Millia Institute of Technology

Rambagh, Purnea, Bihar

Affiliated to Bihar Engineering University, Patna

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

[Link] First Year 1st & 2nd Semester

LECTURE NOTES ON: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

By: Ravindra Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical engineering

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 Module -1
Frame of Reference
In physics, all motion is relative, meaning it must be described with respect to a chosen frame
of reference.

Definition:
A Frame of Reference is a system consisting of an observer, a coordinate system (usually with
x, y, and z axes), and a clock to record the time of events. It provides the context for describing
the position, velocity, and acceleration of objects.

Types of Frames of Reference:

There are two main types of frames of reference:

1. Inertial Frame of Reference

 An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law (law of inertia) holds
true.
 This means that any object not acted upon by a force will remain at rest or move with
uniform velocity.
 It is either at rest or moving with a constant velocity (i.e., not accelerating).

Examples

 A train moving at a constant speed in a straight line.

 A stationary observer on Earth (approximately, though Earth is actually rotating).

Physics Insight:

 In an inertial frame, no fictitious or pseudo-forces are needed to explain motion.

 Newton’s laws of motion apply directly.

2. Non-Inertial Frame of Reference

 A non-inertial frame of reference is one that is accelerating (changing speed or

direction).
 Newton’s first law does not hold unless you introduce fictitious forces (like centrifugal
force or Coriolis force) to account for the observed motion.

Examples:

 A car taking a sharp turn.

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  A rotating merry-go-round.
 A falling elevator.

Physics Insight:
 In non-inertial frames, pseudo-forces must be introduced to apply Newton’s laws
correctly.
o Example: In a rotating frame, you feel a "force" pushing you outward
(centrifugal force), but this is not a real force it arises due to the acceleration of
the frame itself.

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Rotating Frame of Reference
A rotating frame of reference is a non-inertial frame that rotates with respect to an inertial
frame. Since it is accelerating (due to angular motion), Newton’s laws of motion don’t apply
directly unless we introduce fictitious (pseudo) forces.

Characteristics:

 The observer is located in a coordinate system that is rotating.

 The motion of objects appears different than it would in a non-rotating (inertial) frame.
 To apply Newton’s laws, we need to add pseudo-forces like:
1. Centrifugal force
2. Coriolis force

Pseudo-Forces in a Rotating Frame:

1. Centrifugal Force

 Acts radially outward from the axis of rotation.

 Magnitude:
 F (centrifugal) = 𝒎𝝎𝟐𝒓

where:

 m = mass of the object

 ω square = angular velocity of the frame
 r = distance from the axis of rotation

Note: - It is not a real force — it appears due to the rotation of the frame.

Centrifugal and Coriolis acceleration

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2. Coriolis Force

 Acts perpendicular to both the velocity of the object and the axis of rotation.
 Affects moving objects within the rotating frame.
 Magnitude:
 F (Coriolis) =2m(v×ω)

where:

 v = velocity of the object in rotating frame

 ω = angular velocity vector of the rotating frame

This force causes objects to deflect:

 To the right in the Northern Hemisphere

 To the left in the Southern Hemisphere (this is why cyclones spin in different
directions).

Real-World Examples:
 Earth is a rotating frame of reference (rotating around its axis).
o That’s why we account for Coriolis force in atmospheric dynamics, missile
trajectories, and ocean currents.
 Rotating amusement rides (like a spinning swing ride) — passengers feel pushed
outward due to centrifugal force.
 Weather systems (like cyclones) are heavily influenced by the rotation of Earth and
the Coriolis effect.

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Centripetal and Centrifugal acceleration

1. Centripetal Acceleration

 Definition: The real acceleration directed toward the centre of a circular path that
keeps an object in circular motion.
 Direction: Always points toward the centre of the circular path.
 Cause: Results from a net force acting towards the centre (e.g., gravitational force,
tension, friction).
 Formula:

where:

 v = linear velocity
 r = radius of the circular path
 ω (omega) = angular velocity

 Frame of Reference: Observed in an inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference.

