Chap 11 Outline: Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: Managing and Protecting Ecosystems. 11.

1 Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity -Human activities have depleted and degraded some the earths biodiversity and these threats are expected to increase. 1) Fig. 11-2 lists factors that effect biodiversity 2) Fig. 11-3 lists connections between human activities and earths biodiversity. 3) Fig. 11-4 shows projected status of earths biodiversity in 2018. 5) Fig. 11-5 outlines goals, strategies and tactics for preserving biodiversity. -Biodiversity should be preserved and protected from degradation by human activities because it exists and its useful. 1) Intrinsic value: biodiversity should be preserved because it exists. 2) Instrumental Value: Biodiversity should be preserved because it has usefulness. 11-2 Conservation Biology: -Conservation biology is a multi-disciplinary science that uses rapid response strategies to stem loss and degradation of the worlds biodiversity. 1) Conservation biologists identify the most endangered and species-rich ecosystems and then teams to evaluate and make recommendations to limit the loss of biodiversity. -Bioinformatics is the applied science of managing, analyzing, and communicating biological information. It is used to provide basic biological and ecological information to help sustain biodiversity. 11-3 Public Lands in the United States: -More than a third of the land in the United States consists of publicly owned national forests, resource lands, and protected wilderness areas. 73% is found in Alaska and another 22% in western states. (Fig. 10-6) 1) National Forest System: Managed by the US forest system and are used for logging, mining, grazing, farming, recreation, hunting, fishing as well as oil and gas extraction. 2) National Resource Lands: Managed by the BLM and are used primarily for mining, oil and gas extraction and grazing. 3) National Wildlife Refuge: Managed by US Fish and Wildlife. Most areas protect habitats and breeding areas. Permitted activities include hunting, fishing, trapping, logging, grazing, mining, oil and natural gas development and some military activities 4) National Park System: Managed by the National Park Service (NPS) and is stricter with it uses. Areas include monuments, battle fields, historic sites, trails, rivers, seashores, and other recreation areas. Only camping, fishing, hiking, and boating can take place in these areas.

-Since the 1800s there has been controversy over how US public lands should be used because of the valuable resources they contain. Arguments for both sides on page 199. 11-4 Managing and Sustaining Forests: -Some forests have not been disturbed by human activities for several hundred years, other have grown back after being cut, and some consist of planted stands of particular tree species. 1) Forests provide many economic and ecological services. (Fig. 11-7) 2) Old growth forests: Uncut forest or regenerated forests that have not been disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for several years. (22%) 3) Second growth forests: A stand of trees resulting from secondary succession. They develop after previous trees have bee removed by human activities or natural disaster. (63%) 4) Tree plantation/tree farm: A managed track of uniformly aged trees of one species that are cut or harvested as soon as they are economically valuable. (5%) -There are two types of forest management. Some forests consist of one or two species that are commercially important species that are cut down and replanted, others are contain diverse tree species harvested individually or in small groups. 1) Even aged management: Involves maintaining trees in a given stand at about the same age and size. Generally contains few fastgrowing economically desirable species. (Fig. 11-8) 2) Uneven aged management: Involves maintaining a variety of tree species at very different ages and sizes. -The first step in forest management id to build roads for access. (Fig 11.9) Once roads are in place there are various ways to remove lumber. (Fig. 11.10) 1) Selective cutting: Cutting of intermediate/mature in an uneven forest. 2) Shelterwood cutting: Removes all mature trees in an area in two or three cuttings. 3) Seed tree cutting: Remove the bulk of trees in one cutting leaving a few uniformly distributed seed producing trees to regenerate the forest. 4) Clear cutting: Removal of all trees from an area in one cutting. 5) Strip cutting: Clear cutting of strips of land in a area separated by an interval of time that allows for regeneration. 6) Fig11-11 discusses pros and cons of clear cutting -Deforestation is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forests for agriculture or other uses. 1) This can provide large immediate economic services. 2) It can also reduce biodiversity, and can contribute to global and regional climate changes. (Fig. 11-12)

-Human activities have reduced the worlds forest cover by 20-50% and deforestation is continuing at an alarming rate except in the temperate forests of North America and Europe. -Currently forests are mostly valued for their economic services, however the ecological services provided by the worlds forests are rarely used when decisions are made about their uses. The economic value of the ecological services we get is estimated at 36 trillion dollars/year. -We can use forests more sustainably by including the economic value of their ecological services, harvesting trees no faster than they can replenish and protect old growth forests and vulnerable areas. (Fig. 11-13) -Some organizations have developed standards for certifying that timber has been harvested sustainably. 1) Timber harvesters have used selective cutting practices to ensure sustainability. 2) Producers and sellers of wood products have agreed to only buy and sell wood that has been certified as being sustainably from an independent group. 11-5 Forest Resources and Management in the US -US forests cover more area today than they did in 1920, more wood is grown each year than is cut and the country has set aside large areas of forest that are protected. -There is serious damage being done to US forests by non-native species. (Fig.11-14) 1) Tree damage can reduced by inspecting more imported timber, removing infected trees, and using chemicals and natural predators to help control insects and pests. -Forests fires can burn away flammable underbrush and small trees, burn large trees and leap from treetop to treetop, or burn flammable materials underground. They are separated into three types. 1) Surface fires: Generally only burn undergrowth and leaf litter. These fires spare most mature trees and allow most animals to escape. a. Surface fires can have a number of ecological benefits such as burning away ground materials and help to prevent more destructive fires. b. Help to release valuable nutrients and stimulate new growth. c. Control pathogens and insects. 2) Crown fires: Generally start on the ground but move up trees and eventually start to jump from treetop to treetop burning down entire trees. a. Generally occur in areas that have not had any surface fires for very long periods of time b. These fires can be very damaging to ecosystems. 3) Ground fires: Burn partially decayed leaves or peat and can smolder for weeks without detection.

