he player's
hands, which t riggers changes in it s sound. More recent ly, a MIDI cont roller keyboard used wit h a
digit al audio workst at ion may have a musical keyboard and a bank of sliders, knobs, and but t ons t hat
change many sound paramet ers of a synt hesizer.

Handedness

Jimi Hendrix playing a Fender

S tratocaster, 1960s.
 Paul McCartney using a Höfner 500/1 bass
in 2016.

Antony Blinken at the S eptember 2023

launch of the Global Music Diplomacy
Initiative, playing a S tratocaster.

Many musical inst rument s are able t o be played wit h eit her right of lef t handedness. However, some
inst rument s can be made f or t he less f requent (≈10%) lef t handedness, such as guit ars. Well known
lef t handed players are Jimi Hendrix, Paul McCart ney, and Ant ony Blinken.

Instrumentalist

A person who plays a musical inst rument is known as an inst rument alist or inst rument al
musician.[143][144] Many inst rument alist s are known f or playing specific musical inst rument s such as
guit arist (guit ar), pianist (piano), bassist (bass), and drummer (drum). T hese dif ferent t ypes of
inst rument alist s can perf orm t oget her in a music group.[145] A person who is able t o play a number of
inst rument s is called a mult i- inst rument alist .[146] According t o David Baskerville in t he book Music
Business Handbook and Career Guide, t he working hours of a f ull- t ime inst rument alist may average
only t hree hours a day, but most musicians spent at least f ort y hours a week.[147]

See also

List of musical inst rument s

Folk inst rument

Experiment al musical inst rument

 Recording st udio as an inst rument

Music inst rument t echnology

Orchest ra

Notes

1. Mont agu 2007, p. 1 13. "Jiahu (ca. 7000–5700 B.C.)" (ht t p://www.m
et [Link]/t oah/hd/jiah/hd_ [Link] m) .
2. Rault 2000, p. 9
T he Met ropolit an Museum of Art . Archived
3. Blades 1992, p. 34 (ht t ps://[Link]/web/2010080908

4. Mont agu 2007. 3316/ht t p://[Link] [Link]/t oah/h

d/jiah/hd_ [Link] m) f rom t he original on 9
5. Chase & Nowell 1998, p. 549
August 2010. Ret rieved 10 February 2011.
6. Slovenian Academy of Sciences 1997,
14. Zhang, Juzhong; Xiao, Xinghua; Lee, Yun
pp. 203–205
Kuen (December 2004). "T he early
7. Canadian Broadcast ing Corporat ion 2004 development of music. Analysis of t he

8. Collinson 1975, p. 10 Jiahu bone flut es" (ht t ps://[Link].

org/core/product /ident ifier/S0003598X00
9. Campbell, Great ed & Myers 2004, p. 82
113432/t ype/journal_ art icle) . Antiquity.
10. de Schauensee 2002, pp. 1–16 78 (302): 769–778.
doi:10.1017/S0003598X00113432 (ht t ps://
11. Moorey 1977, pp. 24–40
[Link]/10.1017%2FS0003598X0011343
12. "Brookhaven Lab Expert Helps Dat e Flut e 2) . ISSN 0003- 598X (ht t ps://[Link]
T hought t o be Oldest Playable Musical cat .org/issn/0003- 598X) .
Inst rument " (ht t p://[Link]/bnlweb/pu
15. Sachs 1940, p. 60
baf /pr/1999/[Link] ml) .
Brookhaven Nat ional Laborat ory. Archived (h 16. Brown 2008
t t ps://[Link]/web/202102102140
17. Baines 1993, p. 37
41/ht t ps://[Link]/bnlweb/pubaf /pr/1
18. Sachs 1940, p. 61
999/[Link] ml) f rom t he original
on 10 February 2021. Ret rieved 10 February 19. Sachs 1940, p. 63
2011.
20. Sachs 1940, p. 297

21. Blades 1992, p. 36

22. Sachs 1940, p. 26

23. Rault 2000, p. 34 33. Sachs 1940, pp. 68–69

24. Sachs 1940, pp. 34–52 34. Sachs 1940, p. 69

25. Blades 1992, p. 51 35. Remnant 1989, p. 168

26. Sachs 1940, p. 35 36. Sachs 1940, p. 70

27. Sachs 1940, pp. 52–53 37. Sachs 1940, p. 82

28. Marcuse 1975, pp. 24–28 38. Sachs 1940, p. 86

29. Sachs 1940, pp. 53–59 39. Rault 2000, p. 71

30. Caldwell, Duncan (2013). "A Possible New 40. Sachs 1940, pp. 98–104
Class of Prehist oric Musical Inst rument s
41. Sachs 1940, p. 105
f rom New England: Port able Cylindrical
Lit hophones" (ht t ps://[Link]/c 42. Sachs 1940, p. 106

ore/journals/american- ant iquit y/art icle/ab 43. Sachs 1940, pp. 108–113
s/possible- new- class- of - prehist oric- musica
44. Sachs 1940, p. 114
l- inst rument s- f rom- new- england- port able-
cylindrical- lit hophones/6A6FBD649CF86DA 45. Sachs 1940, p. 116

2AC9DA2EE51917D99#) . American 46. Marcuse 1975, p. 385

Antiquity. 78 (3): 520–535.
47. Sachs 1940, p. 128
doi:10.7183/0002- 7316.78.3.520 (ht t ps://do
[Link]/10.7183%2F0002- 7316.78.3.520) . 48. Sachs 1940, p. 129
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Further reading

Wade- Mat t hews, Max (2003). Musical Instruments: Illustrated Encyclopedia (ht t ps://[Link]/d
et ails/musicillust rat ed00wade) . Lorenz. ISBN 978- 0- 7548- 1182- 4.

Music Library Associat ion (1974). Committee on Musical Instrument Collections. A Survey of
Musical Instrument Collections in the United States and Canada , conduct ed by a commit t ee of
t he Music Library Associat ion, William Licht enwanger, chairman & compiler, ed. and produced by
James W. Pruit t . Ann Arbor, Mich.: Music Library Associat ion. xi, p. 137, ISBN 0- 914954- 00- 8

West , M.L. (May 1994). "T he Babylonian Musical Not at ion and t he Hurrian Melodic Text s". Music &
Letters . 75 (2): 161–179. doi:10.1093/ml/75.2.161 (ht t ps://[Link]/10.1093%2Fml%2F75.2.161) .

Young, Phillip T. (1980). The Look of Music: Rare Musical Instruments, 1500–1900. Seat t le:
Universit y of Washingt on Press. ISBN 9780919253001.

External links

"Musical Inst rument s" (ht t p://[Link]/page/m/musical- inst rument s) . Furniture. Vict oria
and Albert Museum. Ret rieved 1 July 2008.