COLLOIDS:

INTRODUCTION:
IN 1861,Thomas Graham studied ability of substance to diffuse into water
through semi permeable membrane.

He observed that sugar,salt etc can pass through semi permeable membrane
(CRYSTALLOIDS).Where as some substances like gel cannot
passthroughthis seme permeable membrane.Name this kind of substances as
COLLOIDS.

Colloids derived from Greek word “KOLLA” Means “GLUE”; “EIDOS”

Means “LIKE”.

DEFINITION OF COLLOIDS:
A mixture in which one substance is divided into minute particles (called
colloidal particles) and dispersed throughout a second substance. The
substances are present as larger particles than those found in solution, but are
too small to be seen with a microscope. There are no strict boundaries on the
size of colloidal particles, but they tend to vary between 10-9 m to 10-6 m in
size.
The mixture is also called a colloidal solution, colloidal system, or colloidal
dispersion. The three forms in which all matter exists are solid, liquid or gas.
Colloidal systems can be any combination of these states.

A colloidal system is not a true solution but it is not a suspension either

because it does not settle out like a suspension will over time.

Colloids are larger than most inorganic molecules and remain suspended
indefinitely. They are large molecules, such as proteins, or groups of
molecules. They have many properties, depending on their large specific
surface.

Colloid formation can be classified in two systems, namely reversible and

irreversible. In an irreversible system, the products are so stable or removed
so well that the original reactants cannot be reproduced. A reversible system
is one in which the products can be made to react to reproduce the original
reactants.

INTRODUCTION TO THE COLLOIDAL

SYSTEMS:

Let us leave the surface phenomena to enter into the mysterious world of the
colloids. A first example of a colloid is gelatin, a strange substance: neither
liquid nor solid. It is very elastic and if deformed it returns to it’s previous
shape. Goofy, the friend of Mickey and Donald, learned something about it
when, in the Disney film: Mickey and the Beanstalk, he was "walking" on a
pudding of the Giant. The emulsion of oil in water is another substance with
unusual properties. Unusual are also substances such as foams, aerosols,
smokes and fogs, not to mention the solid emulsions and foams. What do all
these curious substances have in common? That is what we will see before
long. These substances are called colloids and they are in some ways related
to the solutions and to the mixtures, even if they do not belong to the
former nor latter. To understand what colloids are, it is necessary to know
what solutions and mixtures are.

SOLUTIONS:
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. When
placed in water, many substances dissolve and are called soluble, others do
not dissolve and are called insoluble. Salt and sugar easily dissolve in water.
If instead you put sand in water, you can mix for as long as you want, but
you will not succeed in dissolving the sand. In fact, sand is insoluble in
water. In a solution, the material present in greater quantity is defined
solvent and that in smaller quantity solute. What does it mean to say that a
substance is soluble in another? It means that the molecules of the solute
separate each other and they disperse among those of the solvent. Instead,
the insoluble substances keep themselves compact and their molecules do
not disperse into the solvent. As solvent, we have used the example of water
because many solids are soluble in water, but nearly every liquid can be a
solvent. And then, why we should limit ourselves to the liquids? Let us
generalize the concept of solvent and concede to all substances, solid or
liquid or gaseous the possibility to be a solvent. At this point, even the
solutes can belong to all of these three states of matter. For example, some
solid solutions are the metal alloys such as steel (Fe+C), brass (Cu+Zn),
bronze (Cu+Sn). Finally, all gases are completely soluble among each other.
Also common are solutions of gases in liquids. For example, carbon dioxide
is added to many beverages to make them fizz. In the water of ponds, rivers
and seas, gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and others go into solution in a
natural way. The presence of these gases in the water make possible the life
of the aquatic organisms.

The solubility of a substance is measured as the maximum amount, in grams,

which can be dissolved in 100 g of solvent. When the solute does not
dissolve any more, but a deposit is formed on the bottom, the solution is
defined saturated.