2. Centrifugal Acceleration

 Definition: A pseudo (fictitious) acceleration that appears to act outward on a mass

moving in a circular path when viewed from a rotating (non-inertial) frame of reference.
 Direction: Always directed away from the centre of the circular path.
 Cause: It is a perceived effect due to an observer being in a rotating reference frame; it
is not caused by a real force.
 Formula: a (cf) = ω2r
 where ω and r have the same meanings as in centripetal acceleration.

Frame of Reference: Observed in a non-inertial (rotating) frame of reference.

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 Applications of Centripetal and Coriolis Acceleration in
Weather Prediction Systems

1. Centripetal Acceleration – Applications

Centripetal acceleration is the inward acceleration needed to keep air masses moving along
curved paths, such as in cyclones or anticyclones.

Applications:

 Cyclone Dynamics:
o Helps explain why winds circulate around low-pressure areas in a circular
motion.
o Air is constantly accelerating toward the center (low pressure) to maintain
circular motion.
 Anticyclone Systems:
o In high-pressure systems, centripetal acceleration is directed inward even as air
spirals outward and downward.
 Jet Streams and Curved Wind Flows:
o Jet streams often follow a wavy (curved) path; centripetal acceleration helps in
modelling the forces keeping the wind on that path.
 Numerical Weather Models:
o Used in fluid dynamics equations (like the Navier-Stokes equations) to
simulate rotating airflow around pressure systems.

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2. Coriolis Acceleration – Applications

Coriolis acceleration arises due to the Earth’s rotation and deflects moving air masses to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Applications:

 Cyclone & Anticyclone Rotation:

o Northern Hemisphere: Cyclones spin counter-clockwise, anticyclones
Clockwise.
o Southern Hemisphere: The opposite.
o This rotation is directly due to Coriolis acceleration.
 Trade Winds & Global Wind Patterns:
o Explains the formation of easterlies and westerlies in different latitudes.
o Helps in simulating Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells in climate models.
 Jet Streams Formation:
o Coriolis force causes zonal (east-west) wind alignment at high altitudes.
 Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions:
o Influences large-scale systems like El Niño and La Niña by altering wind
directions and ocean currents.
 Weather Simulation Models (e.g., GFS, ECMWF):
o Coriolis terms are crucial in the equations of motion used in global weather
prediction algorithms.
 Hurricane Path Prediction:
o Coriolis acceleration determines the trajectory (track) and curvature of
tropical cyclones.

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 Important Questions (For your Semester Exams)

1. Define Frame of Reference?

2. Explain and write two important characteristics of non-inertial frame of reference.
3. Differentiate between Centripetal and Centrifugal acceleration.
4. Write Short Notes on Application of Centripetal and centrifugal acceleration in
weather Prediction System.
5. Why rotating Co-ordinate System is considered as non-inertial Frame of Reference?
6. S.I Unit of Force (Newton), Acceleration (𝒎/𝒔𝟐) , Velocity (m/s) and Angular
momentum (𝐾𝑔. 𝒎/𝒔𝟐).
7. Define Angular momentum.

Hints Q7: Angular momentum is a measure of the amount of rotational motion an

object has. It is the product of an object's moment of inertia and its angular velocity.
L = I ω here L is angular momentum, I is moment of inertia and ω is angular velocity.

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 Module -2

Oscillations
Oscillations refer to the repetitive back-and-forth motion of an object or quantity around a
central point or equilibrium position. This motion occurs over time and can be periodic
(occurring at regular intervals) or non-periodic (irregular intervals).

Characteristics of Oscillations:

1. Amplitude (A):
o The maximum displacement of the oscillating object from its mean
(equilibrium) position.
o It indicates how far the object moves from its central position.

2. Time Period (T):

o The time taken to complete one full cycle of oscillation.
o Measured in seconds (s).

3. Frequency (f):
o The number of oscillations per unit time.
o It is the reciprocal of the time period:
o F = 1/T
o Measured in hertz (Hz).

4. Phase:
o Describes the position and direction of motion of the particle at a given instant
of time.
o It helps compare the motion of two or more oscillating bodies.