-Fire damage can be reduced by setting controlled surface fires to prevent the build-up of surface litter. Allowing fires on public land to burn unless they are threat to human structures or life and by clearing small areas around building and places that are at a high risk. -Case study: There is controversy over whether US national forests should be managed primarily for timber, their ecological services, recreation value, or mix of all three. -Almost 2/3 of the wood consumed in the US is wasted, and much of the paper we use could be made from other sources. 1) The best way to reduce the number of trees that are harvested is to become more efficient with the wood that we use. 2) By making paper with fiber that does not com from trees, the pressure put on forests could also be reduced. 11-6 Tropical Deforestation: -Tropical forests cover about 6% of the earths land area. -More than half of the worlds terrestrial species live in tropical rainforests. -Large areas of ecological and economically important tropical forests are being cleared and degraded at a fast rate. 1) Without immediate aggressive action studies indicate that the rainforests of the Amazon basin will largely disappear in the next 50 years. -The rate at which tropical forests are disappearing is highly debated due to three reasons. 1) Difficulty in interpreting satellite images 2) Some countries hide or exaggerate deforestation rates for political reasons. 3) Governments and other agencies define, forest, deforestation and degradation in different ways. -Cutting old growth tropical forests may be causing many ecological and economic problems. Medicine and global warming. (Fig. 11-17) -The primary causes of tropical deforestation and degradation are population growth, poverty, environmentally harmful government subsidies, debts owed to developed countries and failure to value ecological services. -There are a number of ways to slow and reduce the deforestation of tropical forests. 1) Help settlers learn how to practice small scale sustainable agriculture. 2) Harvest only the renewable resources found in the forests 3) Debt for nature swaps/ 4) Develop and international system to certify that all tropical lumber has been harvested sustainably. 5) Use gentler methods to remove trees. -Solutions. The neem tree. 11-7 National Parks

-Countries world wide have established more than 1100 national parks, but most of them are threaten by human activities. 1) Only 1% of the national parks in developing countries are protected 2) A large number of parks are not large enough to sustain large animal species. 3) Invasive and nonnative species have detrimental effects. -Case study: National parks in the US 11-8 Nature Reserves -Most ecologists and conservation biologists believe that the best way to preserve biodiversity through world-wide network of protected areas. -About 7% of the worlds land has been protected and a lot of this is in the artic tundra and deserts. -Conservation biologists are calling for protection of atleast 20% of the worlds land through cooperative ventures by governments, businesses and private conservation groups. -Most developers oppose this idea -Case study: What has Costa Rica done to protect its land. -The nature conservancy has used private and corporate donations to create the worlds largest system of private natural areas and wildlife sanctuaries. 1) Created in 1951 with more than 1 million members the nature conservancy has used money to buy ecologically important pieces of land threatened by development or other human activities. -Large reserves are generally the best way to protect biodiversity, but some places several well placed, medium sized, and isolated reserves work better. -A mixture of large and small reserves may be one the best ways to protect a variety of species and communities against a large number of different threats. -Biosphere reserves have and inner protected core surrounded by two buffer zones that can be used by local people for sustainable extraction of resources for food and fuel. (Fig 11-22) -Managing and sustaining a nature reserve are affected by a variety of biological, cultural, economic and political factors. Their make-up is often determined by political, legal and economic factors that depend on land ownership and conflicting public demands. 1) One way to deal with all these uncertainties is through Adaptive ecosystem management. Made of 4 principles. a. Integrated ecological, economic and social principles to maintain biodiversity while supporting sustainable economies and communities. b. Seek ways to get government agencies, private conservation organizations, scientists, business interest, and private land owners reach a consensus on land use objectives.

c. View all decisions and strategies as scientific and social experiments and use failures as opportunities for learning and improvement. d. Emphasize continuing data gathering, monitoring, reassessment, adaptation, and innovation for further improvement. -We can prevent or slow losses of biodiversity by concentrating efforts on protecting hot spots where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat. (Fig. 11-24) -Wilderness is land that is legally set aside in a large enough are to prevent or minimize harm from human activist. 1) Undeveloped land primarily affected by forces of nature not man. 2) US presidents can create wilderness according to the Wilderness Act of 1964. -Case Study: How much wilderness has been protected in the US.