CATEGORIES OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLE
air (nitrogen, oxygen,
Gas Gas
etc.)
moist air (water vapor
Liquid Gas
in air)
Solid Gas atmospheric dust
Gas Liquid CO2 in water (sparkling
 water)
Liquid Liquid wine (water + alcohol)
marine water (salt in
Solid Liquid
water)
gas in silicates (pumice
Gas Solid
stone)
dental alloys (mercury
Liquid Solid
in cadmium)
metal alloys (steel,
Solid Solid
bronze)

MIXTURES
As we have seen, by mixing sugar with water, a solution is obtained. If
instead we mix sand into water, we obtain a mixture. Also by mixing bits of
coal and iron filings we obtain a mixture. With a pair of thin tweezers it is
possible to take away sand grains from the water or pieces of coal from the
filings, but it is not possible to take away singly molecules of sugar from the
water because they are too much small. Hence, what distinguishes a mixture
from a solution? In a mixture the particles are enough large to be separated
by mechanical means such as tweezers or sieves, in a solution this is not
possible because the particles which form it are so small that they cannot be
seen even with an electron microscope. To separate the components of a
solution it is necessary to use physical method like distillation. So, mixtures
are formed by quite big particles, solution are formed by very small
particles.

IN CoLLOIDs we said DISPERSED PHASE similarly as SOLUTE in

Solution. Where as DIPERSED MEDIUM/CONTINUOUS PHASE as
solvent in solution.

COLLOIDS:
We have seen that in the solutions, the molecules of the solute separate each
other and disperse among those of the solvent. In the mixtures instead, the
molecules do not separate and the particles remain compact. From the point
of view of the sizes, solutions are formed by very small particles (single
molecules) and the mixtures by quite large particles. In an intermediate
position, between mixtures and solutions, there are the colloids. They are
dispersions of small particles, but not molecule sized. What distinguishes
mixtures from colloids and from solutions is therefore the size of the
particles which form them. By convention, a colloid is a dispersion of
particles which size is comprised between 0.2 and 0.002 µm (a micrometer,
or micron, = 10-6 meters). If the particles are larger than 0.2 µm, we have a
mixture, if they are smaller than 0.002 µm, we have a solution. In general,
the components of a colloid are formed by small aggregates of molecules,
while the components of a solution are single molecules. Anyway, if these
molecules are large enough, as it is the case of many macromolecules, their
solution will give a colloid. So, the criterion of distinction between colloids
and solutions cannot be the presence of single molecules, but as we were
saying, the size of the particles which form them.

MIXTURES COLLOIDS SOLUTIONS

large particles mean particles thin particles

> 0.2 µm 0.2 - 0.002 µm < 0.002 µm

According to the dispersing phase, colloids are distingued in gaseous, liquid

and solid suspensions. Gaseous suspensions, or aerosol, are smokes and
fogs. Smokes are suspensions of solid particles in a gas. Fogs are
suspensions of liquid particles in a gas. Sols, gels, emulsions, foams are
liquid suspensions. Oily rocks, pumice stones are solid suspensions.

Types of colloids:
Colloids are usually classified according to the original states of their
constituent parts:
 Dispersing medium Dispersed phase Name
Solid Solid Solid sol
Solid Liquid Gel
Solid Gas Solid foam
Liquid Solid Sol
Liquid Liquid Emulsion
Liquid Gas Foam
Gas Solid Solid aerosol
Gas Liquid Aerosol

• Dispersing medium (external phase) - the constituent found in the greater

extent in the colloid.
• Dispersed phase (internal phase) - the constituent found in the lesser
extent.
• A further classification is as lyophilic (solvent attracting), lyophobic
(solvent repelling) or association colloids (a mixture of the two).
• If water is the dispersing medium, it is often known as a hydrosol.

The term colloid refers to substances with a glue-like consistency, in which

the dispersant phase is therefore liquid. However, do not forget that even
substances such as smokes and aerosols, in which the dispersant phase is
aeriform and which we can also call gaseous suspensions, are colloids.
Finally, even some solid substances, in which the dispersant phase is solid
and which we can also call solid suspensions, are colloids too.

Colloids have unusual properties, for example gelatin. Colloidal systems

have a high ratio area/volume among the surface of the particles and their
volume. In other words, as in the colloids the amount of dispersed particles
is very large, their overall surface is very large too and by consequence the
interaction of the two phases is important. For example, a cube of 1 cm a
side has a surface area of 6 cm2, the material of the same cube divided into
little cubes of 0.002 µm of side, has a surface area of 3000 m2. Because of
the wide surface of contact between the two phases, often the colloids are
studied with the surface phenomena and the discipline which studies them is
called surface and colloid science.

LYOPHILIC AND LYOPHOBIC COLLOIDS:

The dispersion phase can be divided into two types:

1. Lyophilic colloids.(solvent loving)

2.Lyophobic colloids.(solvent hating)

Lyophilic sols are those in which the dispersed phase exhibits a definite
affinity for the medium or the solvent. For example: dispersion of
starch,gum and protein in water.