5. Wavelength (for wave-related oscillations):

o The distance between two consecutive points that are in phase (e.g., two crests
or troughs).

6. Damping (optional in some systems):

o In real systems, oscillations may gradually decrease in amplitude over time
due to energy loss (like friction or air resistance).
o This is called damped oscillation.

7. Restoring Force:
o A force that tries to bring the system back to its equilibrium position.

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 o It's essential for oscillatory motion and is often proportional to displacement
(as in Hooke's law for springs).

Harmonic Oscillator
A harmonic oscillator is a system that experiences a restoring force directly proportional
to its displacement from an equilibrium position. This leads to a periodic motion called Simple
Harmonic Motion (SHM). This is typically modelled using Hooke's Law, which states: F=
-K.X Where ,

 F is the restoring force

 k is the force constant (or spring constant)
 x is the displacement from equilibrium
 The negative sign indicates the force is always directed opposite to the displacement

Equation of Motion followed by Harmonic oscillator

ⅆ2𝑥 ⅆ2𝑥 𝑘 ⅆ2𝑥

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 2 = 2 + 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 2 + 𝜔2𝑥 = 0
ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡 𝑚 ⅆ𝑡

𝑘
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 = √
𝑚

General solution of the equation =(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Where A= Amplitude ,

omega 𝜔 is angular frequency and 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

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 Simple harmonic oscillator

Characteristics of a Harmonic Oscillator:

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 Harmonic Oscillation
A harmonic oscillation is a type of periodic motion in which a particle or system oscillates
about its equilibrium position under a restoring force proportional to the displacement.

F = − k.x

This leads to Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) when undisturbed and ideal.

Types of Harmonic Oscillations

Harmonic oscillations are classified based on whether damping or external forces are present.

1. Free Harmonic Oscillation

Definition:

 Oscillation of a system without external force and without damping.

 Only a restoring force is present.
 Equation of Motion:

ⅆ𝟐𝒙 ⅆ𝟐𝒙 𝒌 ⅆ𝟐𝒙

𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙 = 𝒎 𝟐 = 𝟐 + 𝒙 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒙 = 𝟎
ⅆ𝒕 ⅆ𝒕 𝒎 ⅆ𝒕

𝒌
𝒘𝒉𝑒𝒓𝑒 𝝎 = √
𝒎

General solution of the equation =(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Where A = Amplitude ,

omega 𝜔 is angular frequency and 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

Characteristics:

 Constant amplitude and energy.

 No energy loss.
 Frequency :

𝜔 1 𝑘
𝑓= = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚

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2. Damped Harmonic Oscillation

Definition:

 Oscillation where the amplitude decreases over time due to damping forces (like
friction, air resistance).
 Energy is gradually lost.
 ⅆ𝒙
Damping Force: F (damping) = −𝒃 = −b. v where b is damping coefficient.
ⅆ𝒕
 b is the damping coefficient (also called viscous damping constant).
 It represents the resistive force (like friction or air drag) that opposes motion and is
proportional to velocity.
 SI units of b = kg/s
 Equation of Motion
ⅆ2𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ2𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
𝑚 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 or 𝑚 + 2𝛽 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
ⅆ𝑡2 ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡2 ⅆ𝑡

Where
𝑏
𝛽=
2𝑚

Damping Constant β

Definition:

 β is the damping ratio per unit mass, derived from b (damping coefficient):
𝑏
 𝛽=
2𝑚
 It simplifies the differential equation of damped motion.
 1
SI units of β: = 𝑆𝑒𝑐−1
𝑠𝑒𝑐

Bonus Insight:

 β directly determines the type of damping:

o β < 𝝎𝟎 or 𝝎′ < 𝝎 Underdamped
o β = 𝝎𝟎 or 𝝎 = 𝝎
′ Critically damped
o β > 𝝎𝟎 or 𝝎′ > 𝝎 Overdamped

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Types of Damped Harmonic Motion

1. Underdamped Motion

Condition: β < 𝝎𝟎

Definition:

 The system oscillates with gradually decreasing amplitude.