Lyophobic sols are those in which the dispersion phase has no attraction for
the medium or the solvent. For example: dispersion of gold,iron hydroxide
and sulphue in water.

SOL:
A sol is a dispersion of very thin solid particles in a liquid. It has a liquid
consistency and resembles a true solution. An aqueous sol appears clear,
very similar to common water. Anyway, if you shine an intense beam of light
across it, a part of the light will be diffused from the particles which are in
suspension. These particles are very small, but they are still enough large to
obstruct the light and diffuse it. This phenomenon is called Tyndall effect.
You can observe it with sols, but not with true solutions.

1 - Tyndall effect. In a transparent jar, put some clayey earth 1/4 of the
volume and water until attain 3/4 of the container. Close the jar with its cap
and shake until all the earth is "dissolved". Leave the pot to rest for a day to
allow the clay particles to settle. The liquid which is above the sediment
should have become clear. Shining an intense bundle of light through the jar,
you should see the Tyndall effect. Do the same thing with a glass of pure
water and compare the results.
REASONS:

Sun seems to be appear as blue in colour because of TYDALL EFFECT.

And at sunset sky seem to be orange because of this effect.

LIGHT TYNDALL
 PAINT

GEL:
A gel is a dispersion of very thin solid particles in a liquid and it has a
gelatinous consistency. Increasing the concentration of the particles, a sol
can pass to the state of gel. On the contrary, by diluting a gel you will obtain
a sol. So, what makes a sol different from a gel is its fluid or gelatinous
consistency. Also the temperature can determine the passage from sol to gel
and vice versa. For example, broth gelatin is gelatinous at room temperature,
but it becomes liquid when it is heated. Animal gelatin is a reversible gel
because depending on the temperature it can pass from gel to sol and vice
versa The albumen of eggs instead is not reversible because when heated it
coagulates and it does not come back to the state of sol. Silica gel absorbs
moisture and keeps its properties with broad concentrations of water.
Because its affinity for water it is used as dehumidifier. When left to rest, a
sol can spontaneously jell and come back to the state of sol simply by
mixing it (eg: aqueous suspensions of kaolin).

JELLY

1 - Making gelatin. Buy some dry gelatin. Dissolve it

in warm water and, with subsequent dilutions,
determine what is the minimum concentration of dry
gelatin necessary to obtain a normal gelatin at room
temperature. Do not keep gelatins a long time because
they easily become cultures of bacteria. Store them in a refrigerator and,
after a day, throw them away.

2 - Reversibility of the gelatin. By means of the temperature, make some

gelatin pass from the gel to sol states and vice versa.

EMULSIONS:An emulsion is a dispersion of an insoluble liquid in

another liquid. For instance, the oil is not soluble in water. If you pour some
oil in a container with water, it will float it and keeps separate from the
water. Instead, if you vigorously shake the container, you will obtain a
dispersion of small drops of oil in water, however these drops quickly join
together, so that in a short time nearly all the oil will return as before. To
make the emulsion more stable, before shaking the container, add some
detergent. The surfactant molecules will arrange on the surface of the oil
drops with the heads outward. As these heads have an electrical charge and
as this charge is always the same, the oil drops will repel each other and be
unable to return to the homogeneous layer as before. So, surfactants can help
you to obtain more stable emulsions. There are special surfactants for
emulsions, endowed of a higher capability to stabilize the oil drops than the
detergents. There are also emulsifying agents for alimentary use such as
lecithin and emulsifiers for industrial purposes which are not edible. Butter
is formed by small water drops suspended in fat. Cheese and mayonnaise too
are considered emulsions. A lot of creams used both in pharmacy and in
cosmetics are emulsions. Fuels emulsified with water have been produced.
Emulsified oils are used in machine working to make it easier to cut metals
with machine tools. In fact, metal cutting can create an intense heat, which
has to be removed if you want to avoid burning the tools. The oil and water
in the cutting fluid help remove the heat and make it possible to cut metals
efficiently. Milk is another emulsion made up by small greasy drops in an
aqueous phase.
 MILK.

3 - Mayonnaise. To the ingredients of the test 2, add an egg yolk and

emulsify again. The emulsion will be much more stable. Add some salt and
if you want some pepper and you will have obtained a good mayonnaise. If
you prefer, you can replace the vinegar with lemon juice. Why is the
emulsion stable with the egg yolk? This is due to the presence of lecithin in
the egg yolk. Lecithin is a surfactant and the molecules spread on the surface
of the oil drops with the hydrophilic head outward. As these heads are
electrically charged, the oil drops will repel and their merging is prevented.
Lecithin is a phospholipid and it has a structure like that of the
phospholipids which form the membranes of cells. Another well known
lecithin and which you can find on the market is soy lecithin.

What is lecithin?
Internet keywords: emulsions, mayonnaise recipe, lecithin, soy lecithin,
homemade butter, handmade butter, creams

FOAMS:
Foam is a dispersion of a gas in a liquid (liquid foams) or in a solid (solid
foams). Among the liquid foams, we have the ones produced by soaps and
detergents, and various foods such as wine, beer and many others. Among
the solid foams we have Pumice stone, earthenware, sponges, expanded
plastics like expanded polystyrene and expanded polyurethane. By
dispersing helium in a liquid which produced bubbles with very thin walls
and which then solidified, some researchers succeeded in fabricating a solid
foam lighter than air.
1 - Foam and shape of the bubbles in contact. With a drop of liquid
detergent in a small basin of water, make a foam. Observe the shape of the
bubbles which are in contact each other. With a microscope, observe a thin
section of elder pith and compare it with the foam.

2 - Make a solid foam. Beat egg whites and some sugar, then cook it so to
obtain its solidification: you will have obtained a meringue, just an edible
solid foam.

OTHER EXPERIMENTS WITH SURFACTANTS AND COLLOIDS

1 - Who can guess more colloids? List the colloids you have in your home
or which you know by experience: (milk, mayonnaise, resin, paint, ink,
expanded polystyrene, cell cytoplasm, blood serum, etc.).

2 - A half-solid fluid. Put in a cup four spoons of corn starch. Add some
water until you have obtained a creamy substance. While mixing, you will
notice that this substance has an odd property: if you slowly mix it, it
behaves like a liquid, but if you try to mix it fast, it seems solid. By quickly
lifting it on a side, you will be also able to remove this cream from the cup,
but you will have some difficulties in keeping it in your hands because, even
if it moves slowly, it will escape from all sides like a liquid. Liquids which
change viscosity with the mixing speed are called dilatant fluids. Also wet
sand behaves as dilatant fluid. Sold in the US as a child’s toy under the name
of Gak or Goo, you can make your own by dissolving 1/2 cup of white glue
with 1/2 cup of water, then adding 3 tablespoons of Borax, while stirring
well. You will obtain a substance which is apparently solid, but which loses
its shape within some minutes, becoming like a liquid puddle... which
however you will able to lift it as if it was a carpet.

ATOMIZER FOR AEROSOL:How do atomizers work?

There are many models of atomizers or of sprayers like those of pressurized
spray paint cans, or those provided with a small pump that you press with a
finger, those that work by mean of a rubber syringe or, for industrial uses, by
a compressor.
 1 - Anatomy of an atomizer. Disassemble a trigger spray bottle. Often, these d
does not work any more and try to repair it.
Trigger spray bottle.
AERO.
2 - Build an atomizer. To build a small atomizer, take two thin straws and fix t
mm of diameter. Under the vertical straw, mount a small bottle with water. Now
an area of low pressure above the vertical can which will draw some water up t
syringe. Usually, this type of atomizers is used for perfumes, but you can use it

Properties :
1.Colloidal particles are generally aggregates of numerous atoms or
molecules.

2.Main property of colloids is it scattered the light.Such a property is known

as “TYNDALL EFFECT’ after the British scientist John Tyndal.

3.They pass through most filter papers, but can be detected by light-
scattering, sedimentation and osmosis.

4.A characteristic of colloids is absorption, as the finely divided colloidal

particles have a large exposed surface area.

5. The chemical and physical properties of inorganic colloids can be changed

dramaticaly when their size is reduced to a number of nanometers. This
effect is due to the increasing importance of the colloid surface.

6.The presence of colloidal particles in a solution has only minor effects on

its colligative properties (boiling, freezing point, etc.)
 Tooth Paste

7.Thixotropy is a property exhibited by certain gels. This is where a gel

appears solid and maintains its own shape until it is subjected to some force
or disturbance, such as shaking. It then tends to act as a sol, flowing freely.
This behavior is reversible, and the sol will return to a gel if left undisturbed.
Examples of thixotropic gels include certain paints, printing inks and clays.

8.The particles of a colloid selectively absorb ions and acquire an electric

charge. The existence of an electric charge on the surfaces of the colloidal
particles is a source of kinetic stability for colloids. All of the particles of a
given colloid are repelled by one another as they all take on the same charge.
The movement of colloidal particles through a fluid under the influence of
an electric field is known as ELECTROPHORESIS.