 The damping is weak, so the object still oscillates, but the energy is lost over time.
 Example: Like a swing slowly stopping

Solution:

−𝛽𝑡 𝑏𝑡
− ′
x(t) =𝐴𝑒 𝑐(𝜔ⅆ𝑡 + 𝜙) or 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑐(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝛿)

Where:
𝑘
 𝜔 = √𝜔2 − 𝛽2 =√ 𝑏 2
ⅆ(Damped angular frequency) 0
( ) −( )
𝑚 2𝑚

Characteristics:

 Oscillatory motion with exponential decay.

 Amplitude decreases over time and it follows the equation:

A(t)= 𝐴0𝑒−𝛽𝑡

 Energy decreases over time due to damping.

 Real-world examples: car suspension systems, pendulum in air.

2. Critically Damped Motion

Condition:

β = 𝝎𝟎 or 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟒𝒎𝒌

Definition:

 The system returns to equilibrium as fast as possible without

oscillating.
 This is the threshold between oscillatory and non-oscillatory
behaviour.

Solution:

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x(t) = (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑡)𝑒−𝛽𝑡

Types of Damped Harmonic Motion

Characteristics of critically damped oscillations:

 No oscillation.
 Returns to rest quickly and smoothly.
 Used in designing shock absorbers, door dampers, and measuring instruments.
 Like a car door closing softly and quickly.

3. Overdamped Motion

Condition: β > 𝝎𝟎

Definition:

 The system does not oscillate and returns to equilibrium very slowly.
 Damping is too strong, preventing any overshooting.

Solution: x(t) = 𝐴 𝑒−𝑟1𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒−𝑟2𝑡

Where r1 and r2 are real and negative roots of the characteristic equation.

Characteristics:

 Slowest return to equilibrium.

 No oscillations at all.
 Used in systems where overshooting must be avoided.
 Like slowly pushing a heavy door that never swings

Forced Harmonic Oscillation

Definition:

 Oscillation of a system under a continuous external periodic force.

 The system is driven by this force.

External Driving Force:

𝑭𝑒×𝒕𝑒𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 = 𝑭𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)

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Equation of Motion:

ⅆ2𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
𝑚 ⅆ𝑡2 + 𝑏 ⅆ𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 𝑐(𝜔𝑡)

Steady-State Solution:

After transients die out:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛿)

Where:

 A(ω) is the amplitude of oscillation

𝐹0 𝐹0∕𝑚
A(ω)= =
√(𝑘−𝑚𝜔 )2+(𝑏𝜔2)2
2
√(𝜔2−𝜔 ) +(2𝛽𝜔)2

4. Resonant Oscillation

Definition:

 A special case of forced oscillation when the driving frequency ω matches the natural
frequency 𝝎𝟎.
 The amplitude becomes maximum (especially when damping is small).

Resonance: Resonant frequency = Natural frequency

𝝎𝒓𝑒𝒔 = √𝝎𝟐𝟎− 𝟐𝜷𝟐 = 𝝎𝟎 (natural frequency)

Condition if damping (𝜷)is low.

Effect:

 Amplitude peaks.
 Energy transfer is most efficient.
 Can be destructive (e.g., bridge collapse) or useful (e.g., tuning radios).

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 Important Questions (For your Semester Exams)
1. Define Oscillations.
2. Define Harmonic Oscillator.
3. Write short notes on Damped harmonic motion (Explain all the damping condition
with example and their equation).
4. Explain forced oscillations and Resonance condition associated with it.
𝜋
5. Given equation: 𝑥 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5𝜋𝑡 + 3) . Find
I. Amplitude of the motion
II. Angular frequency of the motion
III. Time period of the motion
IV. Frequency of the motion
V. Initial position of the object
VI. Velocity of object at time (t)
VII. Initial velocity of object
VIII. Initial acceleration of the object.

6. What is a Forced Oscillator?

Ans. A forced oscillator is a system where an external periodic force is applied to an

oscillator (like a mass-spring system), causing it to oscillate continuously — not just
because it was displaced initially.

Example: Imagine pushing someone on a swing again and again at regular intervals
— that's a forced oscillator.

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