9.When we see the colloidal particles under the ultra microscope these
appeared as continuous moving tiny points in Zigzag motion. This mothion
is known as “BROWNIAN MOTION”.

10.Neutralize particles have a high surface free energy.They thus come

closer to each other.

Preparation OF COLLOIDS:
There are two main ways of forming a colloid;

reduction of larger particles to colloidal size

or

condensation of smaller particles, e.g. molecules, into colloidal particles.

1.DISPERSION METHOD.
Colloidal sols can be formed by dispersion methods (e.g. by mechanical subdivision of
larger particles or by dissolution in the case of lyophilic sols) or by condensation methods
(from supersaturated solutions or supercooled vapours, or as the product of chemical
reactions) or by a combination of these two (e.g. in an electrical discharge).

2.CONDENSATION METHOD.
When a condensation method is applied, molecules (or ions) are deposited
on nuclei, which may be of the same chemical species as the colloid
(homogeneous nucleation) or different (heterogeneous nucleation). An
aggregate of a small number of atoms, molecules or ions is called an
embryo. A critical embryo has that size at which the Gibbs energy at
constant pressure and temperature is a maximum. A larger embryo is called a
homogeneous nucleus.

A nucleating agent is a material either added to or present in the system,

which induces either homogeneous or heterogeneous nucleation.The rate of
nucleation is the number of nuclei formed in unit time per unit volume.

1.DISPERSION METHOD:
• MECHANICAL METHOD.
• ELECTRICAL METHOD.
• ULTRA SONIC METHOD.
• PEPTIZATION METHOD.
2.CONDENSATION METHOD:

1.DISPERSION METHOD:
 • MECHANICAL METHOD: (colloid mill)
By the use of Colloidal milk.Colloidal milk consists of 2 steel plates
which are near to each other and they are rotating at opposite direction.
Through hopper solid and liquid is introduce into it that will breakdown
them into fine particles.Now dispersing into dispersed medium we will
get a colloidal sol.

• ELECTRICAL METHOD:
There are certain metals which are dispersed by the passage of electrical
arc between the 2 electrodesmade up of metals ehich is immersed in
dispersion medium.Here the dispersion medium is water.

• ULTRA SONIC METHOD:

As ultra sonic waves have high frequency. Oscillation of particles will
breakdown into smaller particles. In this manners colloids are formed.

• PEPTIZATION METHOD:
It is a process of breakdown of large particles into colloidal particles by
addition of an electrolytes Particularly those containing the common
ion.Which is known as peptizing agent. Used in the stability of hydrophobic
colloids. Some freshly precipitated ionic solids are dispersed into colloidal
solution in water bt the addition of small quantities of electrolytes.

2.CONDENSATION METHODS:
This is also known as AGGREGATION METHODs.

These methods consist of chemical reactions or change of solvents whereby

the atoms or molecules of the dispersed phase appearing first, coalesce or
aggregate to form colloidal particles. The condition (temperature,
concentration etc) used are such as permit the formation of sol particles but
prevent the particles becoming too large and forming precipitate. The
unwanted ions (spectators ions) present in sol are removed by dialysis as
these ions may eventually coagulate the sol.

The more important methods for preparing hydrophobic sols are listed
below:

1. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION:
An arsenic sulphide (As2S3) sol is prepared by passing a slow stream of
hydrogen sulphide gas through a cold solution of arsenious oxide
(As2O3).This is continued till the yellow colour of the sol. Attains
maximum intensity.
Excess hydrogen sulphide (electrolyte) is removed by passing in a stream
of hydrogen.

2. REDUCTION:
Silver sol and gold sols can be obtained by treating dilute solution of
silver nitrate or gold chloride with organic reducing agents like tannic
acid or ethanol (HCHO).

AgNO3 + tannic acid Ag sol

3. OXIDATION:
A sol of sulphur is produced by passing hydrogen sulphide into a solution
of suldioxidation.

2H2S + SO22H2O + S

In qualitative analysis, sulphur sol is frequently encountered when H2S is

passed through the solution to precipitate group 2 metals if an oxidizing
agent (chromate or ferric ions) happen to be present. It can be removed
by boiling (to coagulate the sulphure) and filtering through two filter
papers folded together.

4. HYDROLYSIS:
Sols of the hydroxide of iron, chrominium are readily prepared by the
hydrolysis of salts of the respective metals. In order to obtain a red sol of
ferric hydroxide, a few mls of 30% ferric chloride solution is added to a
large volume of almost boiling water and stirred with a glass rod.

FeCl3 + 3H2OFe(OH)3 + 3HCL

5. HYDROLYSIS:
When a solution of sulphur or resins in ethanol is added to an excess of
water,the sulphur or resin sol is formed owing to decreased in solubility.
 The substance is present in molecular state in ethanol but on transference
to water, the molecules precipitate out to form colloidal particles.

MILL

STABILITY of COLLOIDS:
A true colloid solution is stable. Its particles do not ever coalesce and
separates out. The stability is due to two factors:

1) Presence of like particles on colloidal particles.

2) Presence of solvent layer around sol particles.

To maintain the stability of hydrophilic colloids we will add hydrophilic

colloids. The hydrophilic colloids surrounds the hydrophobic colloids to
produce a shielding effect. Therefore hydrophobic colloids is called
“PROTECTIVE COLLOIDS”

The stability of colloids is also maintained by addition of buffer.

COLLOIDS AS DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS:
Gold(199) and technetium(98) are the radioactive substances used in CTS
scanning to diagnose tumor.

There are other radioactive substance also.which are helpful in diagnosing

various diseases.

PROCESSING OF COLLOIDAL
SYSTEM:
1. Dialysis
2. Electrodialysis
3. Ultra filtration
This latter generally makes use of chemical reactions such as hydrolysis or
displacement. Laboratory and industrial methods make use of several
techniques.This page gives a brief overview of some of these techniques, but
it should be noted that there are a broad range used in practice.

A method of forming an aerosol is to tear away a liquid spray with a gas jet.
The process can be helped by separating the liquid into droplets with
electrostatic repulsions, done by applying a charge to the liquid.

Emulsions are usually prepared by vigorously shaking the two constituents

together, often with the addition of an emulsifying agent, e.g. a surfactant
such as soap, in order to stabilise the product formed.
Semi-solid colloids, known as gels, may be formed from the cooling of
lyophilic sols that contain large linear molecules and have a much greater
viscosity than the solvent.

Colloids are often purified by dialysis, a very slow process, where the aim is
to remove a large part ot any ionic material that may have accompanied their
formation. A membrane is selected that will not allow colloid particles
through but will let the solvent and ions permeate through. The method
relies on diffusion, osmosis and ultrafiltration.

Dialysis is the process of separating a colloidal sol from a colloid-free

solution by a membrane permeable to all components of the system except
the colloidal ones, and allowing the exchange of the components of small
molar mass to proceed for a certain time.

The colloid-free solution obtained at equilibrium in dialysis is called

equilibrium dialysate. Its composition approaches that of the dispersion
medium (more precisely, the limit to which the composition of the
dispersion medium tends at large distances from the particles). In the
dialysis equilibrium an osmotic pressure difference exists between sol and
equilibrium dialysate.

After (complete or incomplete) dialysis two solutions are obtained. The one
free from colloidal material is called dialysate; the other one, containing the
colloidal particles may be called retentate, dialysis residue, or simply
residue, but should not be called dialysate.

The ultrafiltrate, prepared by ultrafiltration (filtration through a dialysis

membrane), is in general not of the same composition as the equilibrium
solution.
If dialysis is conducted in the presence of an electric field across the
membrane(s) it is called electrodialysis. Electrodialysis may lead to local
differences in concentration and density. Under the influence of gravity these
density differences lead to large scale separation of sols of high and of low
(often vanishingly low) concentrations. This process is called
electrodecantation (electrophoresis convection).
Flotation is the removal of matter by entrainment at an interface. In
particular, froth flotation is the removal of particulate matter by foaming
(frothing).

Foam fractionation is a method of separation in which a component of the

bulk liquid is preferentially adsorbed at the L/V interface and is removed by
foaming.
CONCLUSION
Surface phenomena and colloids concern many objects, products and events
of our everyday life, which are not immediately explainable with the physics
we usually study at school. Having introduced some principles, and
suggested some experiments in this field which until now may have been
quite mysterious seemed to us useful and important. Not only, but you have
also noticed how fascinating these topics are and how amusing is to do
laboratory activities with them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
B.S.bhall.

http://surfactants.net/bookstore/ Books on surfactants and colloids.

R. Aveyard, D. A. Haidon: "An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry",
Cambridge Chemistry Texts
C. C. Miller, P. Neogi: "Interfacial Phenomena", Marcel Dekker inc., N.Y. (1